The conquest of England

Preface

A FEW words of introduction are needed to the following unfinished story of the " Conquest of England," in which I may explain how far these pages, in their present form, represent the final work and intention of their writer. I cannot do this save by giving some short account of how the book was written, and the tale of the two volumes, the " Making of England " and the " Conquest of England," forms, in fact, but one story,

After Mr. Green had. closed his fourth volume of his " History of the English People," an apparent pause in the illness against which he had long been struggling made it seem possible that some years of life might yet lie before him. For the first time he could look forward to labor less fettered and hindered than of old by stress of weakness, in which he might gather up the fruit of past years of preparation ; and with the vehement ardor of a new hope he threw himself into schemes of work till then denied him. But he had scarcely begun to shape his plans when they were suddenly cut down. In the early spring of 1881 he was seized by a violent attack of illness, and it needed but a vi PREFACE.

little time to show that there could never be any return to hope. The days that might still be left to him must henceforth be conquered day by day from death. In the extremity of ruin and defeat he found a higher fidelity and a perfect strength. The way of success was closed, the way of courageous effort still lay open. Touched with the spirit of that impassioned patriotism which animated all his powers, he believed that before he died some faithful work might yet be accomplished for those who should come after him. At the moment of his greatest bodily weakness, when fear had deepened into the conviction that he had scarcely a few weeks to live, his decision was made. The old plans for work were taken out, and from these a new scheme was rapidly drawn up in such a form that if strength lasted it might be wrought into a continuous narrative, while if life failed some finished part of it might be embodied in the earlier " History." Thus, under the shadow of death, the " Making of England " was begun. During the five summer months in which it was written that shadow never lifted. It was the opinion of his doctors that life was only prolonged from day to day throughout that time by the astonishing force of his own will, by the constancy of a resolve that had wholly set aside all personal aims. His courage took no touch of gloom or disappointment ; every moment of comparative ease was given to his task ; when such moments failed, hours of languor and distress were given

PREFACE. yj-

with the same unfaltering patience. As he lay worn with sickness, in his extreme weakness unable to write a line with his own hand, he was forced for the first time to learn how to dictate ; he had not even strength himself to mark the corrections on his printer's proofs, and these, too, were dictated by him, while the references for the volume were draw^n up as books were carried one by one to his bedside, and the notes from them entered by his directions. With such sustained zeal, such eager conscientiousness was his work done that much of it was wholly rewritten five times, other parts three times ; till as autumn drew on he was driven from England, and it became needful to bring the book rapidly to an end which fell short of his original scheme, and to close the last chapters with less finish and fulness of labor.

The spring of 1882 found the same frail and suffering life still left to him. But sickness had no force to quench the ardor of his spirit. Careful only to save what time might yet remain for his work, he hastened to England in May, and once more all sense of weakness seemed to vanish before the joy of coming again to his own land. He had long eagerly desired to press forward to later periods of English history, in which the more varied forces at work in the national life, and the larger issues that hung on them, might give free play to his own personal sympathies. But the conditions of his life shut out the possibility of choice ; and he

Vlll

PREFACE.

resolutely turned again to the interrupted history of early England, to take up the tale at the period of its greatest obsc^irity and difficulty. In the scheme which was drawn up at this time the present volume was to have closed with the " Conquest of England " by the Danes. This plan was, in fact, a return to the division adopted in the " Short History of the English People," where the conquest by Swein was looked on as the turning-point of the story, and a new period in the history of England began from the time when the English people first bowed to the yoke of foreign masters, and " kings from Denmark were succeeded by kings from Normandy, and these by kings from Anjou." The eight chapters which bring the narrative to the Danish Conquest form the work that filled the last months of his life — a work still carried on with the same patient and enduring force, and done with that careful haste which comes of the knowledge that each month's toil may be the last. The book in this earlier form was finished and printed in the autumn, though in the pressing peril of the time the final chapters were so brief as to be scarcely more than outlines. Once more he was forced to leave England for the south. In spite of fast-increasing illness, and oppressed by heavy suffering, he there reviewed his whole work with earnest care. It seemed to him still far from his conception of what it might be ; the difficulty of the subject roused in him a fresh desire to bring it home with living in-

PREFACE. ijj

terest to his readers ; and he believed this might be done by some added labor on his part. He resolved to make important changes in the original plan and in its order, to rewrite some portions, and to extend the history beyond the Conquest of England by the Danes to its Conquest by the Normans. The printed book was at once cancelled. With a last effort of supreme ardor and devotion, he set himself to a task which he was never to finish. A new opening chapter was formed by drawing together the materials he possessed for a sketch of the English people at the opening of their long struggle with the invaders. But as the chapter drew towards its end his strength failed. The pages which now close it were the last words ever written by his hand — words written one morning in haste, for weakness had already drawn on so fast that when in weariness he at last laid down his pen he never again found strength even to read over the words he had set down.

But even then his work was not over. In this last extremity of weakness his mind still turned constantly to the story of his people. He would still hope, night by night, that on the coming day there might be some brief moment in which he could even yet dictate the thoughts that were shaping themselves in his mind — some larger account of the history of the English shires which was now taking form after long thinking, or some completer view of the rule of the Danish kings, or some in-

^ PREFACE.

sight of a more sure judgment and knowledge into the relations of the Norman Conquest. Many years before, listening to some light talk about the epitaphs which men might win, he had said, half unconsciously, " I know what men will say of me : ' He died learning^ " and he made the passing word into a noble truth. " So long as he lived he strove to live w^orthily." By patient and laborious work, by reverence and singleness of purpose, by a long self-mastery, he had " earned diligently " his due reward in experience, knowledge, matured wisdom, a wider outlook, and a deeper insight. It was impossible for him not to know that his powers were only now coming to their full strength, and that his real work lay yet before him. " I have work to do that I know is good," he said when he heard he had only a fewclays to live. " I will try to win but one week more to write some part of it down." Another conquest than this, however, lay before him. It was as death drew nearer still that for the first time he said, " Now I am weary ; I can work no more." Thus he laid down with uncomplaining patience the task he had taken up with unflinching courage. " God so granted it him." In those last days, as in his latest thoughts, the great love he bore his country was still, as it had ever been, the true inspiration of his life. The sinoie aim that s^uided all his work till the end came was the desire to quicken in others that eager sense which he himself had of how rich the inheritance of our fathers is with the promise of the future, and to

PREFACE. -jjj

bring home to every Englishman some part of the beauty that kindled his own enthusiasm in the story, whether old or new, of the English People.

A very few words will explain the work which was left to me by my husband to do in preparing this volume for publication. In the earlier part of the book I have carried out the alterations in the order of subjects which had been decided on by him, and the first six chapters -may be looked on as representing his final plan, save that some alterations would have been made in the first chapter, and some passages, such as the account of the shires, were not rewritten as he had intended. Chapters VII. and VIII. were left in a wholly unfinished state, having been laid aside for consideration and revision. The materials for them had not even been drawn into any consecutive order, and I am responsible for the division and naming of these chapters, and in great part for the arrangement of the subjects.

The closing chapters (IX., X., XI.), which have been included in the book according to Mr. Green's later plan, stand on a different footing from the rest. They were written many years ago, I believe in 1875, and were then laid aside and never revised in any way. The materials for them existed partly in a printed form and partly in manuscript notes and papers, all alike written some years ago, and consisting merely of very rough and imperfect fragments hastily jotted down and then thrown aside.

xii PREFACE.

My work has been to draw these various parts together into a connected whole; and in order to carry on the unfinished tale to the Norman Conquest, I have inserted some pages (pp. 547-556) from the earlier " History of the English People." These chapters then, wholly unrevised, and dealing with the history of the eleventh century in a partial way only, and under some of its aspects, must be looked on as incomplete outlines. It had been Mr. Green's hope to enrich them by a careful study of the social history of England during this period, and an indication of the kind of work that might have been done in this direction will be found in the passage (pp. 419-447) which describes London and the trading towns. This was part of his latest work last autumn, and has been inserted into the story of the reign of Cnut at his desire.

I have judged it best to print these closing chapters without any addition of reference or notes, save the few which I have been able to draw up from his own papers. Those who have read the " Making of England " will understand that Mr. Green was accustomed to base his views on wide and full reading, and I have been unwilling to risk any system of notes which must inevitably have seemed to rest his conclusions on a foundation narrower than that of his own thought and reading. I have felt the less difficulty in adopting this course owing to the elaborate system of references for this period which Mr. Freeman has supplied to students.

PREFACE. xiii

I have been specially careful throughout the book to preserve the exact words of the writer, even in dealing with the unfinished manuscript notes. The exceptions to this rule are the two paragraphs that open Chapter II., which I myself added at his own request, and the greater part of the paragraph on the custom of the feud at page 267, which was left unfinished, and which I briefly concluded. The materials for the reign of Cnut were very imperfect, and occasionally, as in pages 447-450, and again at the close of the chapter, I have been forced to make some expansions and alterations so as to form a consecutive and intelligible narrative. The character of Godwine, on pages 519-522, I have drawn up from some rough pencilled jottings on the margin of a paper, using the exact words I found, but shaping them into continuous sentences and a general order. The few notes which I have added throuehout the book are all marked as my own.

Two of the maps included in this volume, " England at the Peace of Wedmore," and " England Under the Ealdormen," are taken from rough unrevised plans made by Mr. Green ; for the rest of the maps I am myself responsible.

I. cannot close without a very earnest expression of sincere gratitude to the friends who, out of their generous affection for his memory, have helped me in my task with constant and ready sympathy ; I have especially to thank Professor Stubbs for the kindness with which he has read through xiv PREFACE.

my work, and given me the advantage of his counsel.

' Alice Stopford Green.

14 Kensington Square, Novejnber, 1883.

P. S. — I may perhaps add, that, with a view to future editions, it had been Mr. Green's intention to ask in the preface to this volume for suggestions from those who may have any local knowledge which might help to throw light on any points either in this book or in the " Making of England." I should be glad, so far as lay in my power, to carry out his wishes in this matter.

Chapter I. The England Of Ecgberht

PAGE

Political and Social Changes which Followed the Settlement of the English in Britain . . . i, 2

The Gradual Union of the Conquering and the Conquered Races . -2,3 The Purely English Form given to the New Society .... 3

The Gradual Advance of Cultivation 4,5

Illustrated in the Condition of Dorset 5-7

The Changes Brought about by the Introduction of Christianity . • 8, 9 Its Long Strife with the Older Religions . ....... 9-1 1

Its Bringing in of a New Social Class . . .... . .12

And of a Parochial Organization 13

Results of this New Ecclesiastical System on the Old Organization of

English Life 14. IS

Influence of Christianity in the Growth of Pilgrimages . . . 15,16

The Pilgrims' Route 17

The Popularity of Pilgrimages 18

Influence of Christianity on Law ........ 19

Character of the First Written Codes of Law ..... 20, 21

Influence of Christianity on Early English Jurisprudence . . .21 Early Development of the Conception of Public Justice . . . 22, 23

Origin of the Judicial Character of Folk-moot and Hundred- moot . 23, 24

The Extent of the Jurisdiction of the " Folk " 23-25

The Limitations Introduced in the Right of Private Vengeance . 25-27

The DifBculties in Enforcing the " Folks' Justice " . . . . 28, 29

Causes which Led to the Development of the "Justice of the King" 29, 30

The King and his Court . . . -30

The King's Progresses . . 3i)32

Their Influence on Public Justice ........ 32

The Results of the Consolidation of Britain into the Three Kingdoms —

In the Growing Importance of the King ..... 33

In the Decline of the yEtheling 34

In the Elevation of the Thegn 34

In the Loss of Power of the Folk-moot ..... 35 In the Change of Character of the Witenagemot . . 35-37

Causes which Led to the Overthrow of the Balance of Power among

the Three Kingdoms 38

B xvi CONTENTS.

758-793. Internal Condition of Northumbria 39,40

Its Religious and Intellectual Life . 40, 41

793-806. Invasion of the Nortlimen and its Results 42

The Apparent Strength of Mercia ....,.., 43

Its Real Weakness 43

The Superiority of Wessex Derived from the Character of the Country 44, 45 From the Varied Composition of the Kingdom ..... 45

From its Administrative Order 45, 46

The Character of Ecgberht's Supremacy 46,47

Chapter II. The Coming Of The Wirings. 829-858

787. The First Coming of the Pirates . . . . . . . 48,49

793, 794. Their Raids on Northumbria 49

The Significance of their Attack 49,50

Growth of the Scandinavian Peoples 51

Conditions of their Life 51-53

Character of their Country 53, 54

Their Early Customs and Religion 55, 56

The Wikings . . .56

Their Mode of Warfare 56,57

The Causes of their Wanderings ....... 57,58

The Two Lines of their Attack on Europe 59

Settlement of the Northmen in South Jutland 60

800. Their Attack on the Franks 60

810. The Death of Godfrid and Civil War in South Jutland .... 61

834. Descent of the Northmen on the Isle of Sheppey 62

c 820. Their Descent on Ireland 63

832. Thorgil's Settlement in Ireland 64

Its Effect in Arousing the West Welsh to Arms ..... 64 Effect of the Pirate Attacks in Arresting the Consolidation of England . 65 The Political Relations of Wessex and Kent ...... 66

The Military Resources of Wessex . , 66, 67

Relation of the Church to the Frankish Kings . - ... 67

Peculiar Position of the English Bishops 68

National Character of the Church . . ... . . .69

Effect upon the Church of the Pirate Invasion 69

838. Its Alliance with the West-Saxon Kings . ...... 70

839. Death of Ecgberht and Accession of ^thelwulf ..... 70

SSTI ei ser/- Extension of the Wiking Settlement in Ireland 71

837-845. The Wikings Attack Wessex 72

845. Death of Thorgils 72

845-848. The Pirates Leave Wessex to Attack Frankland 73

Importance of Kent 74

838. Pirate-raids on East Anglia and Kent 75

851. ^thelwulf's Victory at Aclea . 76

CONTENTS.

XVll

855. Pirate Settlement in the Isle of Slieppey iEthelwulf's Foreign Policy .

S53. ^thelwulf's Conquest of the North Welsh

854. /Ethehvulf's Pilgrimage to Rome .

The Franks under Charles the Bald

856. /Ethehvulf's Visit to Charles the Bald, and his Marriage with Judith 856. Wessex Rises against ^thehvulf

^thelvvulf Retires to Kent and is Succeeded in Wessex by ^thelbald

Chapter III. The Making Of The Danelaw. 858-87s

858. Death of iEthehvulf 81

860. .'Ethelbald Dies and is Sucteeded by ^thelberht 81

866. Death of ^thelberht and Accession of yEthelred 81,82

Extent of the Scandinavian Conquests . 82

The Importance of Britain to the Pirates ...... 82

First Appearance of the Danes ........ 83

Their Mode of Warfare 84

866. Attack of the Danes on East Anglia under Ivar the Boneless . . 86

867. Their Attack on Northumbria and Conquest of York .... 87

Ruin of the Religious Houses 88

Position of the Primate of York 89

868. ^thelred drives the Danes back from Mercia 90, 91

869. The Danish Conquest of East Anglia under Ivar and Hubba . . 91, 92

870. Martyrdom cfEadmund of East Anglia ,92

Mercia pays Tribute to the Danes 92

The Danger of Wessex , . . . 92, 93

871. The Danish Attack on Wessex 93

849. The Birth of Alfred 94

His Childhood. . .95

His Position as Secundarius 96

Political Significance of his Marriage 96

871. Danish Victory at Reading and Encampment on Ashdown ... 97

Importance of this Position ......... 98

.^thelred's Victory at Ashdown 98, 99

871. Alfred becomes King ....,..,., 100

871. Alfred buys Peace from the Danes .,..,,, 100

874. The Danish Conquest of Mercia ........ loi

875. Halfdene Conquers Bernicia and Ravages Cumbria and Strathclyde lor, 102

876. The Pirates Gather their Forces for a Final Attack on Wessex . . 102

876. Guthrum's Attack on the Southern Coast ...... 103

877. .^Elfred Recovers Exeter from the Danes 104

878. The Danes Overrun Wessex ...,...,. 104

iElfred Falls back behind Selwood 105

His Refuge in Athelney .......... 105

878. /Elfred's Victory at Edington 106

XVlll

CONTENTS.

A.D.

The Peace of Wedmore

Its Political Consequences . . ...

Its Effect on the European Struggle with the Pirates The Importance of the Danish Settlement in Britain The Danish Settlement in Northumbria.

Traces in Yorkshire of this Settlement .

The Northern Trade. . . .

Traces of their Settlement in York .

Their Political Organization and the Trithings The Danish Settleme-nt in Mid-Britain .

The Political Organization in Mid-Britain

The Distribution of Settlers The Danish Settlement in East Anglia .

The Character of Guthrum's Kingdom .

Its English Institutions, and Adoption of Chr

Danes

Relations of the Danelaw with the Scandinavian Realms

Relation of the Danelaw to Wessex

Real Significance of the Danish Settlement .

istianity by

"3 114

"5 "5

[16, 117 117 118 118

120 121, 122

1 2-,

CHAPTER IV. iELFRED. 878-901.

Results of the Want of Political Organization in the Danelaw . . 124

Danger of iElfred's Position 125,126

878-884. Years of Peace 126

Material and Moral Disorganization in Wessex ..... 126 Military Disorganization and Weakness of the Fyrd .... 127 Extinction of the Free Ceorls and Growth of the Thegns Brought

about by the War . . . 129

Alfred's Employment of the Thegns for Military Service . . 129, 130 .^Elfred's Reconstruction of the Military System .... 130,131

897. His Creation of a Navy 131,132

The Reorganization of Public Justice ...... 132,133

The New Relation of the King to Justice ..... 134, 135

Importance of English Mercia 136

Effect of the Danish Wars on the Kingly Houses of Britain . . , 137 iElfred Becomes King of the Mercians . . . . . . 137,138

Alfred's Work in Introducing a Common Law among the English

Peoples 139

878=884. The Descents of the Danes on Frankland 141

884. Renewal of the Danish Attack on England ...... 142

884. The Rising of East Anglia 142

London Under the Danes of East Anglia 143

886. Alfred Recovers London from Guthrum 144

886. Frith between Alfred and Guthrum 144

The Division of Essex ......... 144, 145

CONTENTS.

XIX

Importance of the Recovery of the Thames Valley and of London

Ui^gvowth of a New National Sentiment

The Intellectual Ruin Brought about by the Danish Wars

Importance of Wessex for the Preservation of English Civilization

iElfred's Restoration of Learning ....

He Draws Men of Learning to his Court

Alfred's Work in the Formation of English Literature

English the First Prose Literature of the Modern World

Alfred's Translations ....

The Bishop's Roll of Winchester ...

.(Alfred's Work on the Chronicle .

The Historical Importance of the Chronicle

Death of Guthrum

Growth of the Scandinavian Kingdoms . ,

Harold Fairhair

Impulse Given to the Pirate Raids.

Renewal of the Danish Attack on Southern Britai

Hasting Ravages Wessex

The Rising of the Danelaw

Alliance of the Danes and the Welsh

Hasting's Occupation of Chester .

Defeat of the Danes and Ending of the War

Alfred's Life

His Love of Strangers ....

Foundation of Athelney . . ...

Othere and Wulfstan ....

The Organization of ^Elfred's Court .

The Royal Revenue .... iElfred's Connection with the Continent. His Relations with the Welsh His Relations with Bernicia and the Scots Growth of the Scot Kingdom .

Death of Alfred

Character of Alfred ....

62,

PAGE 146

65 66 66 68 69 69 72

73 74 75 76 76 77

Chapter V. The House Of Alfred. 901-937

Eadward the Elder 181,182

Peace with the Danes 183

Eadward Takes the Title of "King of the Anglo-Saxons . . . 184 The Weakness of English Mercia . . . . . . . .185

Eadward Fortifies Chester . . . . . . . * . 185, 1 86

Outbreak of War with the Danes 187

Eadward's Kingdom Threatened from the North and from the South . 187

Eadward's Annexation of the Thames Valley 188,189

Opening of War with East Anglia 189

XX CONTENTS.

Eadvvard's Conquest of Southern Essex. 189

yEthelflsed Seizes the Line of the Watling Street 190

The Watling Street 190, 191

913. ^thelflsed's Advance on the Upper Trent 192

^-Ethelflaed Secures the Line of the Avon 193

918,919. Eadward's Advance on the Ouse 194,195

921. He Conquers Northampton .196

921, 922. He Completes the Conquest of East Anglia, Essex, and the Fens . 196, 197 917,918. ^thelflsed Attacks the Five Boroughs ...... 197,198

922. Death of yEthelflaed 198

922. Eadward Completes the Conquest of Mid-Britain 199

Mercia Made Part of the West-Saxon Kingdom . . . . . 200

Political Results of the Conquest of the Danelaw 200,201

The Growth of Commendation 201,202

Growth of the New Territorial Character of the. Kingship . . . 202

Importance of the Oath of Allegiance 203

Danger of Eadvvard's Position . . 204

His Fortification of the Northwest Frontier . . ' . . . 205, 206

Relation of Wessex to Bernicia and the Kingdom of the Scots . . 206

924. The Northern League against Eadward . 207

924. Submission of the North to Eadward 208

925. ^thelstan Becomes King 209

His Policy . .210

925. Submission of the Northern League to yEthelstan . . . . .211 Submission of the Welsh 211,212

926. ^thelstan Becomes King of Northumbria 212

Fusion of Danes and Englishmen 213

Character of iEthelstan's Witenagemots. ..... 213-215

The Work of the Witenagemots for Public Order. . . . 216, 217

The Regulation of Trade and of Coinage 218

The Origin of Frith-gilds ........ 219,220

Use of the Word " Shire" 221,222

West-Saxon Origin of the Shire 222,223

The Early Extension of the Shire System in Wessex .... 224

The Extension of the Shire over Mercia 225,226

The Extension of the Shire over the Danelaw .... 227,228

The Position of the Shire-reeve 229

Importance of his Financial Work 229,230

Growth of his Authority 230

The Imperial Claims of .(Ethelstan. . . . . . 231,232

The Real Weakness of his Empire 232

Danger from the Northmen of Ireland 232, 233

Danger from the Northmen of Gaul 233

912. Hrolf's Settlement in Gaul . 234

The Results of this Settlement on France and on England . . 234,235

Relations of the Danelaw and Normandy 235,236

The Growth of the Norman Duchy 236,237

The Effect on the Foreign Policy of the English Kings . . . 238, 239

CONTENTS. xxi

926-930. ^thelstan's Alliances with Foreign Powers 239, 240

929. The Dangers which Threatened William Longsword . . . 240, 241

933. His Successful Alliance with the House of Paris . . . . . 241

934. Results of his Policy Seen in the Renewal of the Northern League

against ^thelstan 242

The Significance of the League 243

937. The Battle of Brunanburh 243,244

Chapter VI. Wessex And The Danelaw. 937-955

Political Consequences of the Battle of Brunanburh .... 245 Restoration of the Northumbrian Under-kingship ..... 246

The Weakness of the Monarchy 246, 247

Political Reorganization of Britain . 247

Position of the Ealdormen 248, 249

The Ealdormanries of East Anglia and Essex .... 249,250

Eric Bloody- axe 251,252

^thelstan Sets Eric as King in Northumbria 252

936. ^thelstan Continues his Former Policy with Regard to Normandy . 253

936. Lewis from over-sea King of the West Franks ..... 254

The Support given to him by ^thelstan 254, 255

The Difficulties of Lewis and Failure of ^thelstan's Political

940. Death of ^thelstan and Accession of Eadmund .... 257, 258 Eadmund's Policy 257, 258

941. The Revolt of the Danelaw 259

The Position of Wulfstan of York 260

943. The Revival of the English Danelaw 261

Growth of the Norman Power. 261

944. Invasion of Normandy by Lewis . . . . . . . . 262

944. Reduction of the Danelaw by Eadmund, . . .... . 262

Political Relations of Eadmund with the North .... 262, 263

Cumbria Under the Northumbrian and West- Saxon Kings . . 264, 265 Norwegian Settlements in Cumbria 265

945. The Grant of Cumbria to the Scottish Kings . ..... 266

Eadmund's Reform of the Custom of the Feud 267

945. Normandy Freed from the West Franks ...... 268

946. Death of Eadmund 269

The Childhood and Youth of Dunstan 270-272

He Becomes a Monk 272

He is Made Abbot of Glastonbury . .... . . . 274

Eadred Becomes King "■ , . 274

Dunstan Becomes Counsellor to Eadred . . . . . . 275

Significance of Eadred's Coronation . ... . . 275,276

Submission of the North to Eadred . . . . . . . 277

The Rising of Northumbria Under Eric Hiring 278

XXI 1

CONTENTS.

A.D.

949-95

Eadred Ravages Novthumbria and Eric is Driven Out 2. Olaf, Sihtric's Son, Rules in Northumbria Final Submission of the Danelaw .

Northumbria Made into an Earldom Dunstan's School at Glastonbury . ^thelwold's School at Abingdon .

Their Influence on English Literature .