Europe since 1815

Front matter

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Dine sa eee ae OR LA aa Ne pee er ye ee earn ES eet ENS ieee Ge i Bee tas calm riaiakels

Preface

Tue purpose of this book is the presentation of the history of Europe since the downfall of Napoleon. Needless to say, only the broader lines of the evolution of so crowded a century can be traced in a single volume.. I have, moreover, omitted many subjects, frequently described, in order to give a fuller treatment to those which, in my opinion, are more important. I have endeavored to explain the mternal development of the various nations, and their external relations in so far as these have been vital or deeply formative. I have also attempted to preserve a reasonable balance between the different periods of the century and to avoid the danger of over-emphasis.

The great tendencies of the century, the transference of power from oligarchies to democracies, the building up of nations like Germany and Italy and the Balkan states which was the product of long trains of causes, of sharp, decisive events, and of the potent activity of commanding personalities, the gradual expansion of Europe and its insistent and growing pressure upon the world outside, shown in so many ways and so strikingly in this age of imperialism and world-politics, the increasing consciousness in our day of the urgency of economic and social problems, all these and other tendencies will, I trust, emerge from the following pages, with clearness and in just proportion.

The problem of arranging material covering so many different countries and presenting such varieties of circumstance and condition is one of the greatest difficulty. It arises from the fact that Europe is only a geographical expression. The author is not writing the history of a single people but of a dozen different peoples, which, having much in common, are

v v1 PREFACE nevertheless very dissimilar in character, in problems, in stages of development, and in mental outlook. If he adopts the chronological order (and events certainly occurred in chronological sequence), if he attempts to keep the histories of a dozen different countries moving along together as they did in fact, he must pass continually from one to the other and his narrative inevitably becomes jerky, spasmodic, and confused. If on the other hand he takes each nation in turn, recounting its history from starting point to point of conclusion, he gains the great advantage of continuity, which begets understanding, but he writes a dozen histories, not one. He therefore compromises, perforce, with his intractable problem and works out a method of presentation of whose vulnerability he is probably quite as acutely conscious as any reader could be. My method has been to bring down more or less together the histories of those countries which have so intimately and significantly interacted upon each other, Austria, Prussia, France, and Italy, that the evolution of one cannot be, even approximately, understood apart from a knowledge of the current evolution of the others. I then return to my starting point, 1815, and trace the histories of England, Russia, Turkey and the lesser states separately, gaining the advantage of being able to show their continuous development. I hope that this method has at least the merit of rendering clearness of exposition possible.

My narrative is based to some extent upon an examination of the sources, although, considering the vast extent of the original material available, this has been necessarily comparatively limited. It is based chiefly, as probably any synthetic work covering so large a field must be, on the elaborate general histories of different periods or countries, on biographies, and on the special monographic literature. These are indicated in the bibliography at the end of the volume which I have attempted to make critical and descriptive rather than extensive. It has been impossible for me to employ footnotes freely and consequently I am restricted to

PREFACE Vil a general recognition of my great and constant indebtedness to the authorities used, a recognition which I wish to make as explicit and as grateful as it must be brief and comprehensive.

C. D. H.

NorrHamptTon, MassacHvUsETTs, December 31, 1909.

a CONTENTS

Chapter I The Reconstruction Of Europe

The Overthrow of Napoleon—The Great Coalition—The Problem of the Government of France—Treaty of Paris—Congress of Vienna—The Great Powers—The Division of the Spoils—Principle of Legitimacy—Demands of Russia—Demands of Prussia —The Fate of Poland and Saxony—Russian Acquisitions— Austrian Acquisitions—English Acquisitions—The Future of Italy—Italy a “ Geographical Expression”—Criticism of the Congress—The Indignation of the Germans—Defiance of the Principle of Nationality—Denunciation of the Slave Trade— The “ Hundred Days ”—Second Treaty of Paris—The Holy Alliance—The Allies Promise Aid to Each Other—Unusual Character of the Alliance—Quadruple Alliance—Precautions Against France—The Concert of Powers—Quadruple Alliance and Metternich—Alexander I—Francis I of Austria—Metternich—His Diplomatic Skill—His Self-esteem—His Historical Importance— Woetrinevot slmmopuity. yer: ie eee sees ey esc ecea tei deeded

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Chapter II Reaction In Austria And Germany

Lack of Unity in the Austrian Empire—Racial Differences—Not a German, Empire—Policy of Francis I and Metternich—Austria a Land of the Old Régime—Local Government—The Police System—The System of Espionage—Application of the Metternich System in Other Countries—Germany a Loose Confederation—Varieties of States—The Diet—Its Powers not Defined— Germany not a Nation—The International Character of the Confederation—Dissatisfaction of the Germans with This System— Why the Problem of German Unity was so Difficult—The Statesright Feeling—Dualism the Outcome of German Evolution— The Demand for Constitutional Government—Metternich’s Successful Opposition—Various Forms of Government in the Different German States—Popular Sovereignty Nowhere Recognized—Constitutions Granted in Certain States—The King of Prussia Becomes Reactionary—Indignation of the Liberals— Ferment in the Universities—The Wartburg Festival—The Murder of Kotzebue—The Holy Alliance Converted into an Engine of Oppression—The Carlsbad Decrees—Provision Concerning Constitutional Government—Control of the Universities—Prohibition of Student Societies—The Censorship of the Press— Reaction the Order of the Day in Germany—The Persecution of Liberals—Prussia a Docile Follower of Austria . . . . %8 ix ae CONTENTS CHAPTER III PAGE REACTION AND REVOLUTION IN SPAIN AND ITALY

Spain—Spanish Constitution of 1812—Ferdinand VII, Abolition of the -Constitution—Persecution of Liberals—Inefficiency of the Government—Disintegration of the Spanish Empire—Neglect of the Army and the Navy—Revolution of 1820-1823—Italy— Napoleon on Italian Unity—Significance of Napoleon’s Activity in Italy—The Awakening of Italy—The Decision of the Congress of Vienna—The Ten Italian States—The Dominance of Austria— The Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom—The Kingdom of Sardinia— The States of the Church—The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies—Universal Reaction—The Carbonari—The Revolution of 1820 in Naples—The Powers Prepare to Suppress These Revolutions— The Doctrine of the Right of Intervention—The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1818—The Congress of Troppau, 1820—The Congress of Laibach, 1821—The Revolution in Piedmont— Reasons for the Failure of the Movements of 1820—The Congress of Verona, 1822—Reaction in Spain—The Triumph of the Holy Alliance—The Monroe Doctrine—The “Metternich System ” Checked ee pelo cg ge SERED Seo irk eae

Chapter IV France Under The Restoration

The Profound Effects of the French Revolution—The Restoration of the Bourbons not a Restoration of the Old Régime—The Constitutional Charter—The Form of Government—The Restricted Suffrage—Provisions Concerning Civil Rights—Recognition of the Work of the Revolution—Louis XVIIIi—The Difficulties of His Situation—The Ultras—The Center Parties—The White Terror—Louis XVIII Checks the Ultras—A Period of Moderate Liberalism—The Liberation of the Territory—Re-" organization of the Army—The Electoral System—The Press Law of 1819—Activity of the Ultras—Election of Grégoire— Murder of the Duke of Berry—Electoral Law of 1820—The Double Vote—The Censorship Restored—French Invasion of Spain—Triumph of the Ultras—Death of Louis XVITI— Charles X—Policy of the New King—The Nobles Indemnified for Property Confiscated During the Revolution—Method of Paying the Indemnity—The Law Against Sacrilege— Clerical Reaction—Attempt to Re-establish the Principle of Primogeniture—Attempt to Destroy the Freedom of the Press— Disbandment of the National Guard—Attempt to Stamp Out the Opposition in Parliament—The Martignac Ministry—The Polignac Ministry—Widespread Opposition to the Ministry— Conflict Between Charles X and the Chamber of Deputies—The Ordinances of July—Charles X’s Interpretation of the Charter —The King’s Mistaken Judgment—The Opposition of the Liberal Editors of Paris—The July Revolution—The Character of the Fighting—The Ordinances Withdrawn—The Candidacy of Louis Philippe—Abdication of Charles X—Louis Philippe King—The

End of the Restoration 66

CONTENTS xl CHAPTER V REVOLUTIONS BEYOND FRANCE

PAGH

Wide-spread Influence of the July Revolution—Powerlessness of the Holy Alliance—The Congress of Vienna and the Kingdom of the Netherlands—A Union of Two Fundamentally Dissimilar Peoples—The Spirit of Nationality Awakened Among the Belgians—Difficulties in the Drafting of the Constitution—Friction Between the Belgians and the Dutch—The Influence of the July Revolution—The Belgians Declare Their Independence—Intervention of the Holy Allies Prevented by Events in Poland— Recognition of the Kingdom of Belgium—The Restoration of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815—Alexander I Grants a Constitution to Poland—Friction Between the Poles and the Russians— Influence of the July Revolution—The Polish Expectation of Foreign Aid Disappointed—The Failure of the Insurrection— Italy After the Revolutions of 1820—Revolutionary Movements in 1831—The Italians Receive No Help from France—Austrian Intervention—The Results of the Insurrections—Revolution in Germany—New Measures of Repression—Metternich Supreme in ERI DIIY, shee Si cs ache! Me phn) MONE eo Sa gs (Aces esha id Oe ne ROO

Chapter VI The Reign Of Louis Philippe

The Career of Louis Philippe—His Liberalism—His Legal Title to the Throne—The Constitution Revised—The Franchise Lowered—The Character of the July Monarchy—lInsecurity of the New Régime—A Period of Storm and Stress—The Progressive ‘Party—The Conservative Party—Popular Unrest—Casimir- Périer and the Policy of the Conservatives—Foreign Policy—Opposition Parties—The Legitimists—The Duchess of Berry—Republican Insurrections—Vigorous Measures of the Government— The Prosecution of Journalists—Attempts upon the Life of Louis Philippe—The September Laws, 1835—The Press Law— The Bonapartists—Louis Philippe and the Napoleonic Legend— Louis Napoleon Bonaparte—The Second, Funeral of Napoleon I—The Boulogne Fiasco—Ministerial {nstability—Rivalry of Thiers and Guizot—Louis Philippe Intends to Rule—Personal Government—Thiers and the Eastern Question—Resignation of Thiers—Guizot, Prime Minister—Guizot’s Political Principles— The Government Scrupulously Parliamentary—How the Government Obtained Its Majorities—The Manipulation of the Voters—The Manipulation of the Deputies—The Servility of Parliament—Demand for Electoral and Parliamentary Reform—Rigid Opposition of the Guizot Ministry—Rise of Radicalism—Economic Distress—Introduction of the Factory System —Condition of the Working Classes—Growth of Socialism— Louis Blanc—Wide-spread Opposition to the Policy of the Govyernment—Fusion of the Opposing Parties—The “Reform Banquets ”—Emergence of Lamartine—The People Support the Demand for Reform—The Revolution of February, 1848— Resignation of Guizot—The Overthrow of Louis Philippe—The Rise of the Second Republic. « «a « eo « «© - « 114 xil CONTENTS

Chapter VII Pagh Central Europe Between Two Revolutions

The February Revolution a Signal for Other Revolutions—The General Character of the Period between 1830 and 1848—Evolution of Prussia—Great Intellectual Activity—The Achievement of Prussian Unity Imperative—Revision of the System of Taxation—The Question of the Tariff—The Zollverein—The Advantages of the Zollverein—Death of Frederick William I1I— Frederick William IV—The Demand for a Parliament—The Letter Patent of February 3, 1847—Popular Dissatisfaction—Conflict Between Frederick William IV and the United Landtag— Austria not a Homogeneous State—Political Stagnation—The Industrial Revolution—The Development of Nationalities Within the Empire—Bohemia—Hungary—The Hungarian Constitution— The Importance of the Nobility—The Prevalence of Feudalism— Széchenyi and Reform—The Policy of the Diet—The Language Question—Rise of a Radical Party—Louis Kossuth—The Demands of the Hungarians in 1847—Italy After 1831—Importance of a Group of Writers—Joseph Mazzini—His Intense Patriotism —His Imprisonment—Founder of “ Young Italy ”—The Methods of the Society—The Aims of the Society—Unity, a Practicable Ideal—Mazzini as a Conspirator—Gioberti—D’ Azeglio—Balbo— The Risorgimento—Pius IX, Pope, 1846-1878—Charles Albert, King of Piedmont—Italy on the Brink of Revolution. . . 145

Chapter VIII Central Europe In Revolt

The Great Mid-century Uprising—Vienna the Storm-center—The Decisive Intervention of Hungary—The Overthrow of Metternich—The March Laws—Hungary Practically Independent— Revolution in Bohemia—Revolution in the Austrian Provinces —Revolution in Lombardy-Venetia—Italy renounces Austrian Control—-Revolution in Germany—The National Movement—The Parliament of Frankfort—The March Revolutions Everywhere Triumphant—Austria Begins the Work of Restoration—Bohemia Conquered—Italy Partially Conquered—Civil Dissension Within Hungary—The Croatians Rise Against the Magyars—Austria Exploits the Situation—Radical Party in Hungary Seizes Control —Abdication of the Emperor of Austria—Accession of Francis Joseph I—Hungary Declares Francis Joseph a Usurper—War Between Austria and Hungary—Hungarian Declaration of Independence, April 14, 1849—Hungary Conquered—The Conquest of Italy Completed—Abdication of Charles Albert—Overthrow of the Roman Republic—Fall of Venice—The Parliament of Frankfort—Leadership in Germany Offered to the King of Prussia—Rejection of the Work of the Frankfort Parliament— The “Humiliation of Olmiitz”—Results of the Revolutions of 1848 oo al oot ata Sol tl Hause aeaemact OD as GG Me Sn a CS)

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Chapter IX The Second Republic And The Founding Of The Second Empire

The French Revolution of 1848—Stages in the History of the Second Republic—Two Elements in the Provisional Government—

CONTENTS xill

PAGH The Republicans—The Socialists—Louis Blanc’s Theories— Achievements of the Provisional Government—The Question of the Flag—The Labor Commission—Its Impotence—The National Workshops—Their Rapid Growth—The National Constituent Assembly—The Assembly Hostile to the Socialists—Abolition of the National Workshops—The June Days—A Military Dictatorship—Growing Opposition to the Republic—An Unpopular Financial Measure—The Framing of the Constitution—The Powers of the Executive—Discussion Concerning the Presidency—The President to be Chosen by Universal Suffrage—The Voters to be Untrammeled in Their Choice—Louis Napoleon Bonaparte’s Opportunity—His Previous Career—A Member of the Constituent Assembly—A Candidate for the Presidency—Causes of His Triumph—Louis Napoleon Elected President, Dec. 10, 1848— The Legislative Assembly—President and Assembly Opposed to the Constitution—They Combine to Crush the Republicans—The Franchise Law of 1850—President Demands the Revision of the Constitution—The Coup d’Etat—Events of December 2d—The “ Massacre of the Boulevards ”—The Plébiscite—Napoleon III, Emperor, Dec. 2, 1852—The Programme of the New Emperor— The Political Institutions of the Empire—Parliament Carefully Muffiled—Its Legislative Power Limited—The Senate—The Council of State—The Emperor—The Press Shackled—The Empire Both Repressive and Progressive—The Emperor’s <Activities— Economic Development—Paris Beautified—General Prosperity —The Congress of Paris, 1856—The Emperor’s Policy of Peace

—The Italian War of 1859 . r ‘ 187

CHAPTER X uu”

CAVOUR AND THE CREATION OF THE KINGDOM OF ITALY

Reaction in Italy After 1848—Victor Emmanuel IJ—Piedmont a Constitutional State—Count Cavour—His Interest in Political and Economic Questions—Becomes an Editor—Cayvour Prime Minister, 1852—Policy of Economic Development—Cavour Seeks a Military Ally—Why Piedmont Participated in the Crimean War—Cavour at the Congress of Paris—Discussion of the Italian Question—Moral Victory for Cavour—Army Strengthened— Founding of the National Society—Cavour and Napoleon—The Interview of Plombitres—A Conspiracy to Bring About a War— The Conditions Agreed upon—Difficulties and Dangers of Cavour’s Position—Cavour’s Diplomacy—The Austro-Sardinian War—The Campaign of 1859—The Preliminaries of Villafranca —Reasons for Napoleon’s Action—Austria Eager for Peace— Resignation of Cavour—Piedmont Acquires Lombardy—Central Italy—Impossibility of Restoring the Old Order—England’s Participation in Affairs—Cavour Returns to Office—Annexations to Piedmont—Cession of Savoy and Nice by the Treaty of Turin, March 24, 1860—Effect upon Napoleon IJI—The Sicilian Insurrection—Giuseppe Garibaldi—The Defense of Rome—Leader of “The Hunters of the Alps ”—Determines to go to Sicily—Cavour’s Dilemma—The Expedition of “The Thousand ”—Conquest of the Kingdom of Naples—Garibaldi Plans to Attack Rome—Inter-

XIV CONTENTS

PAGH vention of Piedmont—The Annexation of the Kingdom of Naples and of Umbria and the Marches—Siege of Gaeta—The Kingdom of Italy Proclaimed—The Kingdom Still Incomplete— The Question of Rome—Death of Cavour. . . . . . Q15

Chapter XI Bismarck And German Unity

Reaction in Germany After 1849—Prussia a Constitutional but not a Parliamentary State—The Police System—Control of the Press—The Privileged Class—Economic Transformation—Industrial Development—Rise of a Wealthy Middle Class—Intellectual Activity—Influence of Events in Italy upon German Thought—The National Union—William I—The Prussian Army —The Obligatory Service not Enforced—Army Reform—Opposition of the Chamber—Determination of William I—Otto von Bismarck-Schénhausen—Bismarck’s Previous Career—Bismarck’s Political Opinions—His Attitude Toward Parliamentary Institutions—His Hatred of Democracy—Bismarck in the Diet—The Period of Conflict—Army Reform Carried Through—“ Blood and Iron” Policy—Prussia’s Three Wars—The Schleswig- Holstein Question—Action of Denmark Concerning Schleswig —Bismarck’s Handling of the Question—Prussia and Austria at War with Denmark—Treaty of Vienna, Oct. 1864—The Future of the Duchies—Friction Between Prussia and Austria—Prussia Acquires Lauenburg by Purchase—The Meeting at Biarritz—Treaty of Alliance with Italy—Bismarck Prepares for a War with Austria—Bismarck Proposes a Reform of the Confederation—Prussia Withdraws from the Confederation—The Austro-Prussian War—Hellmuth von Moltke—Prussia Conquers North Germany—The Battle of Kéniggratz or Sadowa —Causes of Austria’s Defeat—Results of the Austro-Prussian War—Annexations to Prussia—The North German Confederation, 1867-1871—The Bundesrath—The Reichstag—Alliance with South German States—Consolidating the New System. . . 240

Chapter XII The Transformation Of The Second Empire

Disastrous Effect of the Italian War upon Napoleon IlI—The War Approved only by the Democratic Party—N apoleon’s Vacillation—England Offended—Treaty of Commerce Offends Protectionists—Napoleon Turns to the Liberals—Powers of Parliament Increased—Revival of Interest in Politics—Rise of a Republican Party—The Mexican Expedition—Napoleon’s Purposes—Napoleon Overthrows the Mexican Republic—Disastrous Outcome of this Adventure—Intervention of the United States— Discomfiture of Napoleon III—Additional Concessions to Liberalism—The Right of Interpellation Granted—Dramatic Emergence of Léon Gambetta—Bitter Attacks upon Napoleon III—The Third Party—The Transformation of the Empire Completed— Popular Approval—The Plébiscite of May, 1870—Sudden Colldpse of the Hmpitexs: “Ts%grene a eeeee - 272

CONTENTS xv

Chapter XIII .pagd

Napoleon’s Unwise Adherence to His Doctrine of Nationalities— The Meeting at Biarritz—Napoleon’s Failure to Use His Opportunity in 1866—The Year 1866 a Turning Point in Modern History—“ Revenge for Sadowa”—Failure of Napoleon’s Diplomacy—Bismarck Regards a War with France as Inevitable—The Spanish Candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern—The Candidacy Withdrawn—Folly of the Duke of Gramont—The Ems Despatch —The War Party in Paris—France Declares War upon Prussia —South German States Join Prussia—France Isolated—The French Army—The Numerical Inferiority of the French—The Germans Invade France—The Battle of Sedan—The Fall of the Empire—The Government of National Defense—The Fall of Metz—The Siege of Paris—Election of a National Assembly— Thiers Chosen Chief of the Executive—Treaty of Frankfort— Fall of the Temporal Power—Completion of Italian Unification —Completion of German Unification . . . . . . . 285

Chapter XIV The German Empire

Growth of National Feeling in Germany Since 1815—Constitution of the New German Empire—The Emperor—The Bundesrath— The Reichstag—A Confederation of Monarchical States—Reign of Emperor William I—Bismarck’s Commanding Position—A Religious Conflict—Causes of the Kulturkampf—Formation of the Center Party—Dogma of Papal Infallibility—The Old Catholics—The Falk Laws—Conflict of Church and State—Bismarck’s Retreat—Financial and Industrial Questions—Adoption of the Policy of Protection—Its Advantage Proved by the History of Other Nations—Germany Should Imitate the United States—The System Gradually Applied—The Growth of Socialism—Alarm of the Ruling Classes—Attempts upon the Life of the Emperor—Severe Measures Against the Socialists—Their Failure—Continued Growth of the Socialist Party—The Imperial Government Undertakes Social Reform—Various Forms of Insurance Proposed—State Socialism—The Measures Carried—Bismarck a Pioneer—Not Supported by the Socialists—The Beginning of a Colonial Empire—A Result of the Adoption of the Policy of Protection—Energetic Intervention in Africa—The German Colonies—The Triple Alliance—Isolation of France— Austro-German Treaty of 1879—Entrance of Italy into the Alliance—Death of William I—Accession of William II—The Resignation of Bismarck—The Anti-Socialist Policy Abandoned —Remarkable Expansion of German Industry—Germany a Naval Power—Continued Growth of Socialism—The Social Democratic Party Numerically the Largest—The Demand for Electoral Reform—The Demand for Parliamentary Reform— The Demand for Ministerial Responsibility—The Present SituaeT cee US Oy OL Lat GOUACHE TCS CAT CUR MMC sar Tit SCs arta a camehare 6S

A CONTENTS

Chapter XV Page

The National Assembly—Paris and the Assembly Mutually Suspicious—Versailles Declared the Capital—Distress of the Working Classes—Revolutionary Elements—The Idea of the Commune —The National Guard—The Government of the Commune—The Commune and the National Assembly Clash—The Second Siege of Paris—The “Bloody Week”—The Government’s Revenge— France at Peace—The Government of Thiers—The Rivet Law— The Cost of the “Terrible Year ”—The Liberation of the Territory—Reform in Local Government—Army Reform—The Question of the Permanent Form of Government—Thiers and the Republic—The Monarchist Parties—Resignation of Thiers—The Count of Chambord—Establishment of the Septennate—Assembly Reluctant to Frame a Constitution—The Assembly Active Against Republicans—Growth of the Republican Party—The Constitution of 1875—The Senate—The President—The Ministry —France a Parliamentary Republic—Dissolution of the National Assembly—The Republic and the Church—MacMahon’s Conception of the Presidency—Victory of the Republicans—Resignation of MacMahon—Grévy Chosen President—Republican Legislation—Creation of a National System of Education—Public Works—Revision of the Constitution—Colonial Policy—Increase of the National Debt—Death of Gambetta—Discontent with the Republic—Boulanger—The Republic Weathers the Crisis—The Dual Alliance—The Dreyfus Case—Dreyfus Degraded and Imprisoned—Picquart—Zola Attempts to Reopen the Case—Speech of Cavaignac, Minister of War—Court of Cassation Orders a Retrial of Dreyfus—Dreyfus Again Declared Guilty—Dreyfus Pardoned—Dreyfus Vindicated—Significance of the Case— Formation of the “Bloc ”—Question of Church and State— Growth of Religious Orders—The Law of Associations—Religious Orders Forbidden to Engage in Teaching—The Concordat of 1801—Anti-clerical Legislation—The Clergy in the Dreyfus Affair—The Abrogation of the Concordat—Associations of Worship—Opposition of Pius X—Law of Jan. 2, 1907—Separation of Church and State—The French Colonial Empire—Algeria —Other African Conquests—Cochin-China—Expansion Under the the Third Republic—Western Africa—Madagascar. . . , 329

Chapter XVI The Kingdom Of Italy /

Difficulties Confronting the New Kingdom—Piedmont Alone Accustomed to Constitutional Government—The Constitution—The Question of the Papacy—The Law of Papal Guarantees—The Curia Romana—The “ Prisoner of the Vatican ”—Death of Victor Emmanuel I]—The Educational Problem—Extensjon of the Suffrage—The Triple Alliance—Francesco Crispi—A mbitious Military and Colonial Policy—The Resultant Distress—Policy of Repression—War with Abyssinia—Assassination of Humbert I —Victor Emmanuel I1I—Industrial Expansion—Advent of the Age of Electricity—Increase of the Population—Problem of Emigration—Italia: Redivivali;. 9." “4 Se - 376

CONTENTS XVll CHAPTER XVII AUSTRIA-HUNGARY SINCE 1849

PAGD

Austria’s Punishment of Hungary—Failure of the War in Italy— Francis Joseph Reverses His Policy—Federalism or Centralization?—Austria Becomes a Constitutional State—Hungary Refuses to Co-operate—Reasons for Her Refusal—The Hungarians Assert Their “ Historic Rights”—And Demand the Restoration of Their Constitution—A Deadlock—Francis Joseph Yields— The Compromise of 1867—The Dual Monarchy—The Delegations—The Compromise Satisfactory Only to the Dominant Races—Constitution of Austria—Constitution of Hungary— The Dominant Races—Divisive Effect of the Principle of Nationality in Austria~-Hungary—Austria Since 1867 —Liberal Legislation—Demands of the Czechs—The Emperor Prepares to Concede Them—Opposition of Germans and Magyars—Triumph of Dualism—Electoral Reform—The Taaffe Ministry—The Slavs Favored—Growth of Radical Parties —Division Among the Czechs—Electoral Reform—Universal Suffrage—Hungary Since 1867—The Magyars—The Croatians— The Policy of Magyarization—Race Questions—Struggle over the Question of Language—Territorial Gains and Losses . . . 388

Chapter XVIII England To The Reform Bill Of 1832

England in 1815—The Industrial Revolution—A New Motive Force —The Steam Engine—The Industrial Primacy of Great Britain— Advantages Derived from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars—The Renown of Parliament—England a Land of the Old Régime—Commanding Position of the Nobility—The House of Commons—The System of Representation—The County Suffrage —Scotland—The Suffrage in Boroughs—Nomination Boroughs— Rotten Boroughs—Unrepresented Cities—Bribery—The Established Church—Dissenters—Abuses Within the Church—The People Neglected—Adam Smith—Jeremy Bentham—Effect of The French Revolution upon England—Economic Distress After 1815—Lack of Employment—The Demand for Reform—William Cobbett—Parliamentary Reform—Popular Disturbances—Suspension of Habeas Corpus—The Massacre of Peterloo—The Six Acts —Death of George II1I—The Dawn of an Era of Reform—Defiance of the Holy Alliance—Economic Reforms—The Penal Code—Reformed by Sir Robert Peel—Religious Inequality—The Religious Disabilities of Dissenters—Repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts—Catholic Disabilities—Catholic Emancipation —Daniel O’Connell—O’Connell Elected to Parliament—Emancipation Carried—The Restriction of the Suffrage in Ireland— Tory Opposition to the Reform of Parliament—Influence of the French Revolution of 1830—The Duke of Wellington on Reform —Fall of the Tory Ministry—The First Reform Bill—Provisions —Lord John Russell’s Speech—Sir Robert Inglis’s Speech—Representation Never Better—Hunt’s Speech—Sir Robert Peel’s Criticism—Macaulay on the Bill—Ministry Defeated, Parliament Dissolved—Second Reform Bill—Defeated by the House of Lords

XVill CONTENTS

PAGH —Third Reform Bill—The Bill Passed—Redistribution of Seats —The County Franchise—The Borough Franchise—Not a Democratic Reform f 3 3 . ‘: 3 ‘ . 5 ; ; - 406

Chapter XIX England Between Two Great Reforms (1832-1867)

An Era of Whig Government—Slavery in the Colonies—Abolition of Slavery—Child Labor—Previous Attacks Upon the System— The System Defended—The Factory Act, 1833—The Decay of Local Self-government—The Necessity for Reform—Municipal Governments Notoriously Corrupt—The Reform of Municipal Government—Accession of Queen Victoria—Her Political Education—Hanover—The Radicals and the Reform Bill—The Radicals Agitate for Further Reform—The People’s Charter—Character of the Chartist Agitation—The Lack of Able Leadership— The Petition of 1848—The Significance of the Movement—England’s Policy of Protection—The Corn Laws—Huskisson’s Reforms—Sir Robert Peel’s Ministry—The Anti-Corn-Law League —The Arguments for Free Trade—The Irish Famine—Repeal of the Corn Laws—Remaining Protective Duties Gradually Removed —Labor Legislation—Regulation of Labor in Mines—Factory Laws—Morley on the Labor Code—Growth of Trades-Unions— The Growth of Collectivism—Jews Admitted to the House of Commons—Gladstone Chancellor of the Exchequer—Postal Savings Banks—State Insurance—Industrial and Scientific Progress —The Demand for a Wider Suffrage—Effect of the Civil War— Gladstone Introduces a Reform Bill—The Bill Defeated—Reform Carried by Disraeli—Provisions of the Bill—Redistribution OF Se atsin A Ke yi ea Eee Gere Det pose nr Seen an ae a REO)

Chapter XX England Under Gladstone And Disraeli

The Great Ministry—William Ewart Gladstone—Entrance into Parliament—Leader of the Liberal Party—Gladstone’s First Ministry, 1868-1874—Dominance of Irish Questions—Ireland a Conquered Country—The Agrarian Question—The Religious Question—The Political Question—Catholic Emancipation —The Repeal Movement—The Irish Famine—Decline of the Population—The Fenian Movement—The Irish Church—The Tithe War—Disestablishment of the Irish Church—System of Land Tenure—The Land Owned by. a Few—Tenants-at-will —No Compensation for Improvements—Industry and Thrift Penalized—Misery of the Peasantry—Deeds of Violence —The Ulster System—Land Act of 1870—The Bright Clauses— The Bill Denounced as Revolutionary—The Land Act a Disappointment—Its Principles Important—Educational Reform— Church Schools—The System Inadequate—The Question Becomes Urgent—The Forster Education Act of 1870—Church Schools Incorporated in the System—Board Schools Established—The Question of Religious Instruction—The Conscience Clause—The Cowper-Temple Amendment—Education Neither Free, nor Com-

CONTENTS x1x

‘ PAGH pulsory, nor Secular—Army Reform—Introduction of Short Service—Abolition of the Purchase System—Civil Service Reform —The Universities Thrown Open—Introduction of the Ballot— Reasons for Secret Voting—Gladstone’s Waning Popularity— The Irish University Bill—The Religious Difficulty—General Dissatisfaction with the Bill—Unpopularity of Gladstone’s Foreign Policy—The Alabama Award—The Elections of 1874—The Disraeli Ministry—Imperialism—Importance of the Colonies Emphasized—Purchase of the Suez Canal Shares—The Queen Proclaimed Empress of India—Re-opening of the Eastern Question—Fall of the Disraeli Ministry—The Second Gladstone Ministry, 1880-1885—Failure of Land Act of 1870—The Land Act of 1881—Rents to be Judicially Determined—Denounced as Confiscation of Property—The Reform Bill of 1884—The County. Franchise Widened—Redistribution of Seats—Single Member Districts—Various Qualifications for Voting te ay EPG

Chapter XXI England Since 1886

The First Salisbury Administration—The Home Rule Movement— Charles Stuart Parnell—Adoption of the Policy of Obstruction —Gladstone Unable to Pacify Ireland—The Third Gladstone Ministry—The Home Rulers Hold the Balance of Power—Home Rule or Coercion?—Introduction of the Home Rule Bill—Shall the Irish Sit in Westminster?—Land Purchase Bill—Opposition to the Bills—The Union in Danger!—English Dislike of the Irish—John Bright’s Opposition—Disruption of the Liberal Party—The Bill Defeated—The Conservatives Returned to Power —The Second Salisbury Ministry, 1886-1892—The Policy of Coercion—Land Purchase Act—County Government Reformed —Social Legislation—Increase of the Navy—The Fourth Gladstone Ministry, 1892-1894—The Second Home Rule Bill—Fundamental Objections—Bitterness of the Opposition—Passed by the Commons, Defeated by the Lords—Parish Councils Bill—Resignation of Gladstone—The Rosebery Ministry—The Conccrvatives Returned to Power—The Third Salisbury Ministry—War in South Africa—Irish Local Government Act—Death of Queen Victoria—Education Act of 1902—The Abolition of the School Boards—Decline of Illiteracy—The Liberal Party in Power—Old Age Pensions Law—An Irish University . Sea al eaent hake St)

Chapter XXII The British Empire In The Nineteenth Century

The Expansion of Europe—The Growth of Colonial Empires—Vast Growth of the British Empire Since 1815—Overthrow of the Mahratta Confederacy—Annexation of the Punjab—The Indian Mutiny—Change in the Government of India—The Vast Population of India—The Population not Homogeneous—Annexation of Burma and Baluchistan—American Colonies—Upper and Lower Canada—Constitutional Difficulties in Upper Canada—In Lower Canada—The Colonists Desire Self-government—The Rebellion xx CONTENTS

PAGE of 1837—Lord Durham’s Report—The Executive Irresponsible— Durham Proposes Ministerial Responsibility—Durham Favors Federation—Ministerial Responsibility Finally Introduced— Founding of Dominion of Canada, 1867—British North America Act—The Dominion Parliament—Growth of the Dominion—The Canadian Pacific Railway—Australia—Early Explorations—The Voyages of Captain Cook—A Convict Colony—Abandoment of this System—The Discovery of Gold—The Six Australian Colonies—Reasons for Their Federation—Creation of the Australian Commonwealth—The Federal Parliament—New Zealand— Advanced Social Legislation—System of Taxation—Old Age Pensions—A frica—England Acquires Cape Colony—Friction with the Boers—The Great Trek—Founding of the Transvaal— The Transvaal Annexed to Great Britain—Majuba Hill—Policy of the Gladstone Administration—The Pretoria Convention—The London Convention—The Boers Desire Unqualified Independence —The Boers—The Uitlanders—The Jameson Raid—Sir Alfred Milner’s Reports—The South African War—Victory of the English—Annexation of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State—The Union of South Africa, 1909—The Far Flung British Empire—The Problem of Imperial Federation—The Increasing Importance of the Question—The Difficulties in the Way—The Problem of Government—Commercial Union—Colonial Conferences—Confederations Within the Empire 2%, 24 ee ase

Chapter XXIII The Partition Of Africa

The Period of Discovery—Situation in 1815—The French Conquest of Algeria—The Sources of the Nile—David Livingstone—Stanley —Stanley’s Explorations of the Congo—A frica Appropriated by Europe—The Congo Free State—Its International Origin—The Berlin Conference—Leopold II and the Congo Free State— Criticism of Leopold’s Administration—The Congo Free State Made a Colony of Belgium—Egypt—Mehemet Ali Founds a Semi-royal House—Ismail and the Rapid Growth of the Egyptian Debt—Intervention of England and France—Revolt of Arabi Pasha—English Expedition Crushes the Insurrection—England Assumes the Position of “ Adviser ”—_The English “ Occupation ”—Loss of the Soudan—Death of Gordon —Recovery of the Soudan : 5 ‘ : ; : : Z - 550

Chapter XXIV Spain And Portugal Since 1893

Spain—Revenge of Ferdinand VII after 1823—“ Subversive ” Cries— Loss of the American Colonies—The Question of the Succession —The Pragmatic Sanction—Isabella Proclaimed Queen—The Carlist War—The Royal Statute, 1834—Disturbed Political Life —The Constitution of 1837—Isabella II Declared of Age—The Mexican Expedition—The Overthrow of Isabella II—The Regency of Marshal Serrano—Amadeo of Savoy Chosen King— Abdication of Amadeo—The Establishment of the Republic—The

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CONTENTS Xxi

PAGE Causes of Its Fall—Alfonso XII Recognized as King—The Constitution of 1876—Death of Alfonso XII—The Spanish- American War—Loss of Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines —Alfonso XIII Assumes Power—Portugal—Flight of the Royal Family to Brazil, 1807—Portuguese Revolution of 1820—Loss of Brazil—Donna Maria da Gloria—Death of Maria—Recent Per cvmnortngabi she huis) eee A Ay aes Bate oo epee eo B64

Chapter XXV Holland And Belgium Since 1830

Holland—The Fundamental Law of 1815—The Constitution of 1848 —Extension of the Franchise—The Dutch Colonies—Belgium— The Reign of Leopold I—The Reign of Leopold II—The Suffrage—Education eee ook hoes dare sue eas on gst EOD

Chapter XXVI Switzerland

The Constitution of 1815—The Importance of the Cantons—The “Era of Regeneration ””—The Sonderbund—The Constitution of 1848—The Federal Government—Powers of the Federal and Cantonal Government—The Chief Significance of Switzerland— Important Contributions to Democratic Government—The Landesgemeinde Cantons—The Referendum—The Initiative—

_ Spread of the Referendum and the Initiative—Proportional Representation—The Population of Switzerland—The Neutrality of Switzerland Teri ey rele Tokopesc ek cee OB:

Chapter XXVII The Scandinavian States

Denmark Loses Norway—Consultative Assemblies—Constitution Granted—Schleswig-Holstein—Treaty of Vienna—Revision of the Constitution—Growth of Radicalism—Denmark’s Colonies— Sweden and Norway—The Constitution of Eidsvold—Sweden and Norway Separate Nations Under the Same King—The Reign of Charles XIIIJ—The Constitution of 1866—Friction Between Sweden and Norway—Abolition of Norwegian Nobility—Dissolution of the Union—Treaty of Carlstad—Death of Oscar II— Suffrage in Norway . DE enantio i) el el OOS

Chapter XXVIII

THE DISRUPTION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE RISE OF THE BALKAN STATES

Decay of the Ottoman Empire—Turkey in Process of Dismemberment—The Ruling Class—The Eastern Question—Treatment of Subject Peoples—The Revolt of the Servians—The Condition of the Greeks—Intellectual Revival—The Hetairia Philike—The Greek War of Independence—The Ferocity of the Conflict—Fac-

XXli CONTENTS

PAGH -tional Quarrels Among the Greeks—Foreign Intervention—Why England Intervened—Why Russia Intervened—Why France Intervened—Treaty of London—The Battle of Navarino—War Between Russia and Turkey—Creation of the Kingdom of Greece —The Principalities—Ambitions of Nicholas I—The Holy Places —War Between Russia and Turkey—Coalition Against Russia— Piedmont Joins the Coalition—Invasion of the Crimea—The Siege of Sebastopol—Fall of Sebastopol—Treaty of Paris— Turkey Admitted to the European Concert—Results of the Crimean War—Moldavia-Wallachia—The Roumanians and the Crimean War—The Union of the _ Principalities—Couza— Charles I of Roumania—Reopening of the Eastern Question— The Insurrection of Herzegovina—Accession of Abdul Hamid II —The Bulgarian Atrocities—Gladstone’s Denunciation of the Turks—Servia and Montenegro Declare War—Russia Declares War—The Siege of Plevna—Treaty of San Stefano—Opposition to the Treaty—England Demands Its Revision—The Congress of Berlin—Independence of Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania— Union of the Two Bulgarias—Macedonia—Bulgaria since 1878— Alexander of Battenberg—Friction Between the Bulgarians and the Russians—Breach of the Treaty of Berlin—Servia Attacks Bulgaria, Noy. 1885—Abdication of Prince Alexander—Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg—Dictatorship of Stambuloff—Murder of Stambuloff—Roumania and Servia since 1878—Roumania Proclaimed a Kingdom—Agrarian Disturbances—Greece since 1833 —Reign of Otto I—Overthrow of Otto—The Ionian Islands— Annexation of Thessaly—Aspirations of the Balkan States— Revolution in Turkey—The Young Turks—Revolution of July, 1908—Restoration of the Constitution—Apparent Unanimity of this Movement—A Modernized Turkey—Attitude of Foreign Powers—Austria-Hungary Annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina— Bulgaria Declares Her Independence—The Powers Do Not Prevent These Breaches of the Berlin Treaty—Servia—Opening of the Turkish Parliament—The Counter-revolution of April, 1909—The Young Turks Regain Control—Deposition of Abdul Hamid IIl—Accession of Mohammed V . . . —gs—i(<a«‘#(SsC««y’s OSG.