Elements of agriculture

Front matter

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON ■ CHICAGO ATLANTA ■ SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited

Preface

IX mittee on methods of teaching agriculture of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.

The author will be glad to correspond with teachers concerning difficulties in the work, and also to receive suggestions as to changes that they find desirable in the text.

G. F. WARREN.

Ithaca, N. Y., June 21, 1909.

Chapter I Page

Introduction 1-4

What Is Agriculture, p. 1; Divisions of Agriculture, p. 2; Forces Controlling Plant and Animal Growth, p. 2; Heredity, p. 2; Environment, p. 3.

CHAPTER II The Improvement of Plants and Animals 5-35

Variation in Plants and Animals 5

Law of Variation, p. 5; Similar Produces Similar, p. 6.

Natural Selection 7

Sports and Mutations, p. 8; The Development of Weeds by Natural Selection, p. 8; De Candolle's Law, p. 9.

Artificial Selection 10

Reproduction in Plants 11

Seed-Producing Organs of Plants, p. 11; Sexual and Asexual Reproduction, p. 12; Artificial Crossing, p. 13.

Some Principles of Heredity 13

Problems of Heredity, p. 13; Mendel's Law, p. 14; Applications of Mendel's Law, p. 19.

Steps in Breeding 21

Increasing Variation, p. 21; Selection, p. 21; Testing Hereditary Power, p. 22.

Improving Some Farm Crops 23

Plant-Breeding vs. Animal-Breeding, p. 23; Comparative Improvement of Different Crops, p. 23; Sugar Beet, p. 24; Corn, p. 25; Cotton, p. 29; Other Cross- Fertilized Plants,

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xii CONTENTS

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p. 29; Oats, p. 29; Other Self-Fertilized Plants, p. 30; Potatoes, p. 30; How Often Do Potatoes Need to Be Grown from the Seed-Ball, p. 30; Plant-Breeding Farms, p. 31.

CHAPTER III Methods of Propagation 36

Grafting. 42

Budding, p. 43; Root-Grafting, p. 45; Top-Grafting, p. 46; Relationship of Cion and Root, p. 47; Effect of Root on Cion, p. 47.

Seeds 47

Nature of Seeds, p. 47; Importance of Vigorous Germination, p. 48; Germination Tests of Seed Corn, p. 48; Seed Analysis and Valuation, p. 51; Germination Tests, p. 51; Purity and Germination Tests, p. 52; What is the Cheapest Seed, p. 52; Size and Weight of Seeds, p. 53; Seed-Testing Is Plant-Selection, p. 54; Storage of Seed, p. 54; Importation of Low-Grade Seed, p. 55.

Chapter IV

Elements Required for Plant and Animal Growth, p. 60; Sources of Plant Food, p. 61; Water, Dry Matter and Ash, p. 62; Relative Amounts of the Different Elements in Plants, p. 62; Elements Likely to Be Deficient in Soils, p. 63; Functions of the Different Elements, p. 63.

CONTENTS xiii

PAGE

How the Plant Gets Its Food 64

Root-Hairs, p. 64; Osmosis, p. 65; Importance of Water, p. 67; How the Plant Gets Its Food from the Air, p. 67.

The Manufacture of Food Materials 68

Carbohydrates, p. 68; Fats, p. 68; Protein, p. 69; Plants the Only Source of These Foods, p. 69.

Stored Food 69

Periods in the Life of a Plant, p. 69; Effect of Time of Harvesting on Composition, p. 71.

CHAPTER V What Soil Is 75

Rock Particles of the Soil 76

Amounts of Mineral Matter, p. 76; How the Size of Particles Is Determined, p. 76; How Soils Are Named, p. 78; Importance of the Size of Particles, p. 79; Relation of the Size of Particles to Water, p. 79; Relation of the Size of Particles to Plant Food, p. 81; Size of Particles and Air, p. 81; Size of Particles and Temperature, p. 81; Size of Particles and Crop Adaptation, p. 82; Relation of Labor and Soil, p. 82; The Best Soils, p. 83; Flocculation, p. 83.

Importance of Soil Water, p. 84; Movement of Water in the Soil, p. 85; Conservation of Moisture, p. 85; Dry Land Farming, p. 87.

Irrigation 88

Areas Requiring Irrigation, p. 88; Storage Reservoirs, p. 89; Seepage from Canals, p. 90; Over-Irrigation, p. 90; Alkali, p. 90.

Drainage 91

Best Amount of Water for Crops, p. 91; Harmful Effects of Too Much Water, p. 91; All Soils Require Drainage, p. 91; Effects of Tile Drainage During Drought, p. 92; Kinds of Drains, p. 93; Laying Tile Drains, p. 93; Drainage as a Government Problem, p. 94.

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Soil Air 94

Importance of Soil Air, p. 94.

Organic Matter of the Soil 95

The Uses of Humus, p. 95; Humus of Arid and Humid Soils,

p. 96.

Life in the Soil 97

Importance of Soil Organisms, p. 97; Soil-Bacteria, p. 97.

CHAPTER VI Maintaining the Fertility of the Land 109-153

How Soils Became Productive, p. 109; How Rich Virgin Soils Become Less Productive, p. 109; Causes of Decreased Productivity, p. Ill; The Limiting Factor in Crop Growth, p. 112; The Amount of Plant Food in the Soil, p. 113; Value of Chemical Analyses of Soils, p. 113; Materials Used as Fertilizers, p. 114.

Sources of Soil Nitrogen, p. 116; Nitrogen in Rainfall, p. 116; Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria on Legumes, p. 116; Fixation of Nitrogen without Legumes, p. 119; Importance of Grasses, p. 120; Losses of Nitrogen from the Soil, p. 121; Forms of Nitrogenous Fertilizers, p. 122; Nitrate of Soda, p. 122; Ammonium Sulfate, p. 122; Dried Blood, Tankage and Bone Meal, p. 123.

Phosphorus 123

Forms of Phosphorus Fertilizers, p. 123; Phosphate Rock, p. 123; Bone, p. 124; Thomas Slag, p. 124.

Forms of Potash Fertilizers, p. 125; Kainit, Muriate of Potash and Sulfate of Potash, p. 125; Wood- Ashes, p. 125.

Lime 126

Functions of Lime, p. 126; Relation of Crops to Lime, p. 126; How to Tell the Need of Lime, p. 127; Forms of Lime, p. 127; Application of Lime, p. 128.

CONTENTS Xv

Cost, Valuation and Analyses, p. 129; Home-Mixing of Fertilizers, p. 131; How to Determine What Fertilizers to Use, p. 132.

Importance of Manure, p. 135; Value of Manure, p. 135; Factors Influencing the Value of Manure, p. 138; Fertilizing Value of Food and Manure, p. 138; Amount and Value of Manure Produced by Farm Animals, p. 139; Losses of Manure, p. 140; Application of Manure, p. 144.

Green Manure 147

CHAPTER VII Some Important Farm Crops 154-243

Relative Importance of the Different Crops of the World, p. 154; Relative Rank of the Different Crops in the United States, p. 155.

Corn 156

Historical, p. 156; Corn Crop of the World, p. 156; Relation of Climate to Corn-Production, p. 157; Why We Raise Corn, p. 159; Types of Corn, p. 161; Fertilizers for Corn, p. 163; Plowing for Corn, p. 163; Fitting the Land After Plowing, p. 166; Planting, p. 166; Tillage After Planting, p. 169; Harvesting Corn, p. 171; Corn Silage, p. 171; Principle of the Silo, p. 172; The Silo, p. 173; Growing Corn for the Silo, p. 174; Feeding Silage, p. 176; Uses of Corn, p. 177.

Importance of Wheat, p. 178; Types of Wheat, p. 179; Culture of Wheat, p. 180.

Oats 181

Cultural Methods, p. 182; Hay and Pasture Plants, p. 184; Timothy, p. 184; Kentucky Blue-Grass, p. 185; Red-Top, p. 186; Awnless Brome Grass, p. 186; Tall Meadow Fescue, xvi CONTENTS

PAGE

p. 186; Orchard Grass, p. 187; Bermuda Grass, p. 187; Johnson Grass, p. 188; Alfalfa, p. 188; Value of Alfalfa, p. 188; Culture of Alfalfa, p. 189; Red Clover, p. 193; Alsike Clover, p. 194; White Clover, p. 195; Mixtures of Grasses and Clovers, p. 195; Management of Permanent Pastures, p. 197.

Importance of Cotton, p. 198; Historical, p. 199; Development in the United States, p. 199; Habits of Growth, 200; Types of Cotton, 201; Breeding and Selection, 202; Relation of Climate to Cotton, p. 205; Cotton Soils, p. 206; Preparation of the Soil, p. 207; Fertilizers for Cotton, p. 208; Planting and Cultivating, p. 209; Harvesting, p. 210; Marketing, p. 211; Grades of Cotton, p. 211; Cotton Seed, p. 212; Fungous Diseases and Insects Affecting Cotton, p. 214.

Forests of the United States, p. 216; The Settler and the Forest, p. 217; The Relation of Forestry to the Nation, p. 218; Forest Policy of the Future, p. 218; National Forests, p. 219; Forests and Climate, p. 220; Conservative Lumbering, p. 221; Forest Trees a Profitable Farm Crop, p. 222; The Farm Wood Lot, p. 222; What Trees to Plant, p. 226.

Setting Trees, p. 227; Tillage of Orchards, p. 228; Spraying Orchards, p. 229; Pruning, p. 230.

Shade Trees 233

The Farm Garden 234

CHAPTER VIII Enemies of Farm Crops 244-271

Weeds 244

What Is a Weed, p. 244; Value of Weeds, p. 244; The Control of Weeds, p. 245; The Control of Weeds in Tilled Crops, p. 245; Subduing Land That Is Badly Infested with Weeds, p. 246; Spraying for Wild Mustard, p. 246; Control of Weeds in Walks, p. 247.

CONTENTS xvii

PAGE

Diseases of Plants 248

Bacterial Diseases, p. 248; An Example of a Bacterial Disease,

p. 249.

Fungous Diseases, p. 250; Characteristics of Fungi, p. 250; An Example of a Fungous Disease, p. 252; Other Fungous Diseases, p. 253.

Parasitic Flowering Plants, p. 254.

Importance of Insects, p. 255; What an Insect Is, p. 255; Stages in the Life of an Insect, p. 256; The Control of Insects, p. 258; Chewing and Sucking Insects, p. 259.

Spraying for the Control of Insects and Diseases 260

Common Fungicides and Insecticides, p. 260; Spraying for Fungi, p. 261; The Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture, p. 263; Poisons, p. 264; Contact Remedies, p. 264; Combined Insecticides and Fungicides, p. 265.

Chapter IX

The Choice of Crops, p. 272; The Rotation of Crops, p. 273; Crop- Rotation and Diversified Crops, p. 273; Advantages of Crop-Rotation, p. 274; Profits from Rotation, p. 277; Crop- Rotation and Crop Failure, p. 277; Variation of Crop Areas, p. 278; Examples of Rotations, p. 278.

CHAPTER X Feeds and Feeding 281-300

Importance of Animal Food and Work 281

Composition of Feeds 282

Water, p. 282; Ash, p. 283; Protein, p. 283; Ether Extract xviii CONTENTS

PAGE

or Fat, p. 283; Crude Fiber, p. 284; Nitrogen-Free Extract, p. 284; Composition of Feeds and Products Compared, p. 284.

Functions of the Different Food Materials 285

Digestibility of Feeds 287

Feeds Differ in Digestibility, p. 287; Digestible Nutrients in Feeds, p. 288; Effect of Time of Harvesting on Digestibility, p. 288.

Maintenance and Productive Values 289

Maintenance, p. 289; External Work, p. 289; Production, p. 289; Energy Lost in Digestion and in Production, p. 289; Comparison of Concentrates and Roughage, p. 291.

Food Requirements of Different Animals, p. 292; Carbohydrate Equivalent of Fat, p. 293; Nutritive Ratio, p. 293; Feeding Standards, p. 293; Computing Rations, p. 293; Another Method of Computing Rations, p. 296; Cautions in Using Balanced Rations, p. 296.

Comfort of Animals 297

Relation of the Animal to Profits 297

Condimental Foods 298

CHAPTER XI The Horse 301-321

Substitution of Horse Power for Man Power, p. 301; Types of Horses, p. 302; Draft Horses and Horses for Speed, p. 303; Breeds of Horses, p. 307; How to Tell the Age of Horses, p. 308; Care of Horses, p. 311; Training Horses, p. 315; Rules of the Road, p. 316.

CONTENTS xix

Chapter XII Page

Forms of Beef and Dairy Cattle, p. 323; Care of Beef and

Dairy Cattle, p. 324; Breeds of Cattle, p. 325; Pedigrees,

332; Grading Up a Herd, p. 333.

Cattle Products 333

Clean Milk, p. 334; Commercial Forms of Milk, p. 335;

Babcock Milk Test, p. 336; Dairy Records, p. 337. Diseases of Cattle 337

Texas Fever, p. 341.

CHAPTER XVI What Is Farm Management? ' 372

The Choice of a Farm 373

Size of Farms, p. 373; Shape and Location of Fields, p. 374; Topography, p. 375; Soils, p. 375; Neighbors, p. 376; Improvements, p. 377; Other Factors Affecting Farm Values, p. 377; Working Capital, p. 377.

Farm Labor 377

Farm Records and Accounts 380

Kinds of Accounts to Keep, p. 380; Methods of Keeping Accounts, p. 380.

CHAPTER XVII The Farm Home 389-395

The Farmyard, p. 389; The Farmhouse, p. 391; Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home, p. 391.

CHAPTER XVIII The Farm Community 396-399

CONTENTS xxi

PAGB?

Table 1. Apparatus and Equipment 400

Table 2. Agricultural Library 401

Table 3. Addresses of the Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, and the United States Department of Agriculture, and the Canadian Agricultural

Addresses 403

Table 4. Length of Time Seeds Maintain Their Vitality 405

Quantity of Seeds per Acre 405

Table 5. Legal Weights in Pounds Per Bushel 406

Table 6. Fertilizing Constituents in Various Substances 408

Table 7. Feeding Standards 409

Table 8. Digestible Nutrients in Various Feeding-Stuffs 410

Table 9. Production Values of Various Feeding-Stuffs 411

Table 10. Average Weights of Various Feeding-Stuffs 412

Table 11. Values of Leading Agricultural Products 413

Table 12. Agriculture Compared with Manufacturing. (Capital,

Horse Power, Exports and Imports compared.) . . . 414

Table 13. Values of Agricultural Imports and Exports 414

Table 14. Average Yields of Crops by Ten- Year Periods. (Acreage, Production, Value, Yields Per Acre, and Prices Per

Table 15. Farm Animals by Ten- Year Periods. (Total Number

and Value, and Value Per Head) 418

Table 16. Various Statistics Showing the Progress of Agriculture. (Total Population, Number of Farms, Total Area of Farm Land, Area of Improved Land, Average Area Per Farm, Average Improved Area Per Farm, Value of All Farm Property, Value Per Farm, Value of Farm Land, Average Value Per Acre, Average Value of Farm Implements Per Farm and Per Acre, Value of Live Stock, Value of Live Stock Per Farm and Per Acre, Value of Farm Products not Fed to Live Stock, Average Value Per Farm and Per Acre, Total Expenditures for Fertilizers, Per xxii CONTENTS

PAGE

Cent of Rented Farms, Number of Acres Per Male Worker, Number of Horses Per Male Worker,

Number of Acres Per Horse) 418, 419

Table 17. Average Wages of Farm Labor 420

Table 18. Rules. (Measuring Grain, Ear Corn, Hay and Land) . . 420

PLATES

FACING PAGE

1. One solution of the farm labor problem. One man doing

more work than two would do with walking plows. John Deere Plow Co Frontispiece

2. Sixty-five Mayweeds. No two alike. B. D. Halstead 5

3. Hybrid squashes. B. D. Halstead 5

4. An excellent cow who is the mother of good cows. Correct

Principle in Breeding. H. A. Moyer 22

5. Reid's yellow dent corn. Result of fifty years of selection.

A. D. Shamel 49

6. Timothy hay responds to fertilizers. J. W. Gilmore 132

7. Timothy hay responds to barnyard manure. J. W. Gilmore. . 132

8. Field of corn on which a weeder was used before cultivating.

G. F. Warren 168

9. Field of corn on adjoining farm on which a weeder was not

10. Distribution of corn roots sixty days after planting. A. M.

Ten Eyck. . 171

11. A good field of wheat in New York 178

12. A good pasture in New York, — the Roberts pasture. Samuel

Fraser 197

13. A poor pasture adjoining the Roberts pasture. Samuel Fraser . . 197

14. Destructive lumbering. Yearbook, United States Department

of Agriculture 216

15. Conservative lumbering. Yearbook, United States Department

of Agriculture 216

17. An ideal Baldwin apple tree for the northeastern states. G. F.

Warren 227

18. A good spray rig for a small orchard. G. F. Warren 244

19. Oats sprayed for killing wild mustard. G. F. Warren 244

(xxiii)

Xxiv PLATES

FACING PAGE

20. Cutting corn for the silo. Johnson Harvester Co 281

21. Filling a silo. E. R. Minns 281

22. White Leghorn cock 363

23. White Leghorn hen 363

24. Barred Plymouth Rock cock. Wm. Ellery Bright 363

25. Barred Plymouth Rock hen. Wm. Ellery Bright 363

Figs. 16-18, 20-23, 25-27, 38-40, 44 and 45 were secured from the New York State College of Agriculture. A few figures were reproduced from the Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. All other figures were drawn for this book, unless acknowledged where published.

Chapter I Introduction

1. What is Agriculture? Agriculture is the production of plants and animals that are useful to man.

It is the fundamental occupation on which all mining, manufacturing and commerce depend. Of course, no complex civilization could develop without these occupations. All are essential for a high civilization, but agriculture is essential for any civilization.

Agriculture is a combination of science, art and business. A good farmer needs to have executive ability, and should be a good business man. He needs to be skilful with his hands in farm operations. The reasons for all his farm practices are based on scientific principles. He may learn to become a good farmer by imitation, in which case he applies scientific principles without knowing it. One who understands the principles involved will be able to adapt his practice to new and ever changing conditions. He will be resourceful.

To be able to understand the reasons for farm practices requires some knowledge of the sciences, such as botany, chemistry, physics, meteorology, bacteriology, zoology, geology, animal and plant diseases. In short, every science that deals with the factors of plant and animal growth contributes to the science of agriculture. It involves more problems than any other occupation, — unless it be housekeeping. It used to be said that any one could farm. But this was merely another way of saying that farming was such a difficult study that no one knew much about it, and that all, therefore, stood on an equal footing. Now we say that it requires as much mental alertness and education to be a good farmer as to be a lawyer, doctor, or merchant; which is another way of saying that much is now known about agriculture, so that one who does not avail himself of this knowledge is handicapped.

2. Divisions of Agriculture. Agriculture has many subdivisions. The more important ones are:

(1) Crop-growing (or crop husbandry), including graingrowing, forage-cropping, fruit-growing, forestry, floriculture, cotton-growing, vegetable-gardening, and the like.

(2) Live-stock-growing (or animal husbandry), as cattleraising, horse-raising, swine-raising, sheep-raising, poultry-raising, apiculture, fish-culture, etc.

(3) Manufacture (or agricultural technology), as butter-making, cheese-making, cider-making, canning, evaporating, and such other manufacturing as is done on the farms or in close association with farms.

3. Forces Controlling Plant and Animal Growth. There are two forces that control all plant and animal growth: heredity and environment. Heredity is the transmission of characters from the parent to the offspring. Environment includes all the external influences and conditions, such as heat, light, food supply, struggle for existence.

4. Heredity. A cauliflower seed looks just like a cab-

INTRODUCTION 3

bage seed, but, when planted in the same row, one develops into a cauliflower and the other into a cabbage. They never make a mistake and grow into the wrong plant. Evidently the seed, or embryo, had its future characteristics quite definitely fixed before it left the seed-pod. Two varieties of corn may be planted in the same field and given identical care, and yet one yield twice as much as the other. A Hereford and a Jersey calf may be raised in the same pasture, but one will develop into a heavy beef animal and one into a dairy animal. Two Jersey cows may be raised in the same herd and fed exactly alike, yet one may give twice as much milk as the other.

5. Environment. Two farmers may plant corn from the same bag, but one gets twice as large a crop as the other. Perhaps they planted at different times, stirred the soil differently, or fertilized differently. A farmer may have two cows that are giving the same amount of milk, but when one is sold to a neighbor she may produce twice as much as formerly, because of a better environment.

Nearly all farm operations that have to do with plant or animal production are performed for the purpose of modifying either the heredity or the environment.

1. Which of the four great industries, Agriculture, Mining, Manufacturing, or Transportation is most important in your county? In your state?

2. Give some facts showing the relative importance of agriculture and other industries in the United States. (See Appendix, Tables 12 and 13.)

3. Which of the divisions of agriculture is most important in your county? In your state? For the United States? (See Appendix, Table 11.)

4. What are the most important farm crops, fruits and vegetables of the region?

5. What is the relative importance of horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, poultry, in the region?

6. What crops and animals are shipped out of the region?

7. What crops or animals are used in manufacturing in the region?

8. What is the etymological meaning of agriculture? Horticulture? (See dictionary.)

9. Where is your State Experiment Station located? Your Agricultural College? (See Appendix, Table 3.)

10. AVhat kinds of work does each conduct? What work is done by the United States Department of Agriculture?

11. WTiat publications are available from each of these organizations, and how may they be secured? (See Appendix, Tables 2 and 3.)

12. What state organizations of farmers are there in your state?

Principles of Agriculture, by L. H. Bailey. Pp. 1-15. Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt. Pp. 1-13.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, by L. H. Bailey. Vol. 1, pp. 7-14. Also choose your state from pp. 29-97.

Fig. 1. Sixty-five mayweeds — no two alike

Fig. 2. Hybrid squashes. Crookneck upper row on the left, scallop lower row on right. The others are hybrids between these two