The Student's Manual of Modern History, etc

Preface

. The plan of this work is nearly the same as that of the Student's Manual of Ancient LTistory, which has been sanctioned by public approbation. It is a compilation, which can have few claims to novelty; but it is hoped that most students will be gratified, with the attention paid to such events as mark the progress of civilization, for they form the chain by which the histories of the several nations of Europe are linked together. It has been the constant aim of the Author to impress upon his readers that the Providence of God may be traced with as much distinctness in the moral government of the universe, as in the physical world; we cannot comprehend all the mysteries of the Almighty's wondrous plan, because " the end is not yet ;" but we see enough to convince us that there is evident and great design in the order of the events which constitute general history.

In the narrative of our own times, the Writer has sedu lously avoided party views of important questions, and has confined himself to a plain statement of facts, without any colouring borrowed from opinions. Colonization is too important a branch of Modern History to be omitted, and, at the risk of being charged with some thing like repetition, the Author has thought it right to give a summary of the history of the principal Colonies which have been founded in India and America. a

PREFACE.

. IV For most of the views in the History of Civilization the author is indebted to Cousin, Guizot, and the Rev. Dr. Millar, of Armagh. Dr. Millar was the first writer who attempted with success to trace the workings of Providence in the revolutions of Europe; and though there are many valid objections to the details of his theory, there can be no doubt that the general outline is correct ; and that all the records of our race bear testimony to the great truth announced in the revealed word of God — " Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people.1' TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter I. — Consequences of the Fall of the Western Empire. PAGE Sect. I. Tbe Gothic Kingdom of Italy 1 II. Reign of Justinian ....... 4 III. Tbe Establishment of the Civil Law . . . .11 IV. History of the Silk Trade . . . ' . . .15 V. The Monarchy of the Franks 19 VI.

The Lombard Monarchy 27 VII. The Anglo Saxons 31 Chapter II. — The Pise and Establishment of the Saracenic Power. Sect. I. Political and Social conditions of the East at the coming of Mohammed ........ 35 II. State of Arabia at the coming of Mohammed . . 39 III. The Preaching of Mohammed 43 IV. Early Progress of the Saracens 48 Chapter III. — Restoration of the Western Empire. Sect. I. The Life of Charlemagne 55 II. Decline and Fall of the Carlovingian Dynasty ... 59 III. The Foundation of the Germanic Empire ... 63 IV. State of the East from the Establishment to the Overthrow of the Khalipbate 69 Chapter IV. — Growth of the Papab Power. Sect. I. History of Hildebrand, or Gregory VII. ... 74 II. Continuation of the Struggle between the Papal and Imperial Powers 79 III. The Crusades 82 IV. Consequences of the Crusades VI CONTENTS.

PAGE V. State of Western Europe at the commencement of the Fourteenth Century ....... 93 VI. State of England and the Northern Kingdoms at the commencement of the Fourteenth Century . - . . 100 VII. Revolutions in the East in consequence of the Mongolian Invasion . . . . . . • • • 104 Chapter V. — The Revival of Literature — The Progress of Civilization and Invention. Sect. I. Decline of the Papal Power 108 II. First Revival of Literature and Inventions in Science . 112 III. Progress of Commerce ....... 118 IV. Revolutions of Germany, France, and Spain . . . 123 V. Tbe State of England and the Northern Kingdoms in tbe Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries .... 130 VI. Rise and Progress of the Ottoman Empire ... . 134 Chapter VI. — The Reformation and Commencement of the States-system in Europe.

Sect. I. Progress of Maritime Discovery ..... 141 II. Origin of the Reformation ...... 147 III. History of the Negociations and Wars respecting Italy . 151 IV. The Age of Charles V. ...... 155 V. The Age of Elizabeth 166 VI. The Age of Gustavus Adolphus 176 VII. Administration of the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarine 183 VIII. Formation of the States-system in the Northern Kingdoms of Europe ........ 192 IX. Progress of the Turkish Power in Europe . . . 196 Chapter VII. — The Augustan Ages of England and France. Sect. I. State of the Continental Kingdoms after the Peace of Westphalia ........ 201 II. History of England under the Commonwealth . . . 206 III. History of England, from the Restoration to tbe Revolution; and rise of the power of Louis XIV. . . 218 IV. General History of Europe, from tbe League of Augsbur"* to the formation of the Grand Alliance .... 232 V. The War of the Spanish Succession ... 239 VI.

Peter the Great of Russia. Charles XII. of Sweden . CONTENTS. ■vii Chapter VIII. — Growth of the Mercantile and Colonial System. PACK Sect. I. Establishment of the Hanoverian Succession in England . 262 II. The Colonial Struggle between France and Great Britain 277 III. The Seven Years' War 283 Chapter IX. — The Age of Revolutions. Sect. I. Change in tbe Relations of the Catholic Powers to the Holy See. Suppression of the order of Jesuits. Dismemberment of Poland 301 II. History of England from the Peace of Paris to the commencement of the American War .... 308 III. The American War 314 IV. The British Empire in India 321 V. History of Europe, from the end of the American War to the commencement of the French Revolution . . 325 VI. The French Revolution 329 Chapter X. — The French Empire. Sect.

I. Renewal of the War between England and France . 348 II. Progress of Napoleon's Power ..... 354 III. The French Invasion of Spam 360 IV. The Russian War . . . * . . . .375 V. History of Europe from the dethronement of Napoleon to the conclusion of the treaty of Vienna .... 382 Chapter XI. — History of the Peace. Sect. I. State of Europe at the close of the War .... 388 II. History of England duriifg the reign of George IV. . 391 III. General History of Europe, from the overthrow of the Spanish Constitution to the French Revolution of 1830 . 396 IV. History of Europe during the reign of William IV. . 408 Chapter XII. — Present State and Prospects of Civilization. Chapter XIII. — History of Colonization. Sect. I. The estabbshment of the Spaniards in America . . 429 II. Portuguese Colonies in South America . . . 430 III.

The English in America ...... 437 IV. Colonization of tbe West Indies 442 V. The Portuguese in India CONTENTS. VIII rAGE VI. The Spaniards in the East Indies 447 VII. The Dutch in tbe East Indies 448 VIII. The Danes in the East Indies 450 IX. The French in the East Indies 451 X. The English in India 452 Chapter XIV. — General View of the Progress of European Civilization. Sect. I. The Nature of Civilization, as an object of Historical Inquiry ......... 463 II. Organization of European Society ..... 468 III. The Form of European Civilization 476 IV. Concluding Remarks ....... 482 Chronological Table of British Acquisitions in India . . • 487 Tables of Contemporary Dynasties ...... 488 Genealogical Table of the Bourbons ...... 502 Genealogical Table of the Royal Family of England .... 503 Principal Orders of Chivalry ....... 504 Analytical and Chronological Index MANUAL OF MODERN HISTORY.

Chapter I. Consequences Of The Fall Of The Western Empire

Section I. — The Gothic Kingdom of Italy. There is no period in the annals of the human race which presents to the historical student a greater scene of confusion than the century succeeding the overthrow of the Western Empire. The different hordes of barbarians, following no definite plan, esta blished separate monarchies in the dismembered provinces, engaged in sanguinarywars that had no object but plunder, and were too ignorant to form anything like a political system. There is consequently a want of unity in the narrative of a time when nations ceased to have fixed relations towards each other, and history must appear desultory and digressive until some one state, rising into command, assumes such importance, that the fate of all the rest may be connected with its destinies. It is necessary, before entering on the various incidents of this calamitous time, to take a geographical survey of the places occupied by the principal nations who succeeded the Romans in the sovereignty of Europe.

The Visigoths, after their establishment in Spain, began gradually to adopt the refinement of their new subjects ; that peninsula had advanced rapidly in civilization under the Roman dominion, and had escaped from much of the corruption which had degraded Italy; the conquerors, more advanced than any of the other barbarians, soon learned to appreciate the advan tages of social order, and began to cultivate the higher arts of life. In Pannonia, the Ostrogoths derived great improvement from their vicinity to Italy on the one side, and the court of Constantinople on the other; they were thus gradually trained to civilization, and their early adoption of Christianity secured them the benefits of literature, which was sedulously cultivated by the clergy. Tribes of a very different character pressed into the empire from the German forests,— the Burgundians, the Lombards, and the Franks, of whom the last were long distinguished for their hostility to all refinements, and their exclusive attention to the military virtues.

Still more barbarous were the Saxons and Ano-les ; they were not only strangers to the civilization and religion of the empire, but were kept in their rude state by the practice of piracy, for which flieir maritime situation afforded them great facilities ; their government, divided among several petty chiefs, was favourable to personal independence, and furnished a striking contrast to the absolute despotism that had been established in the Roman empire. All the Germanic tribes were remarkable for the respect which they showed to the delicacy of the female character ; they neither treated their women like slaves, as most other barbarians have done, nor did they degrade them into mere objects of sensual gratification, like the Romans and Byzantines. The German woman was the companion and counsellor of her husband; she shared his labours as an equal, not as a servant.

It was from the sanctity of the domestic circle among the northern nations that races of conquerors derived the firmness and courage that ensured them victory. The north-eastern part of Europe was occupied by Sclavonic tribes, differing from the Germans in language, manners, and tactics; like the Tartars of more modern times, they placed their chief reliance on their cavalry; and they were more opposed to civilization than any of the Germanic nations. After the fall of the Western Empire, the court of Constan tinople sunk into obscurity, from which it did not emerge for half a century, when its supremacy was restored during the memorable reign of Justinian. The Isaurian Zeno, raised to the purple by his marriage with the Princess Ariadne, was forced to fly into the mountains by a fierce revolt which his THE GOTHIC KINGDOM OF ITALY. mother-in-law Verina had instigated.

He was restored to the throne chiefly by the aid of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, who had been carefully educated as a hostage at the court of Constantinople. The turbulence of the Goths, and the faith lessness of the Byzantines, soon destroyed the amity of the two sovereigns; a desultory, but sanguinary warfare harassed the Eastern Empire, until Zeno purchased peace by ceding to Theodoric his right over Italy, or rather stimulated the Goth to undertake the conquest of that peninsula. The march of Theodoric was the emigration of an entire people ; the Goths were accompanied by their wives, their children, and their aged parents, a vast m ultitude of wagons conveyed their most precious effects, and their store of provisions for a toilsome march undertaken in the depth of winter. Odoaeer boldly prepared to meet this formidable invasion ; he took post on the river Sontius (Isonzo) with a powerful host; but he was unable to resist the daring energy of the Goths, and his defeat gave Theodoric possession of the Venetian province as far as the walls of Verona (a.d. 489).

Italy, however, was not won without further struggles; Ravenna alone sustained a siege of more than three years ; but at length Odoaeer capitulated (a. d. 493), and was soon after assassinated at a solemn banquet by his rival. Theodoric secured his conquest by distributing one-third of the lands of Italy to his soldiers. This partition was effected with very little violence to the ancient possessors ; the Goths were instructed to spare the p eople, to reverence the laws, and to lay aside their barbarous customs of judicial combats and private revenge. The Gothic sovereignty was soon extended from Sicily to the Danube, and from Sirmium (Sirmich) to the Atlantic Ocean ; thus including the faire st portion of the "West ern Empire. The monarch of this new kingdom showed great wisdom and moderation in his civil government, but unfortu nately his attachment to the Arian heresy led him to persecute the Catholics ; it must however be confessed that their bigoted turbulence afforded too often a reasonable excuse for his severity.

The legal murder of the philosopher Boethius and the venerable Symmachus were crimes which admit of no palliation; they B2 hastened Theodoric's death, for remorse brought him to the grave in the thirty-third year of his reign (a. d. 526). Section II. — The Reign of Justinian. A Dacian peasant, named Justin, who had travelled on foot to Constantinople in the reign of the Emperor Leo, enlisted in the imperial guards, and, during the succeeding reigns, so distinguished himself by his strength and valour, that he was gradually raised to the command of the household troops. On the death of the Emperor Anastasius, the eunuch Amantius, anxious to secure the throne for one of his creatures, entrusted Justin with a large sum of money to bribe the guards ; but he used it to purchase votes for himself, and was thus elevated to the empire (a. d. 518).

Totally ignorant himself, Justin was not insensible of the value of education ; he made his nephew Justinian his associate in the empire ; and as this prince had been instructed in all the learning of the times, he soon obtained the whole power of the state. After the death of Justin (a. d. 527), Justinian ruled alone ; but his first exercise of authority fixed a lasting stigma on his reign. He chose for his empress, Theodora, a woman of mean birth and infamous character, whose vices had disgusted even a capital so licentious as Constantinople. Among the most singular and disgraceful follies of the Eastern Empire, was the factions of the circus, which arose from the colours worn by the charioteers who competed for the prize of swiftness. Green and blue were the most remarkable for their inveterate hostility, though white and red were the most ancient ; all, however, soon acquired a legal existence, and the Byzantines willingly hazarded life and fortune to support their favourite colour.

Justinian was a partisan of the blues ; his favour towards them provoked the hostility of the opposite faction, and led to a sedition which almost laid Constantinople in ashes. The disturbances first burst forth in the circus ; Jus tinian ordered the rioters to be secured ; both factions immediately turned against the monarch, the soldiers were called out, but they were unable to contend against the citizens in the narrow streets. Assailed from the tops of the houses, the bar barian mercenaries flung firebrands in revenge, and thus kindled a dreadful conflagration, which destroyed a vast number of public and private edifices. After the city had been for several days in the hands of the rioters, Justinian contrived to revive the ancient animosity between the greens and blues ; the -latter faction declared for the emperor, a strong body of veterans marched to the Hippodrome, and tranquillity was restored by the slaughter of thirty thousand of the insurgents.

While the internal state of the empire was thus disturbed by faction, a costly and unprofitable war was waged against the Persians, until the emperor purchased a disgraceful and precarious truce, which both he and his rival chose to designate as an endless peace. The usurpation of the throne of the Vandals in Africa by Gelimer, who owed his success chiefly to th" support of the Arian clergy, enabled Justinian to undertake a war, in which he appeared both the generous friend of an allied sovereign and the protector of the Catholic faith. Belisarius, the best general of his age, was appointed to the command of the imperial forces, and a large fleet was assembled for the transport of the army in the harbour of Constantinople (a. d. 533). After it had been blessed by the patriarch it set sail ; and, after a prosperous voyage, Belisarius effected a landing on the coast of Africa without opposition.

He advanced towards Carthage, defeating the Vandals on his march, and became master of the city with little opposition. Gelimer made one effort more to save his kingdom ; it was unsuccessful, his army was irretrievably ruined, and he was closely besieged in the castle where he sought refuge. The unfortunate king, after having borne the most dreadful extremities of famine, was forced to surrender unconditionally; he was carried captive to Constantinople, where he was led in the triumphal procession that honoured the return of Belisarius. The dethroned monarch showed no sorrow for his fall, but consoled himself by Solomon's reflection on the insta bility of human greatness, frequently repeating, " Vanity of vanities, saith the preacher, all is vanity." The murder of Amalasontha, queen of the Goths, by her ungrateful husband Theodatus, afforded Belisarius a pretext for attacking the kingdom of Italy.

He sailed from Constantinople to Sicily, and easily conquered that important island (a. d. 535). Theodatus, in great terror, hasted to avert danger, by declaring himself the vassal of Justinian ; but hearing in the mean time that two Byzantine generals had been defeated in Dalmatia by the Gothic troops, he passed suddenly from extreme despair to the height of presumption, and withdrew his allegiance. Beli sarius soon appeared to chastise his perfidy; he transported his army across the Sicilian strait, and effected a landing at Rhe gium (Reggio). The greater part of southern Italy, including the important city of Naples, was speedily subdued by the imperial forces; while Theodatus, secure within the walls of Rome, made no effort to protect his subjects. At length the Goths, disgusted by the weakness and incapacity of their sovereign, removed him from the throne, and chose the valiant Vitiges for their king.

But Vitiges was forced to commence his reign by abandoning Rome, of which Belisarius took pos session without encountering any opposition (a. d. 537). During the ensuing winter, the Goths assembled from every quarter to save, if possible, their kingdom in Italy; a powerful army, animated by dauntless spirit, was soon collected, and Vitiges led his followers to the sieoe of Rome. Belisarius cones o centrated his forces in the Eternal City, which was defended with equal skill and bravery; but famine soon appeared within the walls, and the citizens became anxious for a capitulation. A conspiracy was formed under the sanction of the pope, Syl verius, for betraying the city to the Goths ; but it was discovered by an intercepted letter. Belisarius sent Sylverius into banish ment, and ordered the bishops to elect a new pontiff; but the general's wife, the infamous Antonina, sold the Holy See to Vigilius for a bribe of two hundred pounds weight of gold.

Reinforcements soon after arrived from the east, and the Goths were forced to raise the siege of Rome, having lost one-third of their number before its walls. Belisarius pursued the retreating enemy to the marshes of Ravenna, and would probably have captured that city, but for the jealousy of the eunuch Narses whom Justinian had entrusted with the independent command of a large division of the Byzantine army. Though the diffe rences between the two leaders were finally adjusted, the Goths had taken advantage of the interval to collect new strength ; and ten thousand Burgundians, sent to invade Italy by the command of Theodobert, king of the Franks, had stormed and plundered Milan. Soon after, Theodobert passed the Alps in person at the head of one hundred thousand men. The Franks stormed Genoa, and devastated Liguria; but their excesses brought pestilence into their camp, they perished by thousands, and Theodobert was induced, by his increasing distresses, to enter into terms of accommodation with the emperor.

Delivered from this pressing danger, Belisarius laid siege to Ravenna, which was forced to capitulate (a.d. 539); and thus the Gothic kingdom of Italy was destroyed. Belisarius returned to Constantinople in triumph, leading with him the captive Vitiges; he was sent to conduct the Persian war, but was soon recalled and disgraced by the un grateful Justinian. While the conquests of Belisarius were restoring the western provinces to the empire, barbarous hordes ravaged, almost with impunity, the north-eastern frontiers. Unable or unwilling to meet the Gepidæ in the field, Justinian entered into alliance with the Lombards, who had just thrown off the yoke of the Heruli, and gave them settlements in Pan nonia. A war of forty years' duration, between the Lombards and Gepidæ, protected the empire from the invasions of both hordes ; but it was still exposed to the incursions of the Scla vonians and Bulgarians, who annually purchased a passage through the territories of the Gepidæ, and extended their inroads even into southern Greece.

Commotions in the remote east brought Europeans, about this time, acquainted with new and more formidable races of barbarians, the Avars and the Turks, whose importance may justify a short digression on their origin. The Avars, from an unknown age, possessed the mountains and deserts that border on the lake Baikal in north-eastern Asia. Thence they advanced southwards under a monarch named Tuliin, and extended their empire to the eastern sea, which separates Corea from Japan. The conqueror took the title of Khakan or Chagan, a name still used on the coins of the Turkish sultan. But the prosperity of the Avars was not of long duration; they were assailed by rival tribes from the north, and at the same time harassed by civil wars ; while thus dis tressed, they were attacked by a new horde, called Thiii khiii by Chinese writers, but known to Europeans as the Turks.

The Avars were overthrown by these new competitors for empire, and their power totally destroyed ; but their name was taken by a new nation, the Ogors or Varchonites, who, after being defeated by the Turks, migrated towards Europe by the route of the Volga. They chose the false designation, because the name of the Avars was still formidable, and they preserved it on account of the terror which they saw it produced. The Turks first appear in history as the slaves of the original Avars ; they inhabited the great Altaian mountains, and were eng-ag-ed in working; the mines and attendingthe forg-es of those rich mineral districts. Their skill in fabricating armour and weapons was very great, and they prided themselves upon the excellence of their manufactures so much, that, when they became lords of eastern Asia, their Khakans annually forged a piece of iron in the presence of the heads of the nation.

Under the guidance of Tlui-men, they asserted their independence, and made slaves of their former masters. So rapid was their pro gress, that, during the reigns of Tlui-men and his successor Dizabul, their empire extended from the Volga to the Sea of Japan. They were thus brought to the frontiers of the Byzan tine and Persian dominions, and engaged in commercial relations with both, by their occupation of the countries through which the silk-trade was carried. The great rival of Justinian was Chosroes or Nushirvan, the most celebrated Persian monarch of the Sassanid dynasty; in the early part of his reign he won the affection of his subjects, by extirpating the pernicious system of policy and religion which his predecessor Kobad, seduced by an impostor named Mazdak, had patronized. His next care was to give confidence to the labouring classes by judicious laws for securing the rights of industry, and by a sedulous attention to the administration of justice.

Having thus secured the tranquillity and prosperity of Persia, he directed his attention to the favourite project of the Sassanides, the re-establishment of the empire of Cyrus, and perceiving that the forces of Justinian were engaged in the west, invaded Syria, at the head of a powerful army (a.d. 540). His victorious career was checked for a brief space by Belisarius, but after the recall and disgrace of that g-eneral, he urered forward his conquests with alarming rapidity. Justinian, in his distress, repented of his ingratitude ; Belisarius was restored to command, and, by his judicious exertions, Nushirvan was forced to return across the Euphrates, loaded, however, with the spoils of western Asia. His next enterprize was the conquest of the Caucasian districts, inhabited by the Lazi, the Colchians, and other semi-barbarous tribes, which the Byzantines struggled to prevent, and this led to the tedious Lazic war, in which the strength of both empires was uselessly wasted.

In consequence of the Persian war, Justinian entered into a treaty with the Abyssinians, whose monarch had subdued the greater part of Arabia, in the expectation of opening, by his means, a naval communication with China and India ; but the design was frustrated by the reluctance of the Ethiopian monarch to engage in a doubtful contest with the power of Persia. The provinces of Africa and Italy, acquired by the valour of Belisarius, were nearly lost by the incapacity and tyranny of his successors. Their weakness provoked the Moors to take arms ; and, though these barbarians were finally reduced, the African province was changed from a fertile and populous country into a savage and silent desert. Still more dangerous was the revolt of the Goths under the gallant Totila (a. d. 541), who in a very brief space recovered the greater part of Italy.

Finding his generals successively defeated, Justinian sent Belisarius to the theatre of his former glory; but he neglected to supply the hero with sufficient forces, and Rome was captured by Totila, almost in sight of the imperial army. The city was recovered soon after, and the old general gained some advantages over Totila ; but finding himself unsupported, he solicited permission to return, and departed from Italy disgraced, not so much by his failure, as by the plunder he had permitted Antonina to extort from those he was sent to defend (a. d. 548). Totila, after the departure of Belisarius, again made himself master of Rome, but the maritime cities of Italy resisted his assaults, and supported the imperial interests until the eunuch Narses was sent into the peninsula (a. d. 552). Justinian granted to this favourite what he had denied to Belisarius, a competent supply of the munitions of war ; allies were entreated to send contin gents, and mercenaries were hired from the principal barbarous tribes.

Thus supplied, the eunuch eagerly sought to bring the Goths to an engagement ; Totila showed equal ardour for the combat, and the hostile forces soon met in the vicinity of Rome. In the very commencement of the battle the Gothic cavalry, hurried forward by their impetuosity, advanced so far beyond their infantry, that they were surrounded and cut to pieces before they could receive assistance. Totila, hasting with a chosen troop to remedy the disorder, was struck to the earth mortally wounded, and his followers instantly fled in confusion. Rome opened its gates to the conquerors ; but the imperial forces, especially the barbarian mercenaries, treated the city more cruelly than the Gothic conquerors had done. The bravest of the Goths retired, after their defeat, beyond the Po, and chose Teias for their king.

War was of course renewed ; but in a fierce battle, which lasted two entire days, Teias was slain, and the power of the Ostrogoths irretrievably ruined. Narses had scarcely time to recover from the fatigues of this campaign, when he was summoned to repel an invasion of the Franks and Allemans ; he routed them with great slaughter ; and then returning to Rome, gratified its citizens by the semblance of a triumph. Italy was thus reduced to a Byzantine province, governed by the exarchs of Ravenna; and Narses himself, the first and most powerful of the exarchs, governed the whole peninsula for fifteen years. In the mean time Belisarius had been summoned to defend the empire from the dangers with which it was menaced, by an invasion of the Bulgarians. He gained a decisive victory over the barbarians, but was prevented from improving his advautao-es by the intrigues of the courtiers.

The Bulgarians were induced to return beyond the Danube, by the payment of a large ransom for their captives ; and Justinian claimed the gratitude of his subjects for accelerating their departure by the threat of placinc armed vessels in the Danube. This was the last campaio-n of Belisarius ; he was soon after disgraced and imprisoned, under a false charge of treason : his innocence was subsequently proved, and his freedom restored, but grief and resentment hurried him to the grave ; and his treasures were seized by the rapacious emperor. Eight months afterwards Justinian sunk into the tomb, scarcely regretted by his subjects. He was a pious and diligent sovereign, but he wanted energy to contend against the vices of his court and the age. His talents as a legislator and statesman were great ; had he acted on his own principles, he would have surpassed Augustus, but he yielded his power to the infamous Theodora, and to unworthy ministers who abused his confidence, and oppressed the empire.