A Manual of Ancient and Modern History ... Revised, with a chapter on the History of the United States, by C. S. Henry ... Fifth edition ... corrected

Front matter

A MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY; i COMPRISING I. ANCIENT HISTORY, CONTAINING THE POLITICAL HISTORY, GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION, AND SOCIAL STATE OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY, CAREFULLY REVISED FROM THE ANCIENT WRITERS. II. MODERN HISTORY, CONTAINING THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN NATIONS, THEIR POLITICAL HISTORY, AND THE CHANGES IN THEIR SOCIAL CONDITION, WITH A HISTORY OF THE COLONIES FOUNDED BY EUROPEANS. BY W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN. REVISED, WITH A CHAPTER ON THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, BY C. S. HENRY, D. D. , PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW-YORK. WITH QUESTIONS ADAPTED FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. FIFTH EDITION, CAREFULLY REVISED AND CORRECTED. N E W - Y 0 R K : D. APPLETON & CO., 200 BROADWAY.

PHILADELPHIA: GEORGE S. APPLETON, 148 CHESNUT-STREET. m nccc XLV1I. Entered, according to Act os Congress, in the year 1S44, By D. APPLETON & COMPANY, ii the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York.

Preface

. In bringing out an American edition of this work, the publishers were desirous not only to furnish a valuable work for general readers. but also to make it in point of size and price as well adapted to the wants of public instruction as they believed it to be in intrinsic merit In complying with their request to revise the work with this view, the present editor has made a few slight curtailments — principally in the first part of the volume of Ancient History — which could be made with out suppressing or in any way distorting or impairing any material fact or statement. In the English edition, all that is to be found relating to the history of the United States amounts to two or three pages, interspersed in the history of England. In the place of these meager notices, the present editor has appended to the volume of Modern History a distinct and special chapter, giving to the history of the United States its proportion ate place in general history, and to which it is certainly entitled in a work designed for public instruction in this country.

He trusts that this sketch will be found to contain a fair and clear view of the leading events of our history. In the preface to the third American edition of Guizot's History of European Civilization, the present editor took occasion to offer some remarks upon the study of history as a part of the course of studies pursued in our higher institutions : in which he attempted to answer the extremely difficult question, " How best to employ the very limited time allotted to history in the usual course of public instruction V On the one hand, it is obvious that a thorough knowledge of history (which it is the work of years to gain) can never be acquired in the time allowed ,

PREFACE.

. and on the other hand, it is far more difficult to make a successful be ginning, to lay a good foundation in history, than in the other studies included in the usual public course. This it is which makes the most useful employment of the little time allowed so perplexing a problem. The conclusion to which the editor arrived was, that in the impos sibility of communicating a thorough knowledge of history in this time, thus much should be attempted : 1. The study of some judicious work of general history ; 2. The study of some good specimen of the phi losophy of history, as it is called, or the method of generalizing and reflecting upon the facts of history ; and 3. The thorough investigation of some small portion of special history. The editor recommended the work of Guizot, referred to above, as a good specimen of philosophical reflection upon history ; and he knows no work on general history better adapted to the purpose of public instruction than the present. C. S. H. New York, December 11, 1844.

Introduction

. The use of history is not to load the memory with facts, but to store the mind with principles — to collect from the experience of past ages rules for our conduct as individuals and as members of society. Every historical work, therefore, professes to give only a selection of events ; and the writer's choice is determined by the nature of his history : the general historian directs attention to the occurrences that have changed the general aspect of society, the revolutions of states and empires, the causes that led to them, and the consequences by which they were fol lowed. The special historian confines his attention to one class of facts, specified in the title of his work : thus the ecclesiastical historian writes only of the affairs of the church ; the military historian confines his narrative to wars and battles ; and the commercial historian devotes his attention exclusively to trade.

But even general histories may, in some degree, be regarded as special ; their object may be called " political," that is, they profess to describe the destinies of nations, both in their external relations with foreign states, and in their internal affairs. Under the first head are comprised wars, treaties of peace or alliance, and commercial inter course ; under the second, governments, institutions, and manners. Such a history must, to a certain extent, be a history of civilization ; for it will describe the progress of social improvement, and the progress of the human mind. These essential parts of civilization must not be confounded ; for we shall have more than once occasion to remark, that the social system, or, in other words, the relations between the different parts of society, may display great wisdom and justice, while men, in their individual capacity, continue the slaves of ignorance and superstition. A distinction is usually made between the narrative and the philoso- VI

INTRODUCTION.

. phy of history : in the former are included the actions of kings and rulers, the accounts of wars and treaties, the rise and fall of empires ; in the latter are comprehended descriptions of the political and religious institutions, the organization of society, the amount of knowledge, the state of industry and the arts, the morals, the habits, and the prevailing prejudices in any age or nation ; and the facts thus ascertained by philosophy, are shown to be the causes of the events detailed in the narrative. It is possible to go back a step further, and to trace the origin of these institutions and manners in the succession of opinions, and gradual development of the human intellect. But. unassisted reason can go no further ; the law fixed by Providence for the succession of opinions and development of mind, can only be known to its omniscient Author, but that such a law exists, is proved to us by the fulfilment of prophecy, by the frequent instances of unconscious agents working out the great designs of God.

It is proposed in the following pages to unite the philosophy with the narrative of history, to combine events with their causes, and direct occasionally the attention of the student to the progress of civilization, both in its effect on society and on individuals. Sacred history — the account of the direct operations of the Divine agency on his chosen servants and chosen people — is necessarily excluded from a political history ; but the general course of Providence displayed in the moral government of his creatures is an essential element of our plan : it is, in fact, the principle of unity that binds together its several parts. The necessary companions of history are chronology and geography ; they determine the time when, and the place where, each event occurred. The difficulties of chronology arise both from the imperfection of records, and from varieties in the mode of computation : the former can not be remedied ; but, to prevent the mistakes which may arise from this cause, uncertain dates have been marked with an asterisk : the second source of confusion is removed by using throughout solar years for a measure of time, and the birth of Christ as an era from which to reckon.

Instead of constructing a general system of ancient geography, it has seemed better to prefix a geographical outline of the history of each separate country, and to combine with it some account of the na ture of the soil, and its most remarkable animal and vegetable produc tions. There is no doubt that the position, climate, and fertility of a country, have a powerful influence over the character, condition, and destiny of its inhabitants, and ought not to be omitted in the consideration of their history.

INTRODUCTION.

. VII The arrangement of this work is both chronological and geographical ; the history of each country is given separately, but the states are arranged in the order of their attaining a commanding influence in the world. To this there are two exceptions — Egypt, which is placed first, on account of its being the earliest organized government of which we have any authentic record ; and India, which is placed last, because it exercised no marked influence over the most remarkable nations of ancient times. The history of Greece in this volume has a less orderly appearance than in most similar works, because it contains not merely the histories of Athens and Sparta, to which most writers confine their attention, but also those of the minor states, the islands and the colonies. A chapter has been added on the colonial policy of the Greeks — a subject of great importance in itself, and peculiarly interesting to a commercial country.

To the Roman history there is prefixed a brief account of the ancient inhabitants of Italy before the era usually assigned for the foundation of Rome. In the earlier period of the republic, notice is taken of the reasonable doubts that have been raised respecting the authenticity of the common narrative ; but care has been taken to avoid an excess of skepticism, which is at least as bad as an excess of credulity. In the chapter on India, attention has been directed to the ancient routes of trade between that country and eastern Europe : many of these subsist to the present day ; projects have been formed for reopen ing others ; some account of them consequently appears necessary, for illustrating both ancient commerce and modern policy. In a general summary, restricted within narrow limits, it is scarcely possible to avoid dryness of details ; notes have therefore been added, consisting for the most part of illustrations and anecdotes, that may serve both to relieve the mind, and to place important traits of charac ter, national and individual, in a clearer light.

It has been deemed advisable to take some notice of the mythology, as well as the real history, of nations ; for though mythic traditions may in many or in most instances have had no foundation, yet they should not be wholly neglected by the historian, for they had a share in forming, and they help to illustrate, the character of the nation by which they were once believed. At the same time, care has been taken to separate these traditions from the authenticated narrative, and to discriminate between those that have, and those that have not, some probable foundation in fact.

INTRODUCTION.

. Political reflections and moral inferences from the narrative have, in general, been avoided : the instructive lessons of history are, for the most part, found on the surface, and may best be collected by the stu dents themselves. It is not quite fair to prejudge questions for the mind ; the chief business of those who write for the young should be to make them think, not to think for them. The author has to acknowledge his great obligations to the works of Professor Heeren, whose volumes on the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of Ancient Nations, should form part of every historical library; he has also borrowed very copiously from the valuable essays that have appeared in the Memoirs of the French Academy of Inscriptions ; his particular obligations in the several chapters need not be specified, most of them being mentioned in the notes.

The design of this introduction is merely to explain the plan of the work ; some few suggestions, however, may be added on the mode of using it. Students should compare the geographical chapters with maps, and fix in their minds the most characteristic natural features of the country whose history they are about to commence. One division should be thoroughly mastered before another is begun ; and when the whole is gone through, it will be found a most useful exercise tc synchronize the events in the history of one country with the events ir. the history of another ; for instance, to trace the condition of the R» man republic at the time of the battle of Arbela. ■ft'. ANCIENT HISTORY. Chapter I. — Egypt. PAOE. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 1 II. Political and Social Condition os the Egyptians 2 HI.

History of Egypt from the earliest Period to the Accession of Psammetichus 5 1Y. History of Egypt from the Reign of Psammetichus to its subjugation by C ambyses 9 V. Egyptian Manufactures and Commerce 11 Chapter n. — The Ethiopians. Sect. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History 13 II. History of the Ethiopia ns 14 HI. Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures of Meroe 15 Chapter III. — Babylonia and Assyria. Sect. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History 17 II. Political and Social Condition of the Assyrians and Babylonians 18 III. History of the Assyrians and Babylonians 19 IV. Description of Nineveh and Babylon 23 V. Commerce and Manufactures of the Babylonians 25 Chapter IV. — Western Jlsia. Sect. I. Asia Minor. — Geographical Outline , 27 II. Ancient History of Asia Minor 28 III. Syria. — Geographical Outline 29 rV.

Social and Political Condition of the Syrians and Phœnicians 30 V. History of the Syrians and Phœnicians 31 VI. Phœnician Colonies and Foreign Possessions 32 VII. Phœnician Manufactures and Commerce 33 Chapter V. — Palestine, Sect. I. Geographical Outline 36 n. History of Palestine 36 III. The Conquest of Canaan by Joshua 39 1Y. History of Israel under the judges X TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAOE Sect. V. History of the United Kingdom of Israel. 42 VI. The Revolt of the Ten Tribes.— The Kingdom of Israel 47 VII. The Kingdom of Judah 51 Chapter VI.— The Empire of the Medes and Persians. Sect. I. Geographical Outline _• 58 II. Sources and Extent of our Knowledge respecting the Ancient Persians ™ III. Social and Political Condition of Ancient Persia 60 IV. History of the Medes and Persians under the Kaianian Dynasty 62 V. History of the Persians under theHystaspid Dynasty 64 Chapter VII. — Phœnician Colonies in Northern Africa.

Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Northern Africa 68 II. Social and Political Condition of Carthage 69 III. History of Carthage from the Foundation of the City to the Commencement of the Syracusan Wars 70 IV. History of Carthage during the Sicilian Wars 73 V. From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of Carthage 76 VI. Navigation, Trade, and Commerce of Carthage 79 Chapter VIII. — The Foundation of the Grecian States. Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Hellas 81 II. Geographical Outline of the Peloponnesus 83 III. The Grecian Islands in the Ægean and Mediterranean Seas 85 IV. The Ionian Islands 85 V. The Social and Political Condition of Greece 86 VI. Traditional History of Greece from the earliest Ages to the Commencement of the Trojan War 89 VII. From the Trojan War to the Colonization of Asia Minor 92 Chapter LX. — History of the Grecian States and Colonies before the Persian War.

Sect. I. Topography of Sparta 95 II. Legislation of Lycurgus, and the Messenian Wars 95 III. Topography of Athens 97 IV. History of Athens to the Beginning of the Persian War 99 V. Historical Notices of the Minor States of Greece previous to the Persian War 102 VI. History of the principal Grecian Islands 103 VII. History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor 104 VIII. History of the Greek Colonies on the Euxine Sea, Coast of Thrace, Macedon, &c 106 Chapter X. — History of Greece from the Persian Wars lo the Accession of Alexander the Great. Sect. I. The First Persian War 108 n. The Second Persian War — . , HO III. The First Peloponnesian War 113 IV. The Second Peloponnesian War 113 V. Tyrannical Rule of Sparta. — Third Peloponnesian War 121 VI. The Second Sacred War.— Destruction of Grecian Freedom 128 Chapter XI. — The Macedonian Kingdom and Empire.

Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Macedon 131 II. History of the Macedonian Monarchy 132 III. Dissolution of the Macedonian Empire Chaiter XII. — History of the States that arose from the Dismemberment of the Macedonian Empire. Sect. I. History of Macedon and Greece from the Battle of Ipsus to the Roman Conquest 145 II. History of the Kingdom of Syria under the Seleucidæ 153 III. History of Egypt under the Ptolemies 158 IV. History of the Minor Kingdoms in Western Asia 162 V. History of Bactria and Parthia 166 VI. History of Idumea, and its Capilal Petra 168 VII. History of the Jews from their Return out of the Babylonish Captivity to the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 171 Chapter XIII.— History of Ancient Italy. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 183 II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Italy 187 IU.

The Greek Colonies in Italy 190 Chapter XIV. ■History of Sicily. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 193 II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Sicily 196 IH. The History of Syracuse 197 Chapter XV. — History of the Roman Republic. Sect. I. Traditions respecting the Origi n of the Romans 200 LT. From the Foundaiion of Rome to the Abolition of Royalty 201 III. From ihe Establishment of the Roman Republic to the Burnin? of the Ciiy by the Gauls ' 206 IV. From the Rebuilding of the City to the First Punic War 215 V. From the Commencement of the Punic Wars to the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi 218 VI. From ihe Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi to the Downfall of the Republic 228 VII. The Establishment of Ihe Roman Empire 237 Chapter XVI. — Geographical and Political Condition of the Roman Empire.

Sect. I. European Countries. — Spain 243 II. Transalpine Gaul 243 III. Britain 244 IV. Northern Provinces of the Empire 245 V. Asiatic and African Provinces 247 VI. The Principal Nations on the Frontiers of the Empire 248 VII. Topography of the City of Rome 251 Chapter XVII. — History of the Roman Empire. f,'.«r. I. The Reigns of the Family of the Cæsars 256 II. From the Extinction of the Julian to that of the first Flavian Family 265 III. From the Extinction of the first Flavian Family to the last of the Antonines 271 IV. Foreign Commerce of the Romans in the Age of the Antonines ,.278 V. From the Extinction of the Antonines to the Establishment of Military Despotism 280 VI. From the Murder of Alexander Severus to the Captivity of Valerian and the Usurpation of the Thirty Tyrants TABLE of contents PAOB Sect.

VII. From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resignation of Dioclesian. . .289 VIII. From the Resignation of Dioclesian to the Death of Constantine the Great 295 LX. From the Death of Constantine to the Reunion of the Empire under Theodosius the Great 301 X. Overthrow of the Western Empire 312 Chapter XVin. — India. Early History MODERN HISTORY. Chapter I. — Consequences of the Fall of the Western Empire. PAGE. Sect. I. The Golhic Kingdom of Italy 327 II. The Reign os Justinian 329 III. The Establishment of the Civil Law 334 IV. History of the Silk Trade. — Inlroduciion of the Silkworm into Europe 337 V. The Monarchy of the Franks, under the Merovingian Dynasty 341 VI. The Lombard Monarchy 346 VII. Tne Anglo-Saxons 349 Chapter II. — The Rise and Establishment of the Saracenic Power. Sect. I. Political and Social Condition of the East at the Coming of Mohammed. 352 II.

State of Arabia at the Coming of Mohammed 355 III. The Preaching of Mohammed 357 IV. Early Progress of the Saracens 36 1 Chapter III. — Restoration of the Western Empire. Sect. I. The Life of Charlemagne 369 II. Decline and Fall of the Carlovingian Dynasty 375 III. The Foundation of the Germanic Empire 382 IV. State of the East from the Establishment to the Overthrow of the Khaliphate 387 Chapter IV. — Growth of the Papal Power. Sect. I. The Origin of the Papacy 390 II. The early Development of the Political System of the Papacy 394 III. The Struggle for Supremacy between the Popes and Emperors 398 IT. Revival of the Papal Power 401 V. Pontificate of Gregory VII 406 VI. The War of Investitures 412 VII. The Crusades 416 VIII. The Crusade against the Albigenses 421 IX. Consequences of the Crusades • 427 X. Formation and Constitutional History of the Spanish Monarchy 430 XI.

Survey of the Constitution of Aragon 434 XII. State of Western Europe at the Commencement of the Fourteenth Century 437 XIII. Pontificate of Boniface VIII 442 XIV. State of England and the Northern Kingdoms at the Commencement of the Fourteenth Century • • • . .448 XV. Revolutions in the East in Consequence of the Mongolian Invasion .. .45C TABLE OF CONTENTS. . Chapter V.—The Revival of Literature.— The Progress of Civilization and Invention. FAQS Sect. I. Decline os the Papal Power.— The Great Schism of the West 453 II. First Revival of Literature, and Inventions in Science 469 III. Progress of Commerce 472 IV. Revolutions of Germany, France, and Spain 479 V. The State of England and the Northern Kingdoms in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 483 VI. Rise and Progress of the Ottoman Empire 486 Chapter VI. — The Reformation, and Commencement of the States- System in Europe.

Sect. I. Progress of Maritime Discovery 490 II. Origin of the Reformation 495 III. History of the Negotiations and Wars respecting Italy 500 IV. The History of Burgundy under the Princes of the House of Valois. . .502 V. The History of Burgundy (continued) 505 VI. The History of Burgundy (concluded) 507 VII. The Age of Charles V 512 VIII. The Age of Elizabeth 524 IX. The Age of Gustavus Adolphus 536 X. Administration of the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarine 540 XI. Formation of the States-System in the Northern Kingdoms of Europe. .546 XU. Progress of the Turkish Power in Europe 549 Chapter VII. — The Augustan Ages of England and France. Sect. I. State of the Continental Kingdoms after the Peace of Westphalia 553 II. History of England under the Commonwealth 556 III. History of England, from the Restoration to the Revolution ; and Rise of the Power of Louis XIV 564 IV.

General History of Europe, from the League of Augsburg to the Formation of the Grand Alliance 578 V. The War of the Spanish Succession 583 VI. Peter the Great of Russia.— Charles XII. of Sweden 590 Chapter VIII. — Growth of the Mercantile aud Colonial System. Sect. I. Establishment of the Hanoverian Succession in England 599 II. The Colonial Struggle between France and Great Britain 609 HI. The Seven Years' War 613 Chapter IX. — The Age of Revolutions. Sect. I. Change in the Relations of the Catholic Powers to the Holy See. — Dismemberment of Poland 626 n. History of England, from the Peace of Paris to the Commencement of the American War 630 III. The American War , 634 IV. The British Empire in India 637 V. History of Europe, from the End of the American War to the Commencement of the French Revolution 639 VI.

The French Revolution 642 Chapter X. — The French Empire. Sect. I. Renewal of the War between England and France 655 II. Progress of Napoleon's Power 659 III. The French Invasion of Spain 663 IV. The Russian War 673 V. History of Europe, from the Dethronement of Napoleon to the Conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna Chapter XI. — History of the Peace. PAOB. Sect. I. State of Europe at the Close os the War 682 II. History of Europe during the Reign of George IV 684 HI. History of Europe during the Reign of William IY 692 Chapter Xn. — History of Colonization. Sect. I. The Establishment of the Spaniards in Mexico 706 II. The Establishment of the Spaniards in Peru 716 IH. The Portuguese Colonies in South America 719 IV. The English in America 725 V. Colonization of the West Indies 726 VI. The Portuguese in India 728 VII.

The Spaniards in the East Indies 730 VIII. The Dutch in the East Indies 730 LX. The Danes in the East Indies 732 X. The French in the East Indies 732 XI. The English in India 733 Chapter XDX — History of China 742 Chapter XIY. — History of the Jews 747 Chapter XV. — History of the United States. Sect. I. Colonial History 752 H. Revolutionary History 759 III. Constitutional History 767 Tables of Contemporary Dynasties 786 Genealogical Table of the Bourbons 796 Genealogical Table of the Royal Family of England .797 THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.

Chapter I. Egypt

Section 1. — Geographical Outline. Egypt is the country in which we first find a government and political institutions established. Civilization everywhere seems to have commenced in the formation of agricultural associations, on the banks of rivers ; and the Nile invites men to tillage more forcibly than any other. Egypt itself has been called, from the earliest antiquity, " the Gift of the Nile," and its annual inundations have had a vast influence over the lives and customs, the religion and science, indeed, the entire social existence of the people. It appears that civilization advanced northward along the valley of the river : and we shall therefore commence our examination of the land, at the southern frontier of Egypt. The Nile enters Egypt near the city of Syene, below the cataracts, and flows through a narrow valley, about nine miles in breadth, to Chem'mis, where the valley begins to widen.

At Cercasorus, sixty miles from its mouth, the stream divides, and encloses a triangular piece of country, called the Delta. The narrow valley from Syene to Chem'mis was called Upper Egypt ; the wider valley, Middle Egypt ; and the Delta, Lower Egypt. Rain seldom falls in Lower Egypt, almost never in the upper regions : the fertility of the country, therefore, depends on the annual overflowings of the river. These inundations are faused by the heavy rains, that fall in Upper Ethiopia, from May to September. The rivers of that country pour their waters into the Nile, which begins to rise about the middle of June. Early in August, the river overflows its banks, giving the valley of the Nile the appearance of an inland sea. Toward the beginning of October, the waters begin to subside, and, by the end of the month, are confined to the proper channel of the river.

The fertility of Egypt extends as far as this inundation reaches, 01 can be continued by artificial means. The eastern side of the valley of the Nile is a mountainous range of country, extending to the Red sea, suited, in some districts, for pas turage, but unfit for agriculture ; abounding, however, in those rich quarries of marble and building stone, that formed the inexhaustible magazines for the architectural wonders of Egypt. On the western side of the Nile, the valley is bounded by a stony ridge covered with sand, which slopes on its remote side, into the Great Desert. This ridge protects the valley from the sands of the desert, which would otherwise desolate the whole country. Upper Egypt contains far the most numerous and interesting monu ments. Near the cataracts, are the islands of Philæ and Elephantine containing the proudest edifices of antiquity ; lower down, the city ol Apollo ; then Thebes, filling the whole valley on both sides of the Nile with enormous temples, more like mountains than human edifices colossal statues, sphinxes, and obelisks, with the Catacombs, in the mountains on the western bank of the river ; and lastly, Dendera, with the celebrated Zodiac sculptured on its mighty temple.

Middle Egypt is a wider valley. It contains the lake Moeris, ar immense reservoir, partly natural, partly artificial, and affording sucl: facilities for regulating the irrigation of the country, that this was the most fertile district of Egypt. The labyrinth, so renowned in antiquity was near Arsinoe. Below Arsin'oe was Memphis, the capital of Middle Egypt. This was the city of the Pharaohs who received the family of Israel. There are now but slight remains of its temples and palaces : the neighboring mountains are, however, filled with catacombs similar to those of Upper Egypt. But the most remarkable monuments of this district are the Pyramids. Lower Egypt, or the Delta, possesses, from the extension of the river, a greater quantity of fertile land than the other districts. It was covered with flourishing cities, as Sa'is, Naucratis, and Alexandria, which last, situated on the western frontier of the Lybian desert, still retains the name, and proves by its extensive trade the wisdom of its great founder.

The more civilized portion of the Egyptians dwelt in the rich plains of the valley, and attained a perfection in the arts of social Use, that but for the irresistible evidence of the monuments, would scarcely be credited. It was the great object of the sacerdotal and royal policy, to keep this population stationary, to direct their attention to agricul ture, commerce, and manufactures, and to prevent them from adopting the nomad life of the pastoral and plundering tribes on their north eastern frontiers : and hence we find it recorded, that " every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians." Section II. — Political and Social Condition of the Egyptians. It appears that the Egyptians were a brown race of people, and that the higher castes of priests and warriors were fairer than the other classes.