A manual of ancient and modern history

Front matter

MANUAL

ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY;

COMPRISING

Preface

In bringing out an American edition of this work, the publishers were desirous not only to furnish a valuable work for general readers, but also to make it in point of size and price as well adapted to the wants of public instruction as they believed it to be in intrinsic merit. In complying with their request to revise the work with this view, the present editor has made a few slight curtailments — principally in the first part of the volume of Ancient History — which could be made without suppressing or in any way distorting or impairing any material fact or statement.

In the English edition, all that is to be found relating to the history of the United States amounts to two or three pages, interspersed in the history of England. In the place of these meager notices, the present editor has appended to the volume of Modern History a distinct and special chapter, giving to the history of the United States its proportionate place in general history, and to which it is certainly entitled in a work designed for public instruction in this country. He trusts that this sketch will be found to contain a fair and clear view of the leading events of our history.

In the preface to the third American edition of Guizot's History of European Civilization, the present editor took occasion to offer some remarks upon the study of history as a part of the course of studies pursued in our higher institutions : in which he attempted to answer the extremely difficult question, " How best to employ the very limited time allotted to history in the usual course of public instruction ?" On the one hand, it is obvious that a thorough knowledge of history (which it is the work of years to gain) can never be acquired in the time allowed ;

IV PREFACE.

and on the other hand, it is far more difficult to make a successful beginning, to lay a good foundation in history, than in the other studies included in the usual public coujrse. This it is which makes the most useful employment of the little time allowed so perplexing a problem.

The conclusion to which the editor arrived was, that in the impossibility of communicating a thorough knowledge of history in this time, thus much should be attempted : 1. The study of some judicious work of general history ; 2. The study of some good specimen of the philosophy of history, as it is called, or the method of generalizing and reflecting upon the facts of history ; and 3. The thorough investigation of some small portion of special history. The editor recommended the work of Guizot, referred to above, as a good specimen of philosophical reflection upon kSstory ; and he knows no work on general history better adapted to the purpose of public instruction than the present.

C. S. H.

New YoAk, December 11, 1844.

Introduction

The use of history is not to load the memory with facts, but to store the mind with principles — to collect from the experience of past ages rules for our conduct as individuals and as members of society. Every historical work, therefore, professes to give only a selection of events ; and the writer's choice is determined by the nature of his history : the general historian directs attention to the occurrences that have changed the general aspect of society, the revolutions of states and empires, the causes that led to them, and the consequences by which they were followed. The special historian confines his attention to one class of facts, specified in the title of his work-: thus the ecclesiastical historian writes only of the affairs of the church ; the military historian confines his narrative to wars and battles ; and the commercial historian devotes his attention exclusively to trade.

But even general histories may, in some degree, be regarded as special ; their object may be called " political," that is, they profess to describe the destinies of nations, both in their external relations with foreign states, and in their internal affairs. Under the first head are comprised wars, treaties of peace or alliance, and commercial intercourse ; under the second, governments, institutions, and manners. Such a history must, to a certain extent, be a history of civilization ; for it will describe the progress of social improvement, and the progress of the human mind. These essential parts of civilization must not be confounded ; for we shall have more than once occasion to remark, that the social system, or, in other words, the relations between the different parts of society, may display great wisdom and justice, while men, in their individual capacity, continue the slaves of ignorance and superstition.

A distinction is usually made between the narrative and the philoso-

▼1 INTRODUCTION.

phy of history : in the former are included the actions of kings and rulers, the accounts of wars and treaties, the rise and fall of empires ; in the latter are comprehended descriptions of the political and religious institutions, the organization of society, the amount of knowledge, the state of industiy and the arts, the morals, the habits, and the prevailing prejudices in any age or nation ; and the facts thus ascertained by philosophy, are shown to be the causes of the events detailed in the narrative. It is possible to go back a step further, and to trace the origin of these institutions and manners in the succession of opinions, and gradual development of the human intellect. But unassisted reason can go no further ; the law fixed by Providence for the succession of opinions and development of mind, can only be known to its omniscient Author, but that such a law exists, is proved to us by the fulfilment of prophecy, by the frequent instances of unconscious agents working out the great designs of God.

It is proposed in the following pages to unite the philosophy with the narrative of history, to combine events with their causes, and direct occasionally the attention of the student to the progress of civilization, both in its effect on society and on individuals. Sacred history — the account of the direct operations of the Divine agency on his chosen servants and chosen people — is necessarily excluded from a political history ; but the general course of Providence displayed in the moral . government of his creatures is an essential element of our plan : it is, in fact, the principle of unity that binds together its several parts.

The necessary companions of history are chronology and geography ; they determine the time when, and the place where, each event oc- "curred. The difficulties of chronology arise both from the imperfection of records, and from varieties in the mode of computation : the former can not be remedied ; but, to prevent the mistakes which rnay arise from this 'cause, uncertain dates have been marked with an asterisk: the sedbnd source of confusion is removed by using throughout solar years for a measure of time, and the birth of Christ as an era from which to reckon.

Instead of constructing a general system of ancient geography, it has seemed better to prefix a geographical outline of the history of each separate country, and to combine with it some account of the nature of the soil, and its most remarkable animal and vegetable productions. There is no doubt that the position, climate, and fertility of a country, have a powerful influence over the character, condition, and destiny of its inhabitants, and ought not to be omitted in the consideration of their history.

INtaODUCTION. ^'toi

Tiie arrangement of this work is both chronological and geographical ; the history of each country is given separately, but the states are arranged in the order of their attaining a commanding influence in the world. To this there are two exceptions — Egypt, which is placed 'first, on' accbunt of its being the earliest organized government of which we have any authentic record ; and India, which is placed last, because it exercised no marked influence over the most remarkable nations of ancient times.

The history of Greece in this volume has a less orderly appearance than in most similar works, because it contains not merely the histories of Athens and Sparta, to which most writers confine their attention, but also those of the minor states, the islands and the colonies. A chapter has been added on the colonial policy of the Greeks — a subject of great importance in itself, and peculiarly interesting to a commercial country.

To the Roman history there is prefixed a brief account of the ancient inhabitants of Italy before the era usually assigned for the foundation of Rome. In the earlier period of the republic, notice is taken of the reasonable doubts that have been raised respecting the authenticity of the common narrative ; but care has been taken to avoid an excess of skepticism, which is at least as bad as an excess of credulity.

In the chapter on India, attention has been directed to the ancient routes of trade between that country and eastern Europe : many of these subsist to the present day ; projects have been formed for reopening others ; some account of them consequently appears . necessary, for illustrating both ancient commerce and modern policy.

In a general summary, restricted within narrow limits, it is scarcely possible to avoid dryness of details ; notes have therefore been added, consisting for the most part of illustrations and anecdotes, that may serve both to relieve the mind, and to place important traits of character, national and individual, in a clearer light.

It has been deemed advisable to take some notice of the mythology, as well as the real history, of nations ; for though mythic traditions may in many or in most instances have had no foundation, yet they should not be wholly neglected by the historian, for they had a share in forming, and they help to illustrate, the character of the nation by which they were once believed. At the same time, care has been taken to separate these traditions from the authenticated narrative, and to discriminate between those that have, and those that have not, some probable foundation in fact.

VUl INTEODUCTION.

Political reflections and moral inferences from the narrative have, in general, been avoided : the instructive lessons of history are, for the most part, found on the surface, and may best be collected by the students themselves. It is not quite fair to prejudge questions for the mind ; the chief business of those who write for the young should be to make them think, not to think for them.

The author has to acknowledge his great obligations to the works of Professor Heeren, whose volumes on the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of Ancient Nations, should form part of every historical library; he has also borrowed very copiously from the valuable essays that have appeared in the Memoirs of the French Academy of Inscriptions ; his particular obligations in the several chapters need not be specified, most of them being mentioned in the notes.

The design of this introduction is merely to explain the plan of the work ; some few suggestions, however, may be added on the mode of using it. Students should compare the geographical chapters with maps, and fix in their minds the most characteristic natural features of the country whose history they are about to commence. One division should be thoroughly mastered before another is begun ; and when the whole is gone through, it will be found a most useful exercise to synchronize the events in the history of one country with the events in the history of another ; for instance, to trace the condition of the Roman republic at the time of the battle of Arbela.

Table Of Contents

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Chapter I. — Egypt. PAGE

II. Political and Social Condition of the Egyptians 2

ni. History of Egypt from the earliest Period to the Accession of Psam-

metichus 5

rV. History of Egypt from the Reign of Psammetichus to its subjugation

by Cambyses - 9

V. Egyptian Manufactures and Commerce 11

Chapter II. — The Ethiopians

Sect. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History 13

II. History of the Ethiopians .• 14

III. Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures of Meroe 15

Chapter III. — Babylonia and .Assyria

Sect. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History 17

II. Political and Social Condition of the Assyrians and Babylonians 18

III. History of the Assyrians and Babylonians 19

rV. Description of Nineveh and Babylon 23

V. Commerce and Manufactures of the Babylonians 25

Chapter IV. — Western ^sia

Sect. I. Asia Minor. — Geographical Outline 27

II. Ancient History of Asia Minor 28

III. Syria. — Geographical Outline 29

rV. Social and Political Condition of the Syrians and Phoenicians 30

V. History of the Syrians and Phoenicians 31

VI. Phoenician Colonies and Foreign Possessions , . . .32

VII. Phoenician Manufactures and Commerce 33

Chapter V. — Palestine

II. History of Palestine 36

III. The Conquest of Canaan by Joshua 39

rV. History of Israel under the Judges > 40

X TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PASE,

Sect. V. History of the United Kingdom of Israel 42

VI. The Revolt of the Ten Tribes.— The Kingdom of Israel 47

VII. The Kingdom of Judah 51

Chapter VI. — The Empire of the Medes and Persians

II. Sources and Extent of our Knowledge respecting the Ancient

Persians 59

III. Social and Political Condition of Ancient Persia 60

IV. History of the Medes and Persians under the Kaianian Dynasty 62

V. History of the Persians under the Hytaspid Dynasty 64

Chapter VII. — Phcenician Colonies in Northern Africa

Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Northern Africa 68

II. Social and Polilical Condition of Carthage 69

HI. History of Carthage from the Foundation of the City to the Commencement of the Syracusan Wars 70

IV. History of Carthage during the Sicilian Wars 73

V. From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of

VI. Navigation, Trade, and Commerce of Carthage 79

Chapter VIII. — The Foundation of the Grecian States

Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Hellas 81

II. Geographical Outline of the Peloponnesus 83

III. The Grecian Islands in the iEgean and Mediterranean Seas 85

IV. The Ionian Islands 85

V. The Social and Political Condition of Greece 86

VI. Traditional History of Greece from the earliest Ages to the Commencement of the Trojan War 89

VII. From the Trojan War to the Colonization of Asia Minor 92

Chapter IX. — History of the Grecian States and Colonies before the Persian War

Sect. I. Topography of Sparta 95

II. Legislation of Lycurgus, and the Messenian Wars 95

III. Topography of Athens 97

IV. History of Athens to the Beginning of the Persian War .99

V. Historical Notices of the Minor States of Greece previous to the

Persian War 102

VI. History of the principal Grecian Islands 103

VII. History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor 104

Vln. History of the Greek Colonies on the Euxine Sea, Coast of Thrace,

Macedon, &c 106

Chapter 'K.— History of Greece from the Persian Wars to the Accession of Alexander the Great.

Sect. I. The First Persian "War 108

n. The Second Persian War 110

in. The First Peloponnesian War 113

IV. The Second Peloponnesian War 118

V. Tyrannical Rule of Sparta. — Third Peloponnesian War 121

VI. The Second Sacred War. — Destruction of Grecian Freedom 128

Chapter XI. — The Macedonian Kingdom and Empire

Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Macedon. 131

n. History of the Macedonian Monarchy 132

ITT , Dissolution of the Macedonian Empire 138

TABLE or CONTENTS. XI

• Chapter Xll.— History of the States %at arose from the Dismemberment" of the Macedonian Empire.

PAGE.

Sect. I. History of Macedon and Greece from the Battle of Ipsus to the

Roman Conquest . • •. J45

II. History of the Kingdom of Syria under the Seleucidse. ..i 153

III. History of Esypt under the Ptolemies 158

IV. History *f the Minor Kingdoms in Western Asia 162

V. History of Bactria and Parthia • 166

VI. History of Idumea, and its Capital Petra loo

VII. History of the Jews from their Return out of the Babylonish Captivity to the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 171

Chapter XIH. — History of Ancient Italy.

II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Italy 187

in. The Greek Colonies in Italy 190

Chapter XIV.— History of Sicily.

II. Historical Notices of the eafly Inhabitants of bicily 1^0

III. The History of Syracuse 19'

Chapter XV. — History of the Roman Republic.

Sect. I. Traditions respecting the Origin of the Romans 200

II. From the Foundation of Rome to the Abolition of Royalty 201

III. From the Establishment of the Roman Republic to the Burning of

the City by the Gauls 206

IV. From the Rebuilding of the City to the First Punic War 215

V. From the Commencement of the Punic Wars to the Beginning of the

Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi 218

VI. From the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi to

the Downfall of the Republic 228

VII. The Establishment of the Roman Empire 237

Chapter XVI.— Geographical and Political Condition of the Roman Empire.

Sect. I. European Countries. — Spain 243

n. Transalpine Gaul 243

HI. Britain f*

IV. Northern Provinces of the Empire ^4&

V. Asiatic and African Provinces • 247

VI. The Principal Nations on the Frontiers of the Empire 248

VII. Topography of the City of Rome. . , 251

Chapter XVU.— History of the Roman Empire.

Sect. I. The Reigns of the Family of the Caesars.. . i • 256

II. From the Extinction of the Julian to that of the first Flavian

Family • 265

nl. From the Extinction of the first Flavian Family to the last of the

Antonines • ^''■

rV. Foreign Commerce of the Romans in the Age of the Antonines • • • • 2' 8

V. From the Extinction of the Antonines to the Establishment of

Military Despotism •. "80

VI. From the Murder of Alexander Severus to the Captivity of Valerian

and the Usurpation of the Thirty Tyrants 285

Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Sect. VII. From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resignation of Dioclesian. . .289 VIII. From the Resignation of Dioclesian to the Death of Constantine

tlie Great 295

IX. From the Death of Constantine to the Reunion of the Empire

under Theodosius the Great 301

X. Overthrow of the Western Empire 312

Chapter XVin. — India. • Early History 318

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter I. — Consequences of the Fall of the Western Empire. FAOE

Sect. I. The Gothic Kingdom of Italy 327

II. The Reign of Justinian 329

III. The Establishment of the Civil Law 334

IV. History of the Silk Trade. — Introduction of the Silkworm into

Europe 337

V. The Monarchy of the Franks, under the Merovingian Dynasty 341

VI. The Lombard Monarchy 346

VII. The Anglo-Saxons , 349

Chapter II. — The Rise and Establishment of the Saracenic Power

Sect. I. Political and Social Condition of the East at the Coming of Mohammed . 352

II. State of Arabia at the Coming of Mohammed 355

ni. The Preaching of Mohammed 357

IV. Early Progress of the Saracens 361

Chapter III. — Restoration of the Western Empire

Sect. I. The Life of Charlemagne .- 369

II. Decline and Fall of the Carlovingian Dynasty 375

III. The Foundation of the Germanic Empire. 382

IV. State of the East from the Establishment to the Overthrow of the

Khaliphate 387

Chapter IV. — Growth of the Fapal .Power

Sect. I. The Origin of the Papacy 390

n. The early Development of the Political System of the Papacy 394

III. The Struggle for Supremacy between the Popes and Emperors 398

rV. Revival of the Papal Power 401

v. Pontificate of Gregory VII 406

VI. The War of Investitures 412

Vn. The Crusades 416

VIII. The Crusade against the Albigenses 421

IX. Consequences of the Crusades 427

X. Formation and Constitutional History of the Spanish Monarchy 430

XI. Survey of the Constitution of Aragon 434

XII. State of Western Europe at the Commencement of the Fourteenth

Xm. Pontificate of Boniface VIII 442

XrV. State of England and the Northern Kingdoms at the Commence-

ment of the Fourteenth Century • • • • •448

XV. Revolutions in the East in Consequence of the Mongolian Invasion... 450

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter V. — The Revival of Literature. — The Progress of Civilizatio)i and Invention. FAOG

Sect. I. Decline of the Papal Power. — The Great Schism of the West 453

II. First Revival of Literature, and Inventions in Science 469

III. Progress of Commerce 472

IV. Revolutions of Germany, France, and Spain 479

V. The State of England and the Northern Kingdoms in the Fourteenth

and Fifteenth Centuries 483

VI. Rise and Progress of the Ottomaa Empire 486

Chapter VI. — The Reformation, and Commencement of the States- System in Europe

Sect. I. Progress of Maritime Discovery 490

II. Origin of the Reformation 495

III. History of the Negotiations and Wars respecting Italy 500

IV. The History of Burgundy under the Princes of the House of Valois. . .502

V. The History of Burgundy (continued) 505

VI. The History of Burgundy (concluded) 507

VII. The Age of Charles V 512

VIU. The Age of Elizabeth 524

IX. The Age of Gustavus Adolphus 536

X. Administration of the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarine 540

XI.. Formation of the States-System in the Northern Kingdoms of Europe. .546

XII. Progress of the Turkish Power in Europe 549

Chapter VII. — The Augustan Ages of England and France

Sect. I. State of the Continental Kingdoms after the Peace of Westphalia 553

II. History of England under the Commonwealth 556

III. History of England, from the Restoration to the Revolution ; and

Rise of the Power of Louis XIV 564

IV. General History of Europe, from the League of Augsburg to the

Formation of the Grand Alliance 578

V. The War of the Spanish Succession 583

VI. Peter the Great of Russia.— Charles XII. of Sweden 590

Chapter VIII. — Growth of the Mercantile aud Colonial System

Sect. L' Establishment of the Hanoverian Succession in England 599

n. The Colonial Struggle between France and Great Britain 609

m. The Seven Years' War 613

Chapter IX. — The Age of Revolutions

Sect. I. Change in the Relations of the Catholic Powers to the Holy See. —

Dismemberment of Poland 626

n. History of England, from the Peace of Paris to the Commencement

of the American War 630

m. The American War 634

rV. The British Empire in India 637

V. History of Europe, from the End of the American War to the Com-

mencement of the French Revolution. ► 639

VI. The French Revolution 642

Chapter X. — The French Empire

Sect. I. Renewal of the War between England and France • 655

II. Progress of Napoleon's Power 659

m. The French Invasion of Spain .* 663

rV. The Russian War , . .673

V,. History of Europe, from the Dethronement of Napoleon to the Ui . . . ,; Conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna. 678

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV

Chapter XI. — History of the Peace. PAGE

Sect. I. State of Europe at the Close of the War 682

II. History of Europe during the Reign of George IV 684

III. History of Europe during the Reign of William IV 692

Chapter XII. — History of Colonization

Sect. I. The Establishment of the Spaniards in Mexico 706

II. The Establishment of the Spaniards in Peru 716

ni. The Portuguese Colonies in South America 719

IV. Tbe English in America 725

V. Colonization of the West Indies 726

VI. The Portuguese in India 728

VII. The Spaniards in the East Indies 730

VIII. The Dutch in the East Indies , 730

IX. The Danes in the East Indies 732

X. The French in the East Indies .- 732

XI. The English in India 733

Section 1. — Geographical Outline

Egypt is tlie country in which we first find a government and political institutions established. Civilization everywhere seems to have commenced in the formation of agricultural associations, on the banks of rivers ; and the Nile invites men to tillage more forcibly than any other. Egypt itself has been called, from the earliest antiquity, " the Gift of the Nile," and its annual inundations have had a vast influence over the lives and customs, the religion and science, indeed, the entire social existence of the people. It appears that civilization advanced northward along the valley of the river : and we shall therefore commence our examination of the land, at the southern frontier of Egypt.

The Nile enters Egypt near the city of Syene, below the cataracts, and flows through a narrow valley, about nine miles in breadth, to Chem'mis, where the valley begins to widen. At Cercasorus, sixty miles from its mouth, the stream divides, and encloses a triangular piece of country, called the Delta. The narrow valley from Syene to Chem'mis was called Upper Egypt ; the wider valley. Middle Egypt ; and the Delta, Lower Egypt.

Rain seldom falls in Lower Egypt, almost never in the upper regions : the fertility of the country, therefore, depends on the annual overflowings of the river. These inundations are caused by the heavy rains, that fall in Upper Ethiopia, from May to September. The rivers of that country pour their waters into the Nile, which begins to rise about the middle of June. Early in August, the river overflows its banks, giving the vaEey of the Nile the appearance of an inland sea. Toward the beginning of October, the waters begin to subside, and, by the end of the month, are confined to the proper channel of the river. The fertility of Egypt extends as far as this inundation reaches, oi can be continued by artificial means.

The eastern side of the valley of the Nile is a mountainous range of country, extending to the Red sea, suited, in some districts, for pasturage, but unfit for agriculture ; abounding, however, in those rich quarries of marble and building stone, that formed the inexhaustible magazines for the architectural wonders of Egypt.

On the western side of the Nile, the valley is bounded by a stony ridge covered with sand, which slopes on its remote side, into the Great Desert. This ridge protects the valley from the sands of the desert, which would otherwise desolate the whole country.

Upper Egypt contains far the most numerous and interesting monuments. Near the cataracts, are the islands of Philse and Elephantine, containing the proudest edifices of antiquity ; lower down, the city of Apollo ; then Thebes, filling" the whole valley on both sides of the Nile with enormous temples, more like mountains than human edifices, colossal statues, sphinxes, and obelisks, with the Catacombs, in the mountains on the western bank of the river ; and lastly, Dendera, with the celebrated Zodiac sculptured on its mighty temple.

Middle Egypt is a wider valley. It contains the lake Moeris, an immense reservoir, partly natural, partly artificial, and affording such facilities for regulating the irrigation of the country, that this was the most fertile district of Egypt. The labyrinth, so renowned in antiquity, was near Arsinoe. Below Arsinoe was Memphis, the capital of Middle Egypt. This was the city of the Pharaohs who received the family of Israel. There are now but slight remains of its temples and palaces : the neighboring mountains are, however, filled with catacombs similar to those of Upper Egypt. But the most remarkable monuments of tliis district are the Pyramids.

Lower Egypt, or the Delta, possesses, from the extension of the river, a greater quantity of fertile land than the other districts. It was covered with flourishing cities, as Sais, Naucratis, and Alexandria, which last, situated on the western frontier of the Lybian desert, still retains the naine, and proves by its extensive trade the wisdom of its great founder.

The more civilized portion of the Egyptians dwelt in the rich plains of the valley, and attained a perfection in the arts of social life, that but for the irresistible evidence of the monuments, would scarcely be credited. It was the great object of the sacerdotal and royal policy, to keep this population stationary, to direct their attention to agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, and to prevent them from adopting the nomad life of the pastoral and plundering tribes on their northeastern frontiers : and hence we find it recorded, that " every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians."

Section II. — Polillcal and Social Condilion of the Egyptians

It appears that the Egyptians were a brown race of people, and that the higher castes of priests and warriors were fairer than the other classes. It has been conjectured that the Egyptians derived their system of civilization from the Hindus : but it is difficult to conceive how this could be.

Local circumstances produced marked differences in the habits and manners of the people. In the mountainous eastern districts and in the fens of the Delta, where agriculture was impossible, the inhabitants led a pastoral life. On the Nile and along the coast, were tribes of fishermen. In the rich plains, dwelt the more civilized part of the nation. The institution of castes existed among them. The priests and warriors were the most honored ; next, the agriculturists, merchants, mariners, and artisans ; the lowest caste was that of shepherds.

The migrations of the priestly caste from their native regions in the south, were not simultaneous ; they formed settlements at different times, in the most fertile portions of the valley. The central point of the colony was always a temple, round which cities were gradually formed. These settlements afterward led to the division of the country into names, a name given by the Egyptians to a city, its environs and dependant villages. There was a religious (as originally a political) distinction between these nomes : each city had its own presiding deity, and the animals regarded as sacred in one nome were not respected in another. The history of these petty states is unknown ; but they were finally absorbed in the dominion of Thebes and Memphis.

The nations bordering on the Egyptians were, for the most part, barbarous and wandering tribes, whose avarice was roused by the increasing opulence of the valley of the Nile. The Hyk''sos, or shepherd-kings, as they were called, came from Arabia, and, after many predatory incursions, made themselves masters of Lower and Middle Egypt.

Egypt became united under one sovereign, after the expulsion of the Hyk''sos : and the divisions of the people into castes, and of the country into nomes, were permanently fixed. The priestly caste was subdivided into families, each devoted and restricted to a separate temple and a particular God. Over each of these sacerdotal subdivisions a high-priest presided, whose office was hereditary ; and the high-priests of metropolitan temples enjoyed authority almost equal to that of kings. And their influence was greatly strengthened by their monopoly of every branch of scientific loiowledge. They were not only priests, but also judges, soothsayers, physicians, architects, and sculptors.