A View of the elementary principles of Education, founded on the study of the nature of man

Front matter

VIEW 01 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. WORKS PUBLISHED BY THE SAME AUTHOR, IN ENGLISH. 1.— The ANATOMY of the BRAIN. 2.— PHRENOLOGY, or the DOCTRINE of the MENTAL OPERATIONS. 3.— PHILOSOPHICAL PRINCIPLES of PHRENOLOGY. 4.— OUTLINES of PHRENOLOGY. 5.— OBSERVATIONS on INSANITY. 6.— EXAMINATION of the OBJECTIONS made, in Great Britain, against PHRENOLOGY. 7.— PHRENOLOGY, in Connection with the Study of PHYSIOGNOMY. Part I. CHARACTERS, with 34 Plates. 8.— A SKETCH of the NATURAL LAWS of MAN. A. VIEW OF THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 01 EDUCATION, FOUNDED ON THE STUDY OF THE NATURE OF MAN. r.v G. SPURZHEIM, M.D. OF THE UNIVERSITIES* OF VIENNA AND PARIS, AND LICENTIATE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON. SECOND EDITION, IMPROVED AND ENLARGED. LONDON : PUBLISHED BY TREUTTEL, WURTZ, AND RICHTER, 30, SOHO SQUARE. M.DCCC.XXVI1I. BAGSTER AND TIIOMS, PRINTERS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE, LONDON.

Preface

. The most important point in Anthropo logy or the study of Man, is to acquire a knowledge of his Nature ; and the next, to discover the mode in which his physical and mental constitution may be most ad vantageously improved. Men of eminent talents have considered the principles of education worthy of their attention ; and many works have been already published on this subject. It may therefore be asked, Why should another be presented? Be cause education is still conducted in a manner very different from that in which it ought to be. Mankind has improved PHEFACE. VI less than we could wish. " There are many books," says Helvetius, " many schools, but few persons of understanding ; there are many maxims, but they are seldom applied ; man is old, but still a child." New elucidations of this subject, therefore, are still wanting ; and I hope I shall be able to suggest some new ideas upon it.

As, however, many ancient and modern philosophers have examined this subject, several of my ideas may be found in other writings ; but nowhere are they reduced to the principles which I have adopted, and arranged in the same order. I hope also to succeed in pointing out some new objects, interesting in them selves, and leading to important results. This, no doubt, will produce opposition. I am also aware of the active influence of prejudice, — of old habits and selfish pas-

PREFACE.

. VII sions ; but nothing shall deter me from communicating what appears to me to be founded on the immutable laws of the Creator. His authority is the only one I acknowledge in natural history. Truth is independent of time ; it must prevail, though it excite the hatred of the ignorant, the weak, and the jealous. The reader is requested to bear in mind, that the language in which this treatise is composed, is to the Author a foreign one. A person so situate, is not always a com petent judge of the nicer shades of meaning attaching to the expressions which he employs ; and from this circumstance, to gether with the difficulty of commanding words to convey his ideas properly, he is liable to be betrayed into a tone of abrupt and apparently authoritative writing, quite foreign to his wish and intention.

To PHEFACE. VIII these causes the reader is requested to im pute any thing in the manner of the following pages, which may appear not suited to the circumstances or the subject. G. SPURZHEIM. 8, Gower Street, London. CONTENTS. CONTENTS. Page General View ....... 1 Definition of Education .... .ib. Perfectibility of man ...... 2 Improvement of mankind in arts and sciences . 4 In religion and morality ..... 6 Causes of the want of success in education . . 14 Singleness of the human species . .. . 20 Utility of instruction ...... 35 Division of education .... .38

Section I. Conditions Of Excitement

. 40 Chap. I. On the laws of hereditary descent . 41 Chap. II. On the laws of the vegetative FUNCTIONS ..... 59 Duration of life .... . . 63 Period I. From birth to two years, or infancy . 69 Temperature ..... .ib. Food 71 Air .75 b CONTENTS. X Page Light 77 Cleanliness . Sleep, watching, rest, and bodily exercise . . 79 Period II. From two to seven years, or childhood 81 Chap. III. On the laws of exercise . . 91 Habit • • 92 Meaning of the word exercise .... 96 Education of intellectual faculties . . .99 of feelings . . • • • 102 School-education, Greek and Latin . . . 112 Means of exercising the faculties . . . 119 Order of instruction . . . . . 121 Different success of exercise . . . . 129 Mutual instruction . . . . . 131 Exercise increases the organs . . . . 137 Chap. IV. Mutual influence of the faculties AS MEANS OF EXCITEMENT . . 139 Mnemonics 141

Section II. On The Direction Of The Faculties

... 146 Chap. I. Importance of morality . . 147 Happiness founded more on morality than on intellect 150 Chap. II. Each faculty tends to action . 155 Regulation of the mode in which gratification should be sought 158 Proper employment of the faculties . . CONTENTS. XI Page Little effect of precepts . . . . 167 Faculties which assist each other . . . 169 Patronage considered as a means of exciting talents 171 Selfishness a means of excitement . . . 174 Regulation of feelings, — religious, — sexual . 177 Objects of education . . . . . 182 Chap. III. Motives to action . . . 186 Superior faculties furnish the aim of our actions . 187 Different motives may produce the same action . 189 Chap. IV. Differences of natural endowment 194 Class I. Where the superior faculties predominate ib. Class II.

Where one or several inferior, and one or several superior are very active . . ib. Class III. Where certain of the inferior faculties are strong, and all the superior weak . . ib. Class IV. Where all the faculties are middling . ib. Education to be varied with different individuals . 197 Individuals should be placed in situations for which they are naturally fitted . . . . 199 Intellectual education . . . ... 201 Professional education .... . 206 Chap. V. Education of the sexes . . 216 Condition of women .... . ib. Is there a natural difference in the mental powers of the sexes'? ...... 218 Certain feelings stronger in women than in men . 221 Certain intellectual powers stronger in men than in women . 226 Chap. VI. Education of nations . . . CONTENTS. XII Page Chap. VII. On public and on private education 269 Conclusion ...... .271

Appendix

. On the correction and reform of malefactors 273 Definition of legislation 274 Aim of legislation ..... . 277 Means of preventing crime .... 278 Means of correcting malefactors . . . 286 Treatment of incorrigible offenders . . . 295 On illegal actions without guilt . . 300 1. Illegal actions of idiots . . . . 301 II. Illegal actions of madmen . . . 305 On illegal actions which admit of extenuating motives ...... 306 Strong mental affections ... . 309 Child-murder 319 Conclusion . ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. General View. The preliminary points to be considered in this general view are, 1. The definition of the word Education ; 2. The perfectibility of mankind ; 3. The little success which has hitherto attended Education ; 4. The singleness of the human species ; — and, 5. The usefulness of Education.

As to the definition of Education, I think it necessary to state, that I intend to introduce in this volume several topics which are not gene rally considered as falling under Education in the common acceptation of the word, merely de noting instruction in literature and accomplish ments ; I use this term as embracing every means which can be made to act upon the vegetative, affective, and intellectual constitution of man, B for the purpose of improving this his threefold nature. Being asked what I mean by human nature ? I reply, that it is not body alone, nor mind alone, nor animal propensities, affections, or passions ; nor moral feelings, nor intellect ; neither is it organization in general, nor any system of the body, nor any particularity whatever; — but hu man nature, in the proper sense of the words, comprehends all the observable phenomena of life, from the moment of conception to that of death, both in the healthy and diseased state ; or, in short, all the manifestations both of the body and mind.

The next introductory point to be elucidated is, whether human nature is susceptible of per fection or degradation. In speaking of the susceptibility of being per fected, it is not to be understood that man may lose one faculty and acquire another; for the fundamental nature of man being unchangeable in body as well as in the faculties of the mind, such an event is impossible on earth. The meaning of the proposition, therefore, can only be, whether certain powers are capable of attaining greater or less activity ; — whether some of them may prevail over others ; and, whether the mutual influence of the faculties and their actions may be regulated and well conducted. In this latter signification alone, the answer is affirmative. Such a perfectibility exists in all living beings. Certain qualities of plants, for instance, may be strengthened, increased, weakened, or diminished.

Fruit trees may be modified as to their growth or fruit, their produce. Each part of the bodies of animals is subject to great variations. Animals, also, are not confined to actions which their preservation requires. They modify their conduct according to the situation in which they may be placed ; hence they are susceptible of a kind of education beyond their wants. Monkeys, dogs, horses, bears, &c. can be instructed to play various tricks. They have also a recollection of what has happened to them, and modify their conduct accordingly. An old fox which has escaped several snares, and knows that he is watched, takes greater precautions, and proceeds with more slyness, when he approaches the habitations of man, with a view of stealing poultry. A bird whose nest has been destroyed in a frequented place, conceives the necessity of placing it in future in a more retired situation ; b and the construction of the second nest is also more solid and more perfect than that of the first.

A dog resists its instinct to run after a hare, be cause it recollects the beating it has previously received on that account. The horse avoids the stone at which it onee has stumbled. There are even facts on record of learned pigs and learned canary birds. Similar examples are within the knowledge of every one, and it is therefore unne cessary to multiply them. Yet this power of modifying their actions is not unbounded in animals, but limited according to their nature. Pigeons and hares, for instance, can never be taught to hunt like falcons and dogs. Man offers similar appearances. The various modifications to which his body is liable, are known. The manifestations of the mind also vary in different persons, even in whole nations. Yet, as far as history informs us, mankind has always been essentially the same.

The only difference, observed at different times, has been, that the manifestations of the special powers have been more or less active, modified, and va riously employed. The next question is, Whether man, with re spect to his feelings and intellect, has improved or degenerated. By some authors mankind is said to have arrived at a greater state of perfection than it originally enjoyed ; while others lament its progressive degeneracy. The improvement or degeneracy of the human race, in regard to a knowledge of the external world, the practice of the fine arts, and moral conduct, are particularly to be examined. A detailed elucidation of these points would require a whole volume : it is my intention only to take a general view of them. It is superfluous to mention, that the moderns enjoy a great superiority over the ancients with respect to every branch of natural history and natural philosophy.

The Baconian and true method of studying Nature, founded on observation and induction, has been recently discovered and introduced. It has forwarded every kind of knowledge in an astonishing degree. It has, however, been unfortunately neglected in the study of man, and hence his nature is but little known. It is true, whatever it was in the power of man's reasoning faculties, unaided by observation, to discover, was discovered by the ancient philosophers. But the knowledge of man remained extremely vague and uncertain, and Phrenology alone will supply this defect, and re duce Anthropology to invariable principles. In the fine arts of imitation modern artists find it difficult to surpass the ancient masters, yet they seem to be wrong in confining themselves to mere imitation of ancient productions ; nature always remains the best model, inexhaustible in her mo difications, whilst by the former proceeding the arts degenerate, or their improvement, at least, is impeded.

The arts of industry have undoubtedly im proved, and political economy may be considered as a science of modern days. The state of man kind at large is evidently better than in ancient times and during the ages of darkness, and it will still improve in proportion as ignorance and im morality are removed, and the laws of the Creator attended to. The improvement or degeneracy of man, as regards his moral and religious opinions, presents a particular interest, even with respect to his worldly happiness. Both these sorts of notions vary according to the different states of civiliza tion, and they are, by no means, stationary, any more than the functions of every other faculty. Savages commonly believe in polytheism, and generally consider all Superior Beings as malevolent, and worship them through fear.

People in a more cultivated state admit Superior Beings of a mixed nature, like men. The gods of the Greeks, for instance, were supposed to be en dowed with all human feelings ; they required food and sleep. Jupiter himself was not free from the human frailties : he was jealous, often cruel and implacable. He had overturned every thing in heaven, and reduced the other gods to be his slaves. The gods of the Romans were not more noble. They were mercenary, and could be bribed by fine temples, games, and more ac ceptable sacrifices. People of little instruction divided the invisible beings into benevolent and malevolent. Others admitted two principles ; one benevolent, the other malevolent ; and they acknowledged also many inferior deities, as emana tions from the primitive ones. Persons of more cultivated minds believed in one supreme benevolent deity; and in inferior spirits, some benevo lent, others malevolent.

The most enlightened acknowledged only one Supreme Being, bound less in perfection, and the maker of every crea ture. The mode of worship deserves equally a peculiar consideration in the history of mankind. It is always conformable to the notions entertained of the nature of the Deity. In order to avert the wrath of the malevolent powers, and to please them, men have made themselves as miserable as possible, by mortifications, flagellations, painful labours, sacred victims, human sacrifices, and suicides. To gain the favour of manlike gods, sweet-smelling herbs, burning incense, oblations, gifts, agreeable impressions on the senses, ceremonies which illustrate a prince at his court, and various sorts of formalities, have been employed. If we compare the absurdities of Paganism, or even the imperfect doctrines of Judaism, with the purity and sublime principles of true Christianity, we shall perceive that the latter are greatly superior.

The Old and New Testament attribute very different qualities to the Supreme Being, and their moral precepts are very different. The old dis pensation may be viewed as accommodated to the Jews, who were a hardhearted, stiffnecked, stub born race. The God of Israel was jealous, revengeful, terrible, and a God of war. He was fond of perfume, ornaments, ceremonies, burning incense, even of bloody sacrifices. He commanded his people to destroy those who forsook him, or who did not obey his commandments ; even those who kindled fire on the sabbath-day. Neither brother, sister, son, daughter, husband, wife nor friend, was to be spared, if he served another god. He who knew an infidel, was forbidden to pity, con ceal or save him ; on the contrary, it was his duty to stone him. (Exod. xxxv. Deuteronomy xiii.)

The God of Christians, on the contrary, is love, benevolence and charity. He is the Father of the whole of mankind, and wishes for universal happiness. He freely pardons, provided the sinner repent. He gives the same laws to all, makes no exception, and pays no attention to the appearance of persons ; he judges, punishes, or rewards every one after his actions. He is a Spirit that cannot be confined to temples, and is to be adored in spirit and in truth. (John iv. Rom. ii. 1 John iv. Matt. vi. &c.) The Jews were obliged to be faithful only to those of their own race ; they were permitted to take usury from foreigners, and to hate them. David praised God in saying, "Do I not hate those who hate thee? I hate them with perfect hatred." (Ps. cxxxviii.) They were ordered to form a separate nation, and prohibited from inter marrying with other people.

Their food was pre scribed ; many things were inderdicted and de clared impure. Polygamy was lawful. Solomon had seven hundred wives and three hundred con cubines. The husband was allowed to put away his wife ; it was sufficient to write her a bill of divorcement, &c. &c. How superior and more noble are the principles of Christianity : they prohibit anger, hatred and revenge, and order us not to return evil for evil ; they command forgiveness of every offence seven times in a day, and seventy times seven, if asked for ; to love our enemies ; to bless them that curse us, and to do good to them that hate us. They interdict all selfish passions, and declare our neighbour every one who does the will of God. Christ asked to drink of a woman of Samaria, whilst the Jews had no dealings with that nation.

He associated with Jews and Gentiles, ate with publicans and sinners, and declared those only who do the will of his heavenly Father, to be his mother, sister or brother. No food is an abomination to Christians. Christ said, " Not that which enters into the mouth defiles a man;" and St. Paul declares to the Romans, " I know and am persuaded by the Lord Jesus, that there is nothing unclean in itself." Christ permitted only one wife, and in this respect re-established the law as it was from the beginning of the creation. (Mark x. 6.) Before the Christian dispensation, empires were founded by the sword, and by the most cruel and frightful destruction of the vanquished. Christ declared, that he came, not to destroy men's lives, but to save them ; that he who exalts himself shall be abased. He made no distinction among persons, and considered love and peace as the aim of all commandments.

He only proposed the doctrine of his heavenly Father for the ac ceptance of mankind, and did not enforce it by the sword. He directed his disciples only to shake off the dust of their feet in departing out of that house or city where they had not been courteously received, or where their words had not been attended to. The superiority of the Christian principles above the Jewish law is evident. St. Paul said to the Hebrews (iii.), that " Christ is more worthy than Moses;" and (vii.20.) "by so much was Christ made a surety of a better Testa ment;" and, (viii. 7.) " if the first Covenant had been faultless, then should no place have been found for the second." True Christianity really improves the moral and religious character of a Jew. In regard to morality, it is indeed impossible to establish better principles than have been pointed out in the New Testament.

But since these rules, unexampled in ancient legislation, have been established, the followers of Christianity have often fallen back to many of the contemptible doctrines of the heathen. Many points of im portance have been neglected, and trifles adhered to. Pretended Christians, for instance, have dis puted, whether it be permitted or not, to eat meat on certain days, in the same manner as Maho medans dispute, whether coffee be or be not pro hibited in the Koran. Notwithstanding these abuses, however, it is certain, that the precepts of moral and religious conduct have improved by degrees; and that many selfish and absurd opinions will be rectified, as soon as human nature shall be better understood. True Christianity will gain, by every step which is made in the know ledge of man. Let us now see whether Education is advanced as much as may be desirable.

Unfortunately we find, that notwithstanding the sublime principles of Christian morality, and the numerous masterpieces of arts and sciences, it is a lamentable truth, that hitherto education has succeeded less than the friends of humanity wish for. In deed, if we examine its influence on the improve ment of mankind, a thousand years is like a day that is past. Who has not seen children of the most pious and exemplary parents indulge in scepticism, and plunge themselves into profanity and vice ? And who has not observed that licen tiousness often prevails in the most enlightened and refined classes of society ? Who has not observed very limited talents appear in the offspring of men of the greatest genius? Now the in ferences to be drawn from such facts are, that either the education has not been adapted to the natural dispositions of those individuals, or that every one is not capable of receiving the full effect of a good education ; and as man in general hitherto has little improved by education, we must conclude that either he is less perfectible than we may wish for, or that the true means of improvement have not been employed.

The latter cause seems to me the most probable, and it may be principally accounted for by our ignorance of the nature of man. Plants and animals succeed only if treated according to their natural qualities, and the education of man will not and cannot succeed without adapting it to his nature. Some philosophers have endeavoured to de grade man to a level with the brute; while others have fancied that he has nothing what ever in common with the animal kingdom. By some the faculties of man are considered as the result of external impressions and accidental cir cumstances; while others believe that the exist ence of each person, and all the phenomena of that existence, are the effects of predestination. I shall mention a few particulars concerning the great error, according to which the champions of education consider new-born children as blank paper, on which they can mark every impression.

But, under such a supposition, why are children of the same family so different? Why can teachers not communicate their own talents to every pupil ? Why cannot every one, who under stands the masterpieces of genius, produce similar effects? Why is not every poet a Homer, — every musician a Handel, a Mozart, a Haydn, — every historian a Tacitus, — every speaker a Demosthenes, — every painter a Raphael ? The rules which lead to perfection being pointed out, it would be easy for every one to put them into practice, if no innate powers were necessary. Experience, then, forces us to decide entirely against such speculative assertions; those who have been engaged in conducting education are convinced that they are incapable of producing those talents and feelings in children which they could wish ; and those who assert the contrary, maintain only dreams, and instead of observing nature, indulge in their fancy.

Many defenders of education wish to persuade us, that the first impressions in early age deter mine the direction of the mind. I do not deny their influence, but it is less than it is generally supposed to be. Children, in their early years, are almost exclusively intrusted to the care of females, yet boys and girls show from the earliest infancy their distinctive characters ; and this difference between the sexes continues through life. A marked variety of tempers and capacities may be observed in children, as soon as they are sus ceptible of any impression. Children, like adult persons, are differently affected by the same ex ternal circumstances. Impressions, also, it is to be observed, are more or less permanent. How often, in the maturity of age, when the activity of the mind is the greatest, does it happen, that we are at one time perfectly acquainted with a subject, but afterwards forget it, as if we had never known it?

How, then, is it possible to believe, that individual impressions, received at a period when the mind is almost inactive, determine the character or the mental capacities of a child for his whole life? On the other hand, it is well known, that many individuals turn out very different from what they appeared at an earlier period of life. It must therefore be al lowed, that the above mentioned opinion is destitute of all support from experience. I do not hesitate to maintain, that education must fail, as long as we continue to think that children are born alike, and may receive, with equal advantage, every kind of education. If J. J. Rousseau had had the care of children, he would have detected his erroneous conceptions : he would have observed, that Nature implants certain kinds of feeling ; that education only weakens, or invigorates and refines them ; that children react on external circumstances, according to their natural dispositions ; and that it is necessary to adapt education to the nature of in dividuals.

Hence, the first thing to be done, is to trace back the faculties of children to their origin. Such a knowledge will contribute to the advance ment of arts and sciences, and to the improvement of moral conduct, by suggesting suitable means for directing the energies of children to the objects which they are most fitted by nature to attain. " There are few subjects," says Dugald Stewart, " more hackneyed than that of educa tion, and yet there is none upon which the opinions of the world are still more divided. Nor is this surprising ; for most of those who have spe culated concerning it, have confined their atten tion chiefly to incidental questions about the com parative advantage of public or private instruction, the utility of peculiar language or sciences, without attempting a previous examination of those faculties and principles of the mind, which it is the great object of education to improve."

(Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, p. 62.) Another great error in education, also founded on our ignorance of the human nature, is, that every teacher takes himself as a model for his pupils. What he likes and learns with facility, he supposes ought to be equally liked and learned by every other person ; while in every child, the feelings and intellectual faculties, though essen tially the same, are modified in quantity and quality. Hitherto, on account of none of the systems of education being founded on a correct analysis of the faculties of man, education has been conducted altogether in a general way ; and hence almost every individual who thinks for c himself when arrived at the age of maturity, has found it necessary to begin a new course of edu cation, according to his individual character and talents.

Still another point, hitherto not sufficiently un derstood in education, concerns the organic con ditions on which the manifestations of the mind depend. This is the object of a new doctrine, and is detailed in my work on Phrenology. Thus education, though it does not create any power whatever, may produce great effect ; but to that purpose its whole system must be changed, and this will be done in proportion as the nature of man becomes known, and as it will be acknow ledged that man must be perfected like other created beings. He is the disciple of nature, and must submit to the determined sway which prevails in her government. He errs the moment he ceases to observe, and begins to excogitate. The construction of a system of education cannot be a creative but an imitative process, which must be founded only on the lessons of experience.

Here, as in the cultivation of every other science, it is not by the exercise of a sublime and speculative ingenuity, that man arrives at truth, but it is by letting himself down to simple observation, — by rejecting equally the authority of antiquity, and of eminent contemporaries, when in opposition to nature ; — by sacrificing every consideration that opposes the evidence of observation, and its legitimate and well established conclusions ; — by being able to renounce all the favourite opinions of infancy, the moment that truth demands the sa crifice ; — in short, by following only the lights of observation and induction. " Does not our happiness depend," says a contemporary writer, " on the knowledge of the various relations which man bears to his fellow man and to his God, and the practice of the duties which they impose; and how are we to discover these relations, except by the assistance of reason, operating on experience?

Can false views of human nature, and its attributes, increase the happiness of the human race individually ; or can political society, framed on such erroneous principles, attain the end for which alone society was framed ? ' Deception and mendacity are always regarded in the com mon and every day intercourse of life as base and odious, — Is it then only upon subjects of the highest importance to man, that he may be de ceived without danger or detestation?'" (Retro spective Review, No. I. p. 71.) I concur entirely in these sentiments. c My ideas on the nature of man, on his fundamental powers ; on their innateness ; on the con ditions of their manifestations in this life ; on the moral liberty, and several other points, are ex posed, with details, in works entitled, Phreno logy; and, Philosophical Principles of Phrenology.