Turkey, Greece, and Malta

Preface

The following pages are the result of observa tions made by the author in the years 1834-35 36, while attached to the squadron under the command of Sir Josias Rowley, and chiefly relate to the actual state and prospects of Greece and Turkey, considered separately, and in their con nexion witli the policy of England and of Russia. The allusions in the first chapter to emigration, and to Spain and Portugal, are irrelevant to the title of the work ; but as connected with the author's voyage out and home, he trusts they will not be deemed entirely out of place. Many other remarks may also, he fears, be con- VI

PREFACE.

. sidered as having little connexion with the pro fessed object of these pages ; but they were sug gested by local associations, and the author sub mits them to the candour of his reader. It may also be thought that more space than is necessary has been devoted to Malta ; but, in addition to the historic celebrity of that island, and its value to this country, it has peculiar charms in the estimation of every naval man, and is endeared to the author especially, as a place where he has long been honoured with kindness and hospitality. A public attack, more over, made by a native, on the system under which the island has been governed since it has formed a part of the British empire, prompted him to offer some remarks on a question, which affects the honour of his country. Although the form of narration has been preserved as much as possible, the author has, in order to avoid repetition, collected under one head all the remarks which he had to offer on any one subject.

He mentions this in caseit should be supposed that he has ventured to form decided opinions upon casual visits to particular spots. There is scarcely a place of any impor-

PREFACE.

VII tance, alluded to, which he has not revisited at different periods. He may also be allowed to observe, that the Mediterranean has been familiar to him from an early age, in consequence of hav ing served nearly all his time on that station ; and although a youth may be said to remark little or nothing, still he imbibes impressions, which serve to aid his judgment in after years. The policy, the condition, and the prospects of Greece and Turkey are dwelt on at length, first, as exciting an immediate and general attention ; and secondly, because the author, having already written about those countries, felt more interested in them than he otherwise might have been. He was naturally anxious to ascertain how far his previous remarks would stand the ordeal of further experience, — how far the impres sions of his first residence in the East would be confirmed by a second visit to it, — how far he should be obliged to avow with La Rochefou cault, " J'aime mieux etre un homme a paradoxes qu'un homme a prejuges."

His attention having been once drawn to the state of Greece and Turkey, it was comparatively easy to him to fix it ao-ain on those countries. The services in which

PREFACE.

. he was usually employed, added to the advan tage of enjoying an extensive acquaintance among the varied society of the chief places in the Levant, gave him adequate and satisfactory op portunities of observation and inquiry. If he has failed to elucidate his subject, it has not been from a want of materials. Seeming con tradictions may, perhaps, be noticed in the course of the work; but, if so, he begs leave to observe that in treating questions so involved as the relative position of Greek and Turk, or Ori ental despotism and Mussulman freedom — each a perfect anomaly — it is difficult to avoid the appearance of inconsistency. The statements on which the author relies for inducing the reader to concur in his views might have been made by any other persons who were on the spot. He was constantly before the public of the Levant, or with the squadron.

To have perverted a fact to suit a particular view, would, therefore, have been adding folly to bad faith It follows that the value of his opinions may be as well estimated in England as in Turkey. These explanations are not offered with the view of dis arming criticism ; he invites it rather on this point

PREFACE.

. IX — viz. his deductions — for the tendencies of Turkey and Egypt are of vast importance to England. He has discussed them without reference to party or its purposes, and simply as they appear to him to be connected with the welfare of his country . The author cannot be ignorant that his opinions in regard to the accelerated decay of Turkey are at variance with those of many re cent writers. He regrets the circumstance, for their aim is the same as his, the establishment of a check on Russia : they differ from him chiefly in the mode of effecting that desirable object. He trusts, however, that the fulfilment of some of his previous anticipations of the destiny of Turkey may be allowed to add weight to those which he now lays before the public. For example, he anti cipated the revolt of Mehemet Ali, as well as its success, owing to the unpopularity of the sultan's reforms.

He also ventured to infer, from the past, that Russia would, as occasion might offer, close the Euxine to foreign ships of war. He claims no merit for his discernment : many per sons in the East, no doubt, in 1831, expected the same events; many also in the present day anticipate the same results, which he does, from

PREFACE.

. X the actual pressure of Russia on Turkey and Per sia, should our policy be persevered in. He en deavours to show that it depends on England alone to regulate the consequences of that pres sure : if she entertain the idea of supporting the nominal Ottoman empire, those consequences will extend far beyond her control; but if she consent to see a portion of it given up to save the remainder, the mischief may be rendered trifling. As the author, in common with other writers. regards the integrity of Turkey as secondary to the grand question pending between Russia and England, — as he looks on it as merely incidental to the problem whether the cabinet of St. James's or that of St. Petersburgh shall preponderate, — as he considers Turkey as only destined to be a field of battle between these rival empires, — he lost no opportunities, in the course of his late service, of informing himself of the resources of Russia, and of her means of waging war against England.

Her navy ne cessarily, therefore, attracted his chief attention. Her vessels stationed in the Archipelago often came under his notice, and he was enabled to

PREFACE.

. XI see her fleet at Sevastopol. From the state of the latter, he has hazarded an opinion touching the Baltic fleet, and the results which may ensue to this country, unless we open our eyes in time to the improved state of the Russian navy. London, June 1, 1837. Page 221, line 3, for 700,000, read 800,000. CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

Chapter I

Wet Season — Portsmouth — London — Outward-bound Fleet — Emigrants — Colonisation — Frigate — Channel — Sea-sickness — Lisbon — Adventurers — Battle of St. Vincent — Nelson — Trafalgar — Gibraltar — Gomez — Don Carlos — Spanish Liberal — Mediterranean — Clime — British squadron — Malta ...... Page 1

Chapter II

Valette — Harbour — Feats of swimming — Memorable siege — Sir Alex. Ball — Naval Governors — Lords of Admiralty — St. John's Church — Tombs — Madame de Rohan — Election of Grand Master — Anglo-Bavarian tongue — Bishop of Malta — Sir Walter Scott — Pictures — Palace — Maltese Galleys — Galley-slaves ..... CONTENTS.

Chapter III

Walls— Agriculture — Cotton — Duty on Grain — Poor-rates — Charitable Institutions — House of Industry — Poverty — Preacher — National Destitution — England's Aid — Prospect of Improvement — Travelling — Society — Scandal — Lions — Prince Charles of Naples — Puckler Muskau — the Pieta — Runjeet Singh and the King of Oude . 98

Chapter IV

Malta and Venice — Hompesch — Capitulation — St. John's Hand — -Grand Master's Power — Despotism — Parallel — Charges against England — Proclamation — Report — Maltese Liberals — Agitation — Commissioners — Refutation of Charges — Free Press — Maltese Character — Mediocrity — Effect of Blood . . . - . . .139

Chapter V

Evolutions — Greece — Gunnery — Nauplia — Greeks — The Armanspergs — Mosque — Otho — Levee — Mavrocordato — Review — Uniforms— Canaris — Order of the Sauveur — Colocotroni — Trial — Crown advocate — Refractory judge — Juries — Proselytism — Turkish rule — Pouqueville— Levant company — Grecian commercial prosperity — Actual prospects CONTENTS. XV

Chapter VI

Capo d'lstria — Bernadotte — Russia and Greece — M. Thiersh— Revolt of Hydra — Espionage —Opposition to Capo d'lstria — Conspiracy — Death of the President — French minister— Execution of G. Mavromichalis— Hellenic church — Patriarch — M. Catocazi — Agriculture- Plain of Argos — Mycenæ — Argos — Classic enthusiasm- Ideas of slavery — Russian officer — Civilisation — Hospitality — Milo— Kharatch— Greek dragoman — Syra . 223

Chapter VII

Recluse — Travelling — Mount Sypelas — Magnesia — Car' Osmanoglou — Amurath II Transformation of Niobe — Thyatira — Guelem Keuy — Turkish Peasantry — Mount Temnos — Mystification — Leading Question — Municipal Institutions — Janissaries — Their institution — Their services — Selim III. — The Mosque establishment — Corruption — Mahmoud's Reform — Kiuprigli's Reform — Peter the Great — Bond of Ottoman Power — Pashalic of Bagdad— Ali Pasha 280

Chapter VIII

Ballyk Hissar — Greeks — Divine right— Ibrahim Pasha — Mekheme — Sou Sithirlik — Cafeneh — Steam-boats — Muhallich — Turkish lad — the Aga — St. Stephano — Barber — Aspect of Constantinople — Lower empire — His- CONTENTS. toric parallel — Russian Progress — Venice and Genoa — England and France — Russian and English diplomacy — Treaty of El Arish — Revolt in Syria— Mehemet Ali— — the Druzes ....... 337

Chapter IX

Fires — Population of Constantinople — Pera — Intrigues — The press — Frank imperium in imperio — Treaties — Commerce — Infraction of capitulations — Janissaries — Maltese and Ionians— Outrages— German medical men — Tahir Pasha — English merchant — Kiaya of Scutari — Reis Effendi — The Bagnio — The Sultan — The English ambassador — Akhif Effendi's dismissal ..... 402

Chapter X

Pera — Resources — Turkish naval officers — Capitan Pasha — Arsenal — Ships — Crews — Turkish corvette — Naval school — Conscripts — Education — National garb — Scheik Islam — Egyptian troops — Conscription — Instructors — Military organisation ...... . 460 Appendix TURKEY, GREECE, AND MALTA

Chapter I

Wet Season — Portsmouth — London — Outward-bound Fleet — Emigrants — Colonisation — Frigate — Channel — Sea-sickness — Lisbon — Adventurers — Battle of St. Vincent — Nelson — Trafalgar — Gibraltar — Gomez — Don Carlos — Spanish Liberal — Mediterranean — Clime — British squadron — Malta. The winter of 1833-34 proved unusually wet. During many weeks, south-west gales blew in cessantly, accompanied by rain more or less dense — but always rain. One might have fancied Portsmouth about to be cleansed of its impurities without the aid of a river turned through it. The oldest inhabitant, according to "The Hampshire Telegraph," had never witnessed such weather : a feeble argument, how- Ii LONDON. ever, because that respectable personage generally happens to have the shortest memory. One day, walking down the Strand, I over heard two Italians on before, commenting on the wonderful city — the Babylon of commerce — the world's metropolis.

The interminable streets, the wooded squares, the fantastic architecture, the green parks, the dense thoroughfare, the ceaseless hum, the air of wealth pervading even lamp-posts and water-carts, the lovely women, the superb equipages, the excited crowds, each person hurrying on as though pursued by a demon — all by turns came in for a share of commendation, duly set off with adjuncts (in issimo) and em phasis ; but at every pause, casting inquiring looks upwards, either exclaimed, "Ma! che clima!" Could the most Gallic disparager of everything English have said more ? These three words, thus proffered, would have set off a volume of incense. We ourselves, after return ing from a sunny station, have felt the same sinking of the spirits, have begun to entertain doubts of the " celestial mechanism," at the absence of sun and stars for months.

"Ma! che clima !" What, however, I since thought, DETAINED SHIPS. would these fire-worshippers have said — for be it admitted, the day showed nothing uncommon — at Portsmouth, the winter of 1833-34 ? They would have said nought. They would have mentally recalled their Mosaic reading. They would have sought an ark of safety in some steamer, and left the devoted country. To do so at that very moment thousands were vainly endeavouring, though differently motived, though not at enmity with the clime ; and who may say the bitterness to some, the respite to others, this obstinate south-wester occasioned ? to some bringing loss of property, of precious time — to others, the pain of oft-repeated " fare wells" — while some might hail the breeze as friendly for giving them longer glimpses of the dear country they might never more set eyes on.

Crowded with outward-bound ships, forming yet but a small portion of the detenus collected in all the ports between the Downs and the Land's End, St. Helen's, the Mother Bank, &c. presented a gorgeous spectacle, unseen since the war. Few, perchance, on board who did not regret the cloudy, foggy land they were leaving, although b PASSENGERS. destined to climes gilded with eternal sunshine, bathed with perfumed air, enamelled with rare fruits and flowers. Various degrees of persons, one common source of detention assembled together, greatly rejoicing mine hosts of Ports mouth, Portsea, Ryde, Cowes, Southampton ; from the splendid exile, governor of an Indian pashalik, to the weary artisan, fleeing from workhouse prospects to backwoods' expectations. Bands of youth and beauty, aspirants for the glories of the tiger hunt, or designed for the intricacies of the counting-house, or more demurely to deck the fancy bazaar of Calcutta, were also leaguered by the elements.

They might call the delay vexatious, and complaints of any kind were excusable even from purest lips, considering the "heave of the soul" amidst the heave of the sea at the anchorage — the wet row-off over the "Spit," as "Blue Peter" flew at each treacherous lull — the yet more comfortless scud on shore, steered by disappointment, under a wherry's low sail, after each unavailing attempt to get round the island. But more definite terms are required to express the con dition of numerous emigrants, many with EMIGRANTS. slender means collected for a last struggle — many with sick and infant families, wanting all appliances to make a ship-life even passable ; all still on the threshold of their pilgrimage at the time of its expected fulfilment : the re sources daily wasting on which they had counted to build fortunes in the New World.

Some of these unfortunates were compelled to lodge their valuables at the sign of the Three Balls, their watches, and even part of their apparel; others, still more reduced, landed again — where then was a haven ! through want of money to purchase provisions, their ori ginal sea-stock consumed at anchor. Who can paint the extent of misery occasioned by a south-wester ? To merchants, ship-owners, In dian fortune-hunters, &c. such a contrariety is only, as the Arab says, a few grits of sand in the loaf of existence ; but to those who risk their all on a last card, who are removing their house hold gods, it is a question of leavened or unlea vened bread ; and we may well regret that individuals who take credit for forwarding emigration should not, as far as in them lies, ensure a prosperous voyage to the poor exile.

The EMIGRATION. season of easterly winds is notorious : why then choose the one in which every Thames waterman knows the prevalence of the contrary. April is the most favourable month for quitting the channel : it ensures, in addition to a fair start, arrival at the place of destination, either Canada or New South Wales, at the fittest season : in summer at the former, during winter at the latter. Emigration is become of such vital, such pub lic import, interesting the peer and the peasant, the merchant and the mechanic, the younger son without fortune, and small gentry with growing families — the prizes in an over-stocked country bearing no ratio to the blanks, that it should cease to depend on the care of individuals : for, however well-disposed and philanthropic they may be, caprice, misintelligence, false zeal, will enter ; much that is promised always be wanting ; hopes held out remain unrealised ; where by emigration, instead of being promoted, is retarded ; is resorted to as a last resource, instead of being regarded, as it should be, as a boon.

Instances, for example, occur of ships that ad vertise to carry surgeons, sailing without one or EMIGRATION. one ill qualified ; others badly found are obliged to put in somewhere for repairs ; in others, as we have witnessed in the Catherine docks, the passengers are literally packed in the hold like herrings in a barrel.* Such being the case, and the necessity of de pletion daily increasing, is it not high time for go vernment to step in and save, by the superinten dence and ability of properly appointed persons, emigrants from becoming victims of speculation or ignorance ? Policy and humanity loudly dictate the course. For similar reasons — the inadequacy of individual or parish exertions — the admired author of "England and the English," invites government to assume the office of public in structor ; proposing a minister of public instruc tion, central-boards, branch committees, &c. Adopt his suggestion by all means ; it is good, * " The laws of the United States regulate the number of '• passengers to the tonnage of the ship, yet this humane law " is often violated, for not long since a vessel of ninety-four " tons, left with no less than one hundred and six passengers, " bribed by the low rate of thirty francs each.

The white " slave-trade of carrying emigrants to America claims loudly " the attention of philanthropists."' — M' Gregorys Note Book, Author of North America. EDUCATION. it will create patronage, an object with every wise government ; but, rather, apply a like scheme, in the first place, to the furtherance of emigration. The result of A B C education may be doubtful, is looked on by some as tend ing to enlarge the organ of social discontent ; but emigration is quite certain to render the people — those who go and those who remain — practically wiser and better ; give them more bread to eat in this world, and more time to prepare their souls for the next. Education with the many is regarded as a means, often fallacious, of improving their physical condition : emigration effects that with out going through the previous stage.

Which is more generous ? to offer a man the means of living, or to teach him to write— his wants? Which would the generality prefer? the full blown-ness of unlettered wealth, or the penurv of Butler— the wretchedness of Camoens ? Increase the amount of subsistence in a country by diminishing the mouths to partake thereof, we shall cease to be shocked by the sano-uinary emeutes of Paris and Lyons — we shall see Agitation's rod fall to the ground. Poor-laws POOR-LAWS. are confidently looked to as the panacea for Ire land's woes ; but alone they will be ineffectual. With an improvident gentry and a people steeped to the neck in beggary, they will only prove mis chievous to the former, without aiding the latter. But remove one layer of misery by emigration, and then their action will be felt on the soil.

A sum equal to one-fifth of the amount given for the purpose of transferring the negro from his master's whip to the magistrate's lash, preparatory stage, I fear, knowing his habits, to entering the condition of his freed countrymen at Sierra Leone* — the far niente of the African — the state of brute indolence, would, judi ciously employed, restore Ireland to a healthy condition, fit to be operated on by legisla tion. I may be wrong, but I have sometimes thought the millions voted over the Atlantic might have been as usefully laid out nearer London. They might not have created so much * After working a given period on government account, the recaptured slaves are located free. Immediately their habits of industry take wing. Provided they procure yams and a little maize they seek no farther.

The remainder of their lives passes, with few exceptions, in listless indolence. COLONISATION. noise in the world, but they would have laid a great deal of clamour. Never mind ; the example is good, to a certain extent. The national debt will not notice a slight addition to its bulk. Ought we not to do as much for our own people as for the subjects of the Ashantee king, or of the sultan of Bornou ? Not merely English, —emigration is also an European question. Every great country teems with population, the greater part in a wretched struggle with want from infancy until death. Nearly one fourth of the burials at Paris, for ex ample, are undertaken by charity. If ever a cause existed for uniting Christendom, — an object to sanctify the League, — it is colonisation. Worthy of the intellect of the age, it would dim the glories of all other eras, because its aim would be the people's good.

Once before, and once only, a common purpose, the recovery of Palestine, united the sovereigns of Europe. Myriads of their subjects perished in the attempt. What fruit remained, unless, as historians say, emerg ing from the darkness of the middle ages be thereto attributable 1 But emigration, conducted on broad principles, would lead myriads to life ; HOLY LAND. and though not called holy, the land of promise would be thrice holy, in fact, by giving food to the hungry, and rescuing numbers yet unborn from crimes solely engendered by poverty. With a direction for his energies, and an object whereon to build a hope, the destitute youth would, unless peculiarly ill disposed, avoid mis deeds, self-prompted, nor fall into the snare of temptation held out by the veteran offender. As great as the gain to himself, would be the profit to the country.

Mark! — the expense in curred in apprehending, trying, convicting, im prisoning, degrading, and transporting one con vict, would send out three free persons ready to bind themselves for a period, at limited wages, who might otherwise become, through want, the inmates of a jail. In the year 1834, 4,652 convicts and 1,491 free persons landed at Sydney. A proper arrangement would have reversed the numbers. With opportunity to emigrate, four-fifths of those convicts would have hailed the new country with light hearts and unshamed brows, and at one-third the cost to the mother country. It is easier and cheaper, we may be sure, to anticipate crime, by PILGRIMS. removing the cause, than to check it by a police, or to punish it afterwards. The pilgrims found their supporter — devoted Gerard Tune !

The Indians had their advocate — excellent Las Casas. The Africans gained a friend — amiable Wilberforce. Shall the pauper be less regarded ? Is his position superior ? Is his merit less ? For the interests of the first, states were unsettled. For the cause of the se cond, humanity at large was invoked. For the sake of the third, Great Britain has shook in her remote halls. Beware of the fourth. It will work its own redemption ; with blood, unless timely cared for. Already nearly every country in Europe fosters a servile war in its bosom ; armies are maintained no longer to repel ene mies, but to suppress domestic insurrection. O for a Peter the Hermit, to preach conviction to all hearts ! O for an Urban, to turn the feeling to account ! Trifling would be the revenue requisite to set flowing a tide from Europe.

Half the sums now spent in desultory emigration would, directed by fixed laws, under responsible officers, produce equal results. We should not have to grope in darkness for rules to guide us : they KNIGHTS HOSPITALLERS. already exist, in nearly a parallel case, in the ordinances and regulations of the Knights Hos pitallers, for the conveyance and accommoda tion of the sepulchre-bent wayfarers, during and after the pilgrimage. For this purpose the "order" assigned houses (commanderies) in different ports, as Seville, Marseilles, Ta rento, Messina, Naples, &c. in which pilgrims, from whatever part arriving, in any mode, were received and maintained until the departure of a ship. In the mother esta blishment of St. John at Jerusalem the same solicitude awaited them ; caring either for their settlement in the Holy Land, or if disappointed, enabling them to return home.

How simple ! yet how admirable ! Change ' pilgrim' for 'emigrant;' change ' commandery' for ' colonial hotel,' at the out-port ; change the 'house of St. John at Jerusalem' for a ' central esta blishment' in the colony, and we have the frame work of the machinery. New Holland should receive the out-pourings of civilisation, on ac count of its climate, its extent, the paucity of natives, and its productiveness. Thus started, the colonial stream would flow on healthfully, COLONISATION. devoid of care and anxiety, while various in ducements, and the personal convenience at tached, would give an air of freedom to the painful step of severing from old ties, which it is now far off possessing ; the mother country, be it remembered, gaining doubly all the while by increased consumption of her produce abroad, and decreased poor-rates at home.

Wishing to emigrate, a person would direct his steps to the nearest ' colonial hotel,' with a pass from his clergyman ; there remain till a ship sailed, em ploying the interim in improving his art, or in learning one. Agents would be ready to wel come him in the colony, and save him the em barrassment incident to a stranger. Not only the poor, but under such auspices, assured of aid and upright counsel, many families living on the continent on genteel pittances, would gladly ex change their unprofitable, anti-national existence for an improving state, with a prospect for their sons, under native laws, among their country men. The trouble, and vexation, and chicanery, and loss, attending want of practical advice, and first proceedings in the 'new country,' deter many from emigrating. Defraying half, or even COLONISATION all the passage of such, might prove wise eco nomy : two years' residence in the colony, con suming English articles, employing English people, would repay the amount.

All expended in France, or Italy is pure loss. At length the weather changed, yet doubt still mingled with hope, for thrice previously a similar change had occurred, deceitful, alluring each time some hapless vessel to put to sea. Twenty-four hours were allowed to elapse. Then fore-topsails loosing, and signal guns booming over the water, denoted the supposed duration of fair wind. ' Farewell' was the word. The lieutenant-general destined for Bombay, went out in the port - admiral's yacht, wherries skimmed along the waters in every direction, white handkerchiefs waved, some as a last sign to friendship, others to inspirit the breeze ; and before noon either route to the westward presented a gliding panorama — a proud sight of five or six hundred vessels, English built, and English manned, and English freighted, bound to all parts of the world ; forming but a quarter of the number which the same breeze would start on their course.

DEPARTURE. One ship alone remained at Spithead — one frigate occupied the anchorage, where erst a hundred warlike keels used to vex the tide, and scare away the herrings. No simple cruiser this ! A flag at the fore denoted her high mission ; the flag of one, whose name, long dear to naval annals, Fame still wider spread with a loud blast from the Indian seas. Let none blush, whose fate bowed to his on that occasion, or deem their present honours lightly won ; more distinction is gained in striking to some men, than in con quering others. I had long wished to know this distinguished individual ; to see the chief actor of a scene which, commencing with disasters unexampled,* * Stationed with six frigates to blockade the French naval force, and keep open the passage for the army, on the way from India to attack the Mauritius, Captain Josias Rowley, of the Boadicea, found himself alone at the end of a week.

Four of his frigates got on rocks under a battery, and were destroyed ; the fifth, " the Africaine," ran between two French frigates, and remained a prize. In this crisis many officers would have thought they did well in effecting an escape : not so Rowley. He knew that on his efforts depended the safety of the army hourly expected to heave in sight. The French kept the sea, looking out for the rich SIR J0S1AS ROWLEY. ended with success the most complete ; which, if acted on a European stage, would have ranked in the public eye, as in naval estimation, among the brightest efforts of genius and perseverance combined. My good genius, as the Turks would say, favoured me. The day he came down to hoist his flag, I met him at the table of the port-admiral.* The acquaintance, there com menced, ripened, I am proud to say, into friendprize, not thinking of the Boadicea.