A Voyage round the World; including an embassy to Muscat and Siam, in 1835-6 and 7

Front matter

/Jru**-n.cn ttonti t?^ ttcryt&u, _# J)uxit/UjZz£^>^r 70,StMarU?z^ Zane TIEW of the CITT of Mi^ CAO . China. NARRATIVE OF A VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD, DURING THE YEARS 1835, 36, AND 37; INCLUDING A NARRATIVE OF AN EMBASSY TO THE SULTAN OF MUSCAT AND THE KING OF SIAM. BY W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER. M.D., SURGEON TO THE EXPEDITION. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET, (VuWtt5« in ©rtinare to $rc /Wajwts) 1838. WHITING, BEAUFORT HOUSE, STRAND. CONTENTS OI THE FIRST VOLUME.

Chapter II. Sketches In Muscat

Voyage round the Cape of Good Hope to Zanzibar — Portuguese men-of-war — The Janthina — Effect of calms — Shark-fishing — Few fish found at sea — Comoro Islands — Island of Zanzibar — Captain Owen's charts — Arab pilot . . .11

Chapter III. Sketches In Zanzibar

Costume of a captain in the Arab Navy — Dye for the hair — Ornaments of the Negroes — Picturesque Costume — The matchlock — The Sultan's Palace — Seid Carlid — Negro Dance 27

Chapter IV. Sketches In Zanzibar

Slave-market — The Banyans — Their manners and customs — Captain Hassan — Abdallah and Mehammet Hammis — Streets of Zanzib — Armourers — Wells — Cemeteries — Oil-mill — Arabian sword-blades — An Arab merchant — The Bible and the Koran — Arab School— Court of Justice ... CONTENTS.

Chapter V. Sketches In Zanzibar

Coral formation — Productions of Zanzibar — The Cocoa-nut tree — The Copal tree — Animals — Climate — Population — Commerce — American cotton goods — Daiis — Ride to Tayee — Clove plantation — History of the Clove-tree — Phrenology 58

Chapter VI. Voyage From Zanzibar To Muscat

Phosphorescence of the sea — The ship ashore — Effect of habit— A raft — Arabs' canoe — The Bedouins — A warrior — Danger of shipwreck — Cutter sent to Muscat — The ship afloat again — Skirmish with the Bedouins — Attempt to cut off the boats — Arrival at Muscat — Cruise of the cutter — Kindness of the Sultan — Reception of Mr. Roberts at the Court of Muscat 77

Chapter VII. Sketches In Muscat

Climate — Cove of Muscat — Audience with the Sultan — His Majesty's stud — The Bazaar — Barbers — Blind beggars — A sailor's account of Muscat — Arabian ladies' costume — Marriage — Cafes— Wells of Muscat 10

Chapter XVI. Voyage Along The Coast Of Hindoostan And Sketches In Ceylon

Coast of Concan —Approach Colombo — Adam's Peak — Dhonies — Landing at Colombo — Costume of the Ceylonese — Sir Robt. Wilmot Horton — The King's house — Colombo Library — Encounter between Mangoustes and Cobras — Venom of the Cobra — Coluber — Museum — Esplanade . . 265

Chapter XX. Sketches In Java

Voyage from Ceylon — Straits of Sunda — The mail-boat — The Mangustin — Batavia Roads — Voyage along the canal — The Custom-house — Entrance to the city — Old Batavia — Malays mode of living in Batavia— Waterloo Square — Hall of Science —Population . . CONTENTS. VII

Chapter XXI. Sketches In Java

Batavia in the rainy season — Climate — Old Batavia at night — Posting in Java — Road to Buitenzorg — Heights of Cornells — Belle Vue — Tea-plant enclosure, and cultivation of the Plant — Missionaries — Dutch policy — A Javan Prince — Gamelan — Krises ......... 366

Chapter XXII. Sketches In Java

Government — Agricultural experiments — Commerce — Coffee — American trade — Edible Birds'-nests — Birds of Paradise — Dutch trade with Japan — Nangasaki . . . 386

Chapter XXIII Sketches In Siam

Departure from Java — Straits of Banka — Sumatra — Pirates — Island of Borneo — Population — Products — Dayaks of Borneo — Hunting for human heads — Floating islands — Letter to the First Minister of Siam — Si-chang Islands aud their inhabitants — Flying - Fox — Religious temple — A Talapoin — Siam roads . . 406

Chapter XXIV Sketches In Siam

Prince Momfanoi — Departure for Bankok— Paknam— Bazaar — Governor's house — Reception by the Governor — The Captain of the port— Paddy-Mill— Female costume — Siamese Twins- Uncomfortable lodgings ...... 424

Chapter XXV. Sketches In Siam

Siamese Etiquette — Junk of Ceremony — Gaudy crew — Portuguese officers — Arrival in Bankok — Feast of Paknam — Voyage up the Meinam — Mission-house at Bankok . . ILLUSTRATIONS TO VOL. I. View of the City of Macao .... Frontispiece. Costume of the Parsees . . .... 229 TO VOL. II. View of the City of Canton ; Frontispiece. Ordinary Costume of a Prince of Siam ...

Introduction

. Voyages of circumnavigation have been so fre quent of late years, this being the fourth under taken within seven years by American vessels of war alone, that much novelty must not be expected in the present Work, though few ships pursued the varied and extensive track of the Peacock. I, there fore, only promise the reader the latest news of the several remote countries visited in relation to their manners, political state, commerce, and religion, upon which topics the best sources of information have been carefully consulted. In presenting this narrative to the public, it may be proper to state, what were the opportunities enjoyed by the author for obtaining the necessary information.

INTRODUCTION.

. X Mr. Roberts, the special agent of the American Government, frequently expressed a wish that the author would write the account of the voyage, and in order to enable him better to perform this under taking, he gave him free access to all documents relating to the Embassy, and on every occasion expressed his views and opinions on the several sub jects which fell under notice. He, moreover, greatly assisted him in procuring statistical information, which, from his official station, he was often able to obtain, when to others perhaps it might have been denied. To him he feels indebted, and with his many friends deeply regrets his early loss to his country. In the early part of his life, Edmund Roberts, of Portsmouth, N. H., had visited several of the coun tries which lie to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, and from information then and subsequently obtained, he inferred that those parts of the world offered a wide field to American enterprise.

He was convinced, however, that voyages from the United States round the Cape of Good Hope, must con tinue to be limited to a few countries, and uncertain in their results, until treaties of amity and commerce should be formed between the Government of the United States and several powers of Southern and Eastern Asia ; in order to open trade with some, and

INTRODUCTION.

. XI to settle definitely with others the manner in which American merchantmen should be received, and the charges to which they should be subjected. In this latter respect, the practice in many countries is very irregular, depending more upon the notion or whim of the minister at the time, than upon any esta blished law. Mr. Roberts communicated his views in detail to his friend, the Honourable Levi Woodbury, at that time Secretary of the Navy, who laid the subject before the President. It was determined after proper deliberation, that Mr. Roberts should visit the East in capacity of " Special Agent of the Government," and obtain all the information possible, and negotiate treaties of amity and commerce with such Asiatic potentates as he might find favourably disposed. Early in the year 1832, Mr. Roberts sailed from the United States on board of the U. S. ship Pea cock, then commanded by Captain David Geisinger, and visited Brazil, Buenos Ayres, Java, Manilla, Canton, Singapore, Siam, Muscat, the Red Sea, &c. In May 1834< he returned, bearing with him two Treaties which he had negotiated, one with His Highness the Sultan of Muscat, the other with His Magnificent Majesty, the King of Siam. These

INTRODUCTION.

. XII Treaties were ratified by the President and Senate of the United States in June, 1834, and Mr. Roberts was appointed to exchange the ratifications. The Peacock was again put in commission to carry him on his distant embassy, the history of which will be found in the following pages. January, 1838. VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD.

Chapter I. Voyage To Rio De Janeiro

June, 1835. When I bade farewell to my messmates in February, 1834, I little thought to be named in March, 1835, a member of another mess — " bounden brothers every man" — to roam the ocean, scarcely knowing whither. Yet in one short year, the pains and privations of a long absence had dwindled into mere shadows of memory, and preparations were made for another cruise, not, however, without feeling how deeply parting sinks into the heart. At sunrise on the 23d of April, I was roused by the order, " All hands up anchor," delivered in the growling, imperative tones of the boatswain. The ship was speedily under sail. The city of VOL. I. B THE UNITED STATES' SHIP, PEACOCK. New York and its busy scenes receded fast from our view ; the Narrows were passed ; the bar was cleared ; and at meridian the pilot bore away the Cape letters.

At sunset the land had faded away in the distance. Our hopes were all before us ; and the past and the present were only remem bered to contrast with the future. The United States' ship Peacock, being not more than of six hundred tons burden, is the smallest of her class. She has a light spar deck which frees the guns from the incumbrance of rigging, and, in port at least, affords the officers a sheltered walk in very hot or rainy weather, be sides a more ample space for the hammocks of the men. In other respects the ship has no com mendable quality. She is an indifferent sailer, very wet, and, both for officers and crew, the accommodations are very limited. She is armed with twenty thirty-two pound carronades and two long twelve-pounders. The ship being fitted in the winter, when cordage is inflexible as bar-iron, the rigging stretched very much on putting to sea, thouo-h every care had been taken in the outsit, and the seams opened in several places, so that whenever the ship laboured, she was uncomfortably wet.

A few days after sailing, we encountered fresh gales, then the gun-deck presented a scene of LOVE OF A SEA-LIFE— SEA-SICKNESS. 3 despair, and doubtless there were many regrets in mental reservation. The neophytes were swing ing to and fro in their cots or hammocks, in obedience to the motions of the ship, wishing themselves safely on shore, free from the dis tressingly nauseating effects of the sea. How few would persevere in the choice of the profession, could they but escape during the first fit of sea sickness ! Yet, when once over, how strong are the ties which bind them to the ocean ! Indeed, the love of a sea-life is an acquired taste, and, like all acquired tastes, it is apt to be enslaving. On one occasion I passed a night, at a French board ing-house, with a naval officer who had spent seventeen years actually at sea.

He was very ill, but feeling himself somewhat more comfortable than he had been, towards morning, he remarked, " After all, doctor, there is no place for a man when sick, like being on board ship." Such was not the opinion of those " young gentlemen" who were now for the first time embarked upon the broad blue bosom of the Atlantic. Many plans have been tried to alleviate the dis tressing effects of sea-sickness, beneath the influence of which the stoutest spirit quails, but no one has been generally successful. In some individuals nature speedily accommodates herself to the new circumstances in which she is placed ; in others, 13 VOYAGE TO RIO DE JANEIRO. 4 whole voyages are not long enough to habituate them to the motion of the ship ; the disease con tinues, with more or less intensity, acccording to the roughness or smoothness of the sea.

A simple, and generally successful treatment, consists in keeping the head cooled by the application of ice or iced water, and swallowing nothing but the bland est articles of diet, as arrow-root, barley or rice water, &c. By this plan, the sense of fulness and constriction of the head, which characterise the in vasion of the malady, will be relieved, and the patient will become comparatively comfortable. From the day of sailing, nothing of importance occurred out of the usual routine of ship's duty. The passage was remarkable for a great deal of rain, and we experienced very few days of really pleasant weather. On the 28th of May, being close to the equator, we had a beautiful annual eclipse of the sun, between the hours of eleven and twelve o'clock a.m. Although the thermometer did not sink, the air was sensibly cooler, and the whole atmosphere much darkened, yet no stars w^ere seen.

On the 10th of June, at sunrise, we saw the coast of Brazil, stretching between Cape Frio and the harbour of Rio de Janeiro, the hills or rather mountains, rising in broken outline in the grey of the morning. The light land-wind was quickly sue- VOYAGE TO RIO DE JANEIRO. 5 ceeded by a gentle sea-breeze. About three o'clock p. m. we descried a large sail under the land to the westward of the Sugar Loaf, which proved to be the United States' ship Natchez, bearing the broad pendant of Commodore Renshaw. At a distance of five miles we exchanged signals ; and, on haul ing down our broad blue pendant and substituting a red one, as is the custom when a junior meets a senior commodore, we fired a salute of thirteen guns, which was promptly returned. The breeze continued light, and fell almost calm as the sun sank lower, so that we moved along at a rate not exceeding two miles an hour.

The sunset magnificently, even for this tropical region. The soft tints of the sky changed from the lightest orange to a golden hue ; from that to rosy, and then deepened to a blazing red, which last faded away into the soft grey of twilight, leaving the clouds, no longer reflected upon by the sun, in their own sombre colours. The effect of these hues on the imagination was heightened by the bold and broken outline of the mountains, cast in strong relief, by a flood of light poured upwards from behind them as the sun sank. The moon was at her full, and, as she rose, poured her silvery rays over the smooth surface of the waters ; and the modest stars of the Southern Cross beamed forth in the calm purity of that religion of which ARRIVAL AT RIO DE JANEIRO. this beautiful constellation is an emblem.

The two ships of war were now slowly approaching each other j and, with three or four small vessels, were standing in for the harbour, On board of our own vessel, all hands were at their stations for bringing ship to anchor ; and all were perfectly hushed as if by a spell imparted by the quiet glories of the scene around. At half-past five, the ships had approached so nearly that a boat boarded us from the Natchez, and informed us, that having been advised of our sailing from New York by a vessel which had arrived, though she had sailed four days after us, the Natchez had been cruising off the harbour in expectation of our arrival. At eight o'clock we encountered the land-wind, and were obliged to anchor outside of the harbour, where we lay very comfortably all night. The next morning we got under way, and about ten o'clock reached our anchorage opposite to the city.

As we passed up the bay, every one was charmed with the beauties of the scenery ; indeed, several officers recently from the Mediterranean, declared this bay to be incomparably more magnificent than that of Naples. In fact, nothing can be more romantic and diversified than the scenery around Rio de Janeiro j turn where you may, the eye rests upon a spot to con-' template and admire. But the sight is not the ARRIVAL AT RIO DE JANEIRO. 7 only sense which is delighted at Rio ; there is a balmy sort of influence in the atmosphere which soon saps all industrious intentions, and induces a procrastinating disposition which is difficult to over come. Every one seems rather disposed to in dulge in the quiet animal enjoyments of eating, drinking, smoking, lounging, and sleeping, leaving to slaves all kinds of manual labour, and hence the embonpoint amongst women and obesity amongst men of the Creole and Portuguese residents. SKETCHES IN THE DOMINIONS OF THE SULTAN OF MUSC A T. A BRAZILIAN BEAUTY. 11

Chapter II. Voyage Round The Cape Of Good Hope To Zanzibar

September, 1835. By the 3rd of July the ship had been refitted, and to reciprocate civilities which had been ex tended to us, the officers of the ward-room, on the 6th, gave an entertainment on board. As is usual on such occasions the decks were dressed with bunting-, flags, flowers, and lights, supported and reflected by bright bayonets, cutlasses, and pikes, disposed in the form of chandeliers. Music was obtained on shore, and suited well both feet and ears. About 8 o'clock p. m., the company assembled, danced, walked, talked, ate, and congeed at three in the morning. People of several nations and sorts were present, civil and military, in black and in embroidered coats. The beauty of many of the ladies might be praised ; but there was one, a Brazilian, scarcely sixteen and already married, whose charms were declared beyond eulogy, by DOUBLE THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. those who had " seen balls and revels in their time."

The night passed away gaily, and many flatter inocompliments to our taste were paid by our guests. They assured us, that it was the most brilliant affair that had taken place afloat in the harbour of Rio : several invitations were extended to the officers by Brazilians, an unusual circumstance, and we were informed one or two enter tainments were to be given on its account. On the 12th of July we put to sea, accompanied by the United States' schooner Enterprise, Lieu tenant-Commandant Archibald S. Campbell, but soon found her to be so indifferent a sailer, that it was determined by the Commodore to appoint a rendezvous and part company. In obedience to a signal she came close alongside, and the orders, tied in a piece of canvass and loaded with lead, were thrown on board. That night we parted.

Crossing the Southern Atlantic, attended by a common succession of fair and foul weather, we doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and entered the Mozambique channel, the scene of the first exploits of Vasco de Gama in the East ; but we saw nothing of the " Flying Dutchman ;" seeing, however, off the cape a huge animal whose enormous back, covered with sea-weed and barnacles, rose several feet above the water, and had it remained quiet, PORTUGUESE MEN-OF-WAR. 13 every one would have marked it as a rocky islet of the ocean, but it sank in a few moments after it was discovered. What contributed much to the idea of its insular nature was the light green colour of the water, although we were too far at sea for A' soundings. The south-west monsoon was drawing to a close, and in our passage through the Mozambique chan nel, we encountered currents and calms ; the former in our favour, the latter, of course, against us.

One of these calm nights was exquisitely beautiful ; the sky was cloudless and so brilliantly starry, that its deep blue colour was distinct. At the same time the surface of the ocean was tran quil, and like a polished steel mirror reflected the whole heavens, and our ship, seemingly suspended between the two, floated among the stars. One day, while becalmed, the thermometer in the shade standing at 78° F. and great piles of motionless clouds, whose rolled-up edges, silvered by the beams of a mid-day sun, were reflected from the ocean, we observed numerous little animals of the zoophyte tribes drifting slowly past us. Amongst them were " Portuguese men-of-war," (Holothuria phy sails, Lin.) and disks of from a half-inch to two inches in diameter, belonging to the family of Medusæ {Medusa porpita, Lin.).

Sailors are fond of observing animals of all kinds, PORTUGUESE MEN-OF-WAR. and no sooner was their attention directed to those in our vicinity, than they began to fish for them with buckets, or tin pots attached by rope-yarns, or with tin pots fixed to poles. The first disk caught was compared to the pas sion-flower. These animals are perfectly round, flat, very thin, and beautifully radiated. Their colour is of a yellowish white, and the edge is fringed with delicate blue threads from one to three inches long, according to the size of the disk. These threads or tentaculæ are, no doubt, the members with which the animal is provided for seizing its food. The possession of one begot a desire for more, and the dinggy — a small skiff — was lowered, and, accompanied by Lieutenant H , I put off from the ship.

We caught many " passion-flowers," and several Portuguese men-of-war. The last is a transparent bladder of air, of irregular form, two or three, inches long, somewhat corrugated on the top, and armed below by numerous short tentaculæ and one or two slender threads, several feet in length, set with diminutive blue masses, giving them the appear ance of strings of fine beads. This appears to form the instrument of attack. The animal possesses the power of stinging, as our oarsman found ; for his finger, after being touched by one, swelled and the pain darted to his shoulder. He compared the THE JANTHINA. 15 pain to that of a wound inflicted by a bee ; it became so annoying, that we were obliged to set him on board ship, where he was speedily relieved by the application of aqua ammonia. The ocean was filled with small animals darting in all directions ; some flashing in the sun like rubies, and others, like hairs of glass.

We observed floating on the surface, small white masses, about three inches long and one thick, resembling at a short distance, froth or air bubbles. We found, on examination, they were attached to very delicate, violet-coloured shells, belonging to Lamark's genus, Janthina. Over the vesicular buoy of this animal, the Portuguese man-of-war manages to cast his thread, and, like a spider entangling his prey in his web, separates the shell from its buoy, and feeds upon his spoil. When taken, the Janthina emits about a teaspoonful of a deep purple fluid, in order perhaps like the cuttle-fish, to darken the water around, and thus elude the pursuit of his enemies. " Here, sir," said Jack, handing me a shell, " Here, sir, is one that a Portengal has been afoul of — he is spitting blood." * Among other forms of animal life was one re- * I afterwards met with the Janthina on the coast of Malabar ; in the China sea ; in the gulf of Siam ; and at the Sandwich Islands.

Those seen at the last place were very much larger than any met with before. THE JANTHINA. sembling a shield, an inch or two long, of a deep blueish colour, and having a thin sail, transparent as glass, shaped like a Gothic arch, set diagonally and permanently across it. A slight shelly structure forms its basis ; and from the under surface hanonumbers of threadlike tentaculæ. Pieces of wood pierced by worms {Teredo Navalis) were also picked up. While fishing for these various objects, and re. marking the millions of little animals floating, or darting about only a few inches beneath the surface of the sea, we observed that in the course of five minutes, the water became transparent, and no thing was to be seen except here and there a stray man-of-war. Without any perceptible cause they had all disappeared ; the Janthina had gathered in his float, and sunk into the depths of the sea, thence to arise again by inflating his vesicular buoy, through means which are yet secret to man.

I am under the impression, that the animal has the power of reproducing it, when by any accident it may be lost. A fish called the porcupine-fish, from the skin being covered with numerous spines, belonging to the family of gymnodontes (Cuv.), has an apparatus by which it is capable of distending itself with air until it swells almost to a globular form ; when inflated, it turns upon its back and floats upon the surface, and were it not for the EFFECT OF CALMS. 17 spines which are erected by inflation, would thus fall an easy prey to its pursuers. We caught several of the tribe. Two hours before sunset not a living thing could be seen in the water ; the calm continued — " The broad blue ocean and the deep blue sky, Looking with languor into each other's face." On this occasion, Commodore Kennedy stated he had been once, for ten days, in so complete a calm, that the animalculæ died, and the ocean exhaled from its bosom on all sides a most insufferable stench.

Instances of this kind illustrate the utility and necessity of winds and the agitation of the seas : absolute calms, continued for any considerable period, in the winds or waves, would prove equally fatal to all manner of animal life. The respiration of all animals, whether this function be carried on by lungs, or gills, or other organs, is essential to their being. Those living on land breathe the atmosphere, and rob it, at each inspiration, of a portion of oxygen, which principle is necessary to existence ; those inhabiting the deep derive the same principle from the waters, though by different means ; and in both cases, the air, or water, thus deprived of its vital principle, must be replaced by fresh supplies, or in a very short time all the oxygen in their vicinity is vol. i. c SHARK-FISHING. exhausted, and the animals, whether of sea or land, must perish.

But such catastrophes are guarded against, and we find no phenomenon of nature without its purpose ; the soft zephyr, and gently undulating sea, as well as the hurricane and surg ing billow, — equally in keeping with the great scheme of the universe, serve to prevent stagna tion, and, consequently, the death of all nature. One afternoon, becalmed in the Mozambique channel, in sight of the African coast, several sharks were seen in the neighbourhood of the ship ; and to gratify the antipathy which Jack takes every opportunity to indulge against them, a large hook, armed with two or three pounds of salt pork, and attached to a small rope, was thrown over the stern. Presently a large fish of the tribe ap proached, moving gracefully only a few feet below the surface of the transparent ocean, darting now in one direction, and now in another, resting for a moment to survey the space around him before changing his course.

He gradually drew near, attended by the pilot-fish, sailing, as usual, a few feet beneath him, and following all his motions. At last the bait attracted his attention, and, urgino himself forward by a single effort, he supinated his body, opened wide his jaws, and closed them with a devouring, but fatal avidity upon the hook. Till this moment the officers and men had silently SHARK-FISHING. 19 watched their prey, but now the fisherman jerked the line, and a half-dozen exclaimed, "You've got him ! you've got him !" In spite of violent strug gles to escape, the fish was drawn close under the stern and his head raised above the water. Officers and men hung over the bulwarks, exultation beam ing in their countenances, to catch a sight of the animal, which l'ested quietly glaring his great eyes upon his enemies.

The next step, in order to get him on board, was to pass a bowline or noose round his body, which required dexterity ; for whenever the rope touched the shark, he struggled so vio lently as to endanger breaking the hook. At last he was secured, and was quickly seen floundering, and lashing his powerful tail upon deck. In an in stant a dozen knives were gleaming around him ; and he had been dragged scarcely to the mainmast before the tail was severed from his body by successive blows of an axe. His abdomen was ripped up, and his heart, which was cut out, lay palpitating for some time upon the fluke of an anchor. Still he floun dered, and so powerful were his muscular exertions, that several strong men could not control them. His huge jaws, armed with five rows of sharp teeth, were removed, his brain exposed and head cut off; and in five minutes, parts of his body still quick with life, were frying at the galley under the knife c SHARK-FISHERIES. and fork of the cooks, while the sins and tail, like so many trophies, were hung up to dry.

This fish was about ten feet long, and his jaws were capacious enough to bite off a man's leg ; but it was a small one, if we may credit Blumenbach, who states that the white shark weighs sometimes as much as 10, 000 lbs., and even whole horses have been found in its stomach. On every shark which I have seen caught, there is attached, generally under a fin, a remarkable fish, called a sucker or sucking-fish. It adheres to sharks or other bodies by a flat oval disk, having a soft skinny margin, and traversed by from twenty to thirty plates or scales, which may be elevated or depressed at the pleasure of the animal, and by which it exhausts the air and water beneath, and sticks with a firmness or power equal to the pressure of the water or air above. Hence it was said that it had the power of stopping a ship under full sail.