The Foundations of England; or, Twelve centuries of British history, B.C. 55-A.D. 1154 ... With maps and illustrations

Preface

THE favourable reception given by historical scholars to Lancaster and York encourages me to give to the public a further instalment of my work. Reasons to which I need not refer induced me to begin by publishing the last section of my History first But I do not propose to go on advancing by backward steps, and therefore I now go straight to the period at which the British Islands are first brought within the light of external history. I am fully aware that I am now entering on a track that may be said to have been thoroughly explored, if not beaten flat, by the feet of those who have gone before me. Yet again it might be said what an array of problems and pitfalls does not the rash man face who professes to deal in the spirit of our age with twelve centuries of history ! I can only say that the work has not been undertaken to support any preconceived theories, or with any polemical object ; that a weary length of years has been devoted to it ; and that I have endeavoured to avail myself of all the best lights.

Some thirty years ago the late Mr. C. H. Pearson gave to the world two brightly written volumes that claimed to represent the most advanced state of historical knowledge. But historical re search has been actively at work since then ; and our knowledge has been proportionately extended. A fresh landmark might fairly now be set up. Public taste, no doubt, of late years has favoured short monographs — " Epochs," and " Lives," and "Studies" dealing with individual situations, or persons, or prob lems. Such treatment of subjects, when done scientifically, and with proper reference to authorities, is most valuable, the best of all work perhaps. But for those who have to " get up," and those who have to assist others in "getting up," history for definite ends, vu

PREFACE.

VIII the thread of a continuous narrative, on a uniform plan, with consistent views, must have its value, My narrative throughout is based on an independent examina tion of the original authorities. For personal collaboration I fear that I have no one to thank. But at every step I find myself under the greatest obligations to the works of others. These obligations, I trust, will be found properly acknowledged. With pre-historic questions I have not presumed to meddle. Coming to history proper, a natural desire of late has shewn itself for information as to the social condition of the people at various stages of our history, and Histories professing to be more or less "social" have been published with little or nothing in the way of social facts to record, evidence on social questions being only accessible through the laborious paths of special research.

But for the Celtic population of our Islands I may say that we have evidence as to social facts and life going back to very remote periods — periods anterior to any for which we have any records of current events. The stages of development in the career of the Family and the Tribe reflected by the testimony of the old Irish customs embodied in the Senchus Mor will be found very interesting. If the actual process of early feudalization does not reveal itself, distinct steps in the process may be noted clearly. For the sketch of Celtic mythology, and the few facts anterior to the Roman occupation, I must confess myself indebted to the works of Sir John Evans and Mr. John Rhys. Of the period of the Roman occupation I have endeavoured to give a more connected account than has yet been put together.

Hiiber and Mommsen have con tributed much of the materials. Personal acquaintance with the localities has assisted me in tracking out the course of Agricola's campaigns in modern Scotland. I hope and believe that my localization of the Battle of the Mons Groupius will be generally accepted. The site gives life to the narrative of Tacitus. For the dim period between the end of the Roman occupation and the traditional beginning of the Anglo-Saxon settlements only a little Church history can be offered ; but still deathless interest attaches to the names of Ninian and Patrick. For the earlier Anglo-Saxon period, fixing of dates and sites is the most that can be done ; but

PREFACE.

IX the vivid insight of the late Mr. J. R. Green has enabled us to bring out salient features, and to track the workings of underlying causes. The course of Anglo-Saxon legislation I have treated historically, and in connexion with the social surroundings of the times. To all facts bearing on the condition of the agricultural population of England down to the time of the Norman Conquest I have given special attention. For the Anglo-Saxon constitution, both earlier and later, and in endless other ways, I have to acknowledge my obligations to our great historic scholar, Bishop Stubbs. In fixing sites the Mediæval Military Arcltitecture of Mr. G. T. Clark has been of great service to me. To battles and military operations I continue to give special attention. I feel confident that I have discovered the long-lost site of " Brunnan burh."

I may point out that an American investigator, without fixing the exact spot, pronounces in favour of the same locality (C. T. Wyckoff, Feudal Relations of England and Scotland, p. 14, Chicago, 1897). I venture to invite attention to my accounts of the battles of Maldon, Ashington-Canewdon, and especially of Senlac. For the later Anglo-Saxon period and the reigns of the two Williams, it is unnecessary to say that the patient industry aiid wide reading of Mr. E. A. Freeman have placed all available materials at the disposition of students. A review of the facts is as much as is open to any one coming after him. The reigns of Henry I. and Stephen give greater scope. For the latter period the Geoffrey de Mandeville of Mr. J. Horace Round has enabled me to supply a fairly intelligible account.

I must also gratefully acknowledge the light that his other writings have thrown on a variety of difficult questions connected with the Norman Conquest. Bamff, 1898. J. H. RAMSAY CONTENTS— VOL. I

Chapter I Page

The British Islands — Earliest notices i Pytheas — His visit to Britain 2 Trade with Marseilles ; Alba (Albion) and seme (Ireland) . . — Posidonius ; The Cornish Tin ; Export to Gaul .... 3 Timæus ; Parched Corn • 3, 4 Ethnology ; Celtic Immigrations ....... 4 Gael, " Picts," and Britons ........ 5 Ethnic Relations ; The name " Pict " ; Albanach .... 6 Evidence of Language, Pengual, Penfahei, Ceneil .... 7 British Civilization . 8 Dwelling-houses ; Tattooing ; Polyandry ..... 9 Evidence of Irish and Welsh Legends . . . . . .10 Female Rule ; A Northern Lady .... . . — Old Irish Customs . . . . 11 Wife-capture as a form of Marriage, Origin of . . . . .12 Illegitimate Children ...... . . — Primitive Celtic Family . . — Standards of Value ; External Relations . . . . . 13 Tariffs of Fines .......... — Feudalization ; Development of the Tribe ..... 14 Kingship; Tar.istry . . . . . . . . 15 The King's Endowments . . . . . . . .16 Accumulation of Property ........ — Survivals of Primitive Theory . . . . . . 17 Cadets ; Re-allotments ......... — Endowments of Bards and Brehons. . . . . . 1 S Personal Bases of Celtic Society ....... — No Legislation ; No Judicature . . . . . . -19 " Fasting upon " Adversary — Hostages ; No Police . . . . . . .20 Social Ranks ; Agricultural Tenancies — Ownership of Land ; Cultivation in Common . . . . .21

Chapter II

The Druids . . 22 Co-optation ; Oral Study 23 Survivals of Druidism ...... . . — The Brehons ; Ogham Alphabet 24 CONTENTS XII PAGE Religion : Gaulish Deities Ogmios, or Ogma ~ Maponos; Grannos . ■ Belenus ; Toutates ; Camulos Nemetona ; The War-god Supreme ** Cernunnos ; Taranis ....••• Esus ; The Three Strides . ■ . . 29 Nodens, Nuada, Nyd • ■ 3° Dagodevos, Dagda; Brig ... ■ Sanguinary Rites ; Solar Feasts . • Lustral Fires ; Lugos ■ 31 Primitive Religion ; The Mistletoe 33 Coinage ; Gold ; Silver, Copper, and Iron . 33 Earthworks and Monuments ; Forts 34 Domestic Implements ; Weapons ... 35 Chariots 3<> Flint Arrow-heads ; Pottery . . 37 Cremation and Burial .... .... Exports and Imports 3&

Chapter III

B.C. 58-55 Cæsar in Gaul; Crossing of the Rhine 39 Policy towards Britain ....... — 55 Negotiations; Preparations for War . .... 4° Fleets; the Army : the Crossing . . . . . 41 Landing at Deal ........ 42 A Storm ; Return to Gaul 43 54 Fresh Preparations ; the Forces ..... — The Crossing; Advance inland ..... 44 Loss of Ships on the Coast ...... 45 The Advance Resumed ....... — Dispersion of the Britons ; the Thames crossed . . 46 Submission of Trinovantes ; Storming of Verlamion . . 47 Cassivelaunos submits . . .... — Return to Gaul. ........ —

Chapter IV

51 British Kings ; Commios; Dubnovelaunos ... 49 30 Tasciovans ; Cunobelinos ; Epaticcos .... 50 a.d. 5 Sway of Cunobelinos ....... — 43 The Romans called in . . . . . . .51 Aulus Plautius ; Landing ....... — Togodumnos and Caratocos . . . . . .52 London Bridge ; the Emperor Ciaudius .... 43-47 Vespasian; the Regni . . . -53 The Iceni ■••-..... 54 50 Ostorius Scapula ; the Nen-Severn Line .... The Watling Street ; the Brigantes . . . . -55 The Silures ; the Ordovices ...... 56 Defeat of Caratocos ....... CONTENTS XIII A.D. PAGE 51 Claudia ; Aulus Didius . . . . . . -57 59 Suetonius Paullinus ........ — Road-making .........— 61 Mona (Anglesey) : Suppression of Druidism ... 58 Rising of the Iccni ........ — Queen Boudicca ; March of Suetonius . . . -59 London Burnt ; Victory of Suetonius . . . 59,60 62 Petronius Turpilianus ....... 60 65 ?

Trebellius Maximus ........— 69 Vettius Bolanus ........ — 70 Petilius Cerealis . . . . . . . .61 70-75 The Brigantes subdued ; Roads to the North ... 62 75 Frontinus . . . . . . . . . — Appendix : Forts of Ostorius Scapula .... —

Chapter V

78 Agricola ; Administrative Reform ... . . 64 79 Subjugation of the Brigantes ; Forts and Roads . . 65 80 Agricola crosses the Cheviots ; Routes to the North . . 66 East Coast Route ; West Coast Route .... 67 80-82 Route probably taken ; Garrison of Great Britain . . 68 82 Operations of the Third Summer ... .69 A Scientific Frontier . 70 83 Fife Circumnavigated ; Return to the Forth ... — 84 Campaign of a.d. 84; Works at Ardoch (Lindum) . 71 Perth; Coupar Angus ; Delvine ; Mons Groupius . . 72 Dunkeld ; Delvine Battlefield ...... 73 Speeches; Positions of the Armies ..... — The Action 74 Defeat of the Picts ; the Boresti attacked ... 75 Circumnavigation of Great Britain ..... —

Chapter VI

85-119 Disappearance of the 9th Legion ..... 77 119 Visit of Hadrian ........ — 119 His Vallum 78 The Later Wall ; Question of Authorship . ... 79 138, 139 Titus Antoninus Pius ; the Northern Vallum ... 80 180 Northern Rising ; Mutinous Troops ; Helvius Pertinax . 81 191 Clodius Albinus ; A British " Cæsar " .... 82 Division of Britain ........ — 207 The Stone Wall 83 208-210 Septimius Severus in Britain 84 Expedition against the Caledonians ..... — ■ The Route ; Ardoch ; Gray's Wells 85 Battle Dykes ; War Dykes ; Rae Dykes ; Norman Dykes . — Rae Dykes II. 36 211 Death of Septimius . — 211-277 Connexion with Gaul ....... — 285 Diocletian Emperor; the Saxons CONTENTS XIV PAGE A.D. 287 Carausius Emperor in Britain 292 Constantius Chlorus Cæsar 294 Allectus Emperor in Britain . 305 Constantius Chlorus, Emperor of the West — ■ 306 Constantine the Great proclaimed at York ... 89 337 Constantine II. .'...--•- 340 Constans ....•••••• 350 Magnentius, a Briton 292-337 Administrative Changes ...-•■• The Four Prefectures ; Position of Britain ... 9° Civil and Military Officers 292-400 The Garrison ....••••• 9r . Appendix A : The Southern Prætentura .... — Appendix B : The Northern Prætentura 93

Chapter VII

360 Fresh Northern Invasions ; the Scots ... -94 Successions in the Empire ...... — 364 Valentinian and Valens 95 368 Count Theodosius .....-•- — 369 Northern Frontier Restored ...... 96 375 Gratian Emperor in Spain, Gaul, and Britain ... — 383 Clemens Maximus proclaimed in Britain .... 97 387 Church Questions ........ 98 388 Fall of Clemens Maximus. ...... — 395 Arcadius and Honorius ....... — 395-402 Fresh Attacks on Roman Britain ..... 99 405 Barbaric Invasion of Gaul . . . . . .100 Ephemeral Emperors in Britain — Marcus, Gratian . . — Constantine III. ; his Successes ; Gaul; Spain ... — 411 End of Constantine III. ; End of Roman Occupation . 101 The Later Government ....... — Oppressive Taxation ; Land ...... 102 Trade ; Labour ........ — Customs ; Market Dues ; Military Character of Roman Occupation ..... . 103 Plants and Animals introduced . . . . .104 The Colonas or Predial Serf . . . . . .105 Appendix : Chief Roman Stations still existing as Towns . —

Chapter VIII

110-306 Religious Movements; the Church in Britain . . .107 St. Alban. ...... ... 108 314 British Bishops .... . — 360-430 St. Ninian ; Church at Whithern . . . . 109 370-440 Pelagius ..... . . 429 St. Germanus ..... . IJO 431 Palladius 3S7?-469? St. Patrick; his Early Life . '. \ no,ni Captivity ; Spiritual Change ■ Escape . . . .'112 CONTENTS XV A.D. PAGE Missionary Purpose ; Opposition encountered . . .113 A Cruel Objection ; A Vision ; Ordained at last . .114 Mission to Ireland . 115 Derelict Britain ........ — 429-430 Mission of St Germanus, ; ' Hallelujah Victory ' . .116 446 The ' Groans of the Britons ' . . . . .117 447 Second Visit of Germanus ...... — 450 Hengist and Horsa ; Permanent Settlements ... —

Chapter IX

Races in Britain ; the Saxons . . . . . .119 The Angles ; the Jutes . . . . . .120 Settlement in Kent 121 455 Hengist King . . . . . . . .122 477 Saxon Landings ; Sussex; Hampshire . . . 122, 123 495 Cerdic . . . . 123 530 The Isle of Wight — Ambrosius Aurelianus ; "Arthur" 124 Historic Arthurs; Ossianic Origin of '-Arthur " . -125 534 Cynric 126 556 Conquests in Wilts and Berks ...... — 560 Ceawlin .......... — 571 Conquests North of the Thames 127 577 And in Western Counties — 584 Shrewsbury Burnt . . 128 590 Ceolric .......... — 450-560 The Midlands and the North , — 547 Ida 129 560 ÆUe — 584 Mercia ; Creoda King 130 450-600 East Anglia . — S7i Uffa — 600 Redwald .......... — 527 Essex . . . • • • • • • 131 Middlesex ; the Heptarchy . .... Pictish Kingdoms . , — 498 Gaelic Dalriada 132 St. Columba ; Strathclyde St. Kentigern 133 Galloway — 'The Forest'; Kymric Confederacy 134 600 Wales — West Wales 135 Appendix : The Twelve Battles of Arthur —

Chapter X

The Early Teutons • their Virtues ; and Vices . . 137 Country Life ; State of Agriculture 138 Treatment of Women ; Marriage 139 Paternal Rights ; Criminal Law ; Private War . . .140 CONTENTS XVI PAGE The State ; Civil Actions ; Testimony, how weighed . . 141 Fines ...••-■•• The Wer-geld; Bot ; Wite '42 Social Ranks; the Slaves. . ■ J43 Classes of Slaves ; Penal Slaves ■ the lœt . . ■ 144 The Ceorl J45 Landed Property ; Legal Status J46 The " Hide " of Land ; Later Feudalization of Ceorl . . 147 Social Duties ; Trinoda Necessitas 148 Entertainment ; Military Service .... Cultivation in Common ; the Eoi'l ; Boc-land . . .149 The Hereditary Principle. . • - — Later Gradations; the Gesith-cund ; the Thegn ; the Ealdorman . . . . • • • .15° His Authority and Emoluments ; the ComUatus . . 151 Household Retinues IS2 Analogous Customs ; the King 153 His Position and Prerogatives ... . — Revenues ......... 154 No Direct Taxation ; Crown Lands ; the Township . . 155 The Hundred; Periodical Assemblies ; Tithings . . 156 Wapentakes ; Wards . . . . . 157 Family Groups ; Manorial Estates ; Township Jurisdiction 158 Cultivation in Common . . . . . . 159 Jurisdiction of the Hundred ...... 160 Court of First Instance . . . . . . .161 The County Court ; the Witenagamot ; Shire-Divisions . 162 The Towns ; the Heathen Priesthood .... 163 Teutonic Gods ; Woden ....... — Fricge ; Thunor ; Tiu ; Hilta ; Fred. . . . .164 Fro; Sætere; Baldor . . . . . .167 Popular Beliefs ; Spirits of Evil ; Hel ; the Eddas and Sagas ... 168 Runic Alphabet ; Money; Weapons of War . .169 Appendix A : Pole-land and Boc-land . . . .170 Appendix B : The Eddas . . . . . 173 Appendix C : Ridings ; Wapentakes , Hundreds . —

Chapter XI

England in Pagan Hands 175 593 Æthelbirht; Berhta; Gregory I 595 St. Augustine . ... .176 597 Landing in Thanet . . . . . . . . Establishment at Canterbury ... • 177 601 The Mission Reinforced; Scheme of Bishoprics 601-603 The British Bishops ; Differences of Ritual . . 178 604 Mellitus Bishop of London; Justus of Rochester . 179 Laurentius Archbishop .... 616 Laws of Æthelbirht . ... . , 5S6-613 Affairs of Northumbria jgo CONTENTS XVII Al'- , ., ■ , rAGE 593 Æthelfnth 603 Victories at Dawston ...,....__ 613-617 And Chester ......... Persecution of Eadwine ....... 181 617-626 End of Æthelfrith ; Eadwine King . ... 182 625 Paulinus Bishop of York ....... 627 Baptism of Eadwine ; York Minster . .... 183 627-633 Felix Bishop of the East Angles ..... 184 Government of Eadwine ; Penda, King of Mercia . . 633-634 Cadwallon King of Gwynedd . .... 1S5 Fall of Eadwine ; Cadwallon at York ....

Oswald, Son of Æthelfrith . . ... 634 Battle of " Denises Burn " (Newbiggin Park) . . 186 Defeat of Cadwallon ; Oswald King . . Aidan Bishop of Bernicia .... . Birinus Bishop of Dorchester . . . 642 Fall of Oswald ; Oswiu and Oswine Kings . . 187 Penda Dominating ........ Oswiu sole King (see page 195) . . . . .188 654-655 Fall of Penda ......... 657 Wulfhere King of Mercia ...... 180 Christianity Established throughout England . . 654-665 Diuma Bishop of Lichfield ; Wilfrith. .... Tno Journey to Rome ; Roman Easter Adopted . .191 See of York ; St. Chad . . . . . . .192 665-66S Theodore of Tarsus ; St. Chad Translated ... 669 Wilfrith, Bishop of York . . . . . . -193 673 Synod of Hertford ; Division of the East Anglian See . lri-li Agency in Conversion . . . . . -194 643-676 Affairs of Wessex ; Cenwahl ...... igc See of Winchester ........ 652-67S Cenwahl; Æthelred of Mercia . ..... ls^6 Earconwald Bishop of London .....

Wilfrith Driven from York 678-6S1 He Appeals to Rome; Returns to England and is Imprisoned . . . . . . . . . IQy New Sees : Worcester, Leicester, Sidnacester, Hexham 681-6S4 Wilfrith in Sussex ........ 10;s 670-685 Ecgfrith in Northumbria ....... 685 His Fall; Ealdfrith King tgg 686 Wilfrith Reinstated — 688 See of Hereford Established ...... 690 Death of Archbishop Theodore ..... — The Church of England ; Fifteen Sees . . . • 200 690-693 Wilfrith again in Exile ; He becomes Bishop of Leicester . — 702-706 A Fresh Difficulty ; Third Journey of Wilfrith to Rome; Reinstated at Hexham 201 685-705 Ealdfrith of Northumbria 202 672-6S8 Affairs of Wessex ; Ceadwalla — 688-726 Ine King of Wessex ; Taunton P*ounded .... 203 726 Abdication of Ine ; Sherborne a Bishopric (a.d. 705) . CONTENTS XVIII A.D. PAGE 705-735 Affairs of Northumbria; Whithern a See .... — Bæda • • • 205 737-758 Eadberht King of Northumbria ; Conquests in the North ; The School of York . . ... 206 704-716 Decline of Northumbria; Affairs of Mercia; Cœnred King 2D7 716-757 Æthelbald King of Mercia . • • 207-9 739-755 Cuthred King of Wessex . ...... 208-9 737 Leicester again Severed from Lichfield .... 209 716,742 Councils of " Clovesho " — Appendix to Chapter XII Saints and Churchmen of the Seventh Century : Hild, Botulf, Milthryth (Mildred), Cuthberht, Æbbe, Æthelthryth, Earconwald, Cædmon, Biscop Baducing, Ealdhelm, Guthlac 210-213

Chapter XIII

757-796 Offa King of Mercia . ....... 210 Attacks on Sussex, Kent, Wessex, Wales . . . .214 Ossa's Dyke ; Papal Mission to England ; Synods of Finchale and Chelsea; Lichfield an Archbishopric . 215-216 Relations with " Charlemagne," Karl the Great . . 216-217 Execution of Æthelberht of East Anglia (794) . . .217 Eadberht Præn King of Kent * Death of Offa . . . 21S The Saxon School at Rome ; Issue of Offa . . .219 796-822 Ceonwulf King of Mercia ...... — Incorporation of Kent . . . . . . .220 802 Death of Beorhtric of Wessex ; Eadburh and Karl . . — 802-839 Ecgberht King of Wessex ...... 221 806-808 Affairs of Northumbria ; Eardwulf, Ælfwold, Eanred . — ■ 814-825 Advance of Wessex in Devon and Cornwall . 221-2 796-822 Affairs of Mercia; Wales Overrun; The Boy King Cenelm ......... 222 822-828 Ceolwulf, King of Mercia; Beornwulf- His Defeat by Ecgberht, Collapse of Mercia 223 828-830 Ecgberht Over-lord of Mercia, Northumbria, and North Wales; Nominal Supremacy . . . 224 Appendix A to Chapter XIII Murder of Cynewulf . . . . 225 Appendix B to Chapter XIII Alcuin . . . . .. . . 22=; Appendix C to Chapter XIII Archbishops of Canterbury, and Kings of Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria, a.d. 690 to 802 . . '226-8 CONTENTS XIX

Chapter XIV

A.D. PAGE 793-832 Northern Inroads; the Wickings ..... 229 Routes to Britain ; Norsemen and Danes . . . 230 Settlements in Ireland — Landings on South Coast of England .... 231 Defeat at Hingston Down — 839 Death of Ecgberht ; Æthelwulf King of West Saxons and of Kent ; His Incapacity ..... 231-232 840-851 Wicking Assaults ; Wintering in the Thames . . . 233 851,852 An English victory ; Young Ælfred at Rome . . . 234 Papal honours conferred upon him ..... — 855 Æthelwulf goes to Rome; His marriage, and return to England ; Wessex taken from him . . . .235 858 Death of Æthelwulf; His alleged grant of Tithes ; theory as to his actual grants ..... 236-238 Peter's Pence ; the King's Issue ..... 238 858-860 Æthelbald King of Wessex 239 860-866 Æthelberht King of Wessex and Kent . . ... — Sack of Winchester ........ — 866 Æthelred I. King of Wessex and Kent .... 240 Landing in East Anglia of Healfdene . . . 240-241 Ivar and Ubba ........— 867,868 Subjugation of Deira and Bernicia ..... 241 869,870 Attack on Mercia; Conquest of East Anglia; Death of King Eadmund the Martyr ..... 242 871 Invasion of Wessex ; Battle of Ashdown, Æscesdune. . 243 871 Death of Æthelred I. ; Ælfred the Great King of the West Saxons and of Kent ; Truce with the Danes . . 244 Appendix to Chapter XIV Archbishops of Canterbury, and kings of Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria, a.d. 802-874 .... —

Chapter XV

871-900 Ælfred King ; His imperfect education .... 247 His Mother Osburh ; His love of field sports . . . 248 872-875 Break up of Mercia by the Danes ; the " Five Burghs " . 249 The West and North overrun; extinction of Northern civilization .....••• 250 842 Kenneth Mac Alpine King of Picts and Scots ... — Affairs of Strathclyde, Lothian, and Galloway . . -251 876-878 The Danes again in Wessex; landing at Wareham ; occupation of Exeter and Chippenham ; Ælfred driven into hiding 252 Ælfred gaining ground : Victory at Heddington . . 253 878, 879 Wessex evacuated; the Tide turned .... 254 882-884 An English Fleet — 886 Treaty of Wedmore ; London rebuilt . . . -2 55 Ælfred the sole English King — b CONTENTS XX A.D. PAGE Guthred Danish King of Deira . 886-892 Ælfred's Labours ; Military re-organization * Education . 256 Scholars at Court ; Werfrith Plegmund, Grimbald, John the Saxon . . • ■ Asser ; The Winchester Chronicle Laws of Ælfred • Judicial Work ; Jealousy of Magnates . • ■ 258 The King's Expenditure Special Enactments 259 The Army; Foreign relations 260 892, 893 Fresh inroads ; Hasten ; the Danes checked . . .261 Ælfred on the offensive ; Raids of Hasten . . .262 893-895 Action at Buttington ; Chester re-occupied; Hasten up the Lea 263 895, 896 Hasten driven from Essex; English losses; Ælfred builds ships .... .... 264 896-900 A Pacification ; Death of Ælfred ; His Will . . .265 Prisons and Sheriffs first mentioned ..... 266 The King's Issue ........ — Appendix A to Chapter XV A Wicking Ship 266 Appendix B to Chapter XV Date of Ælfred's Death —

Chapter XVI

900 Eadweard I. 'The Elder,' King of the Anglo-Saxons, i.e. of Mercia and Wessex; Christianity reviving in the North . . .268 905 Renewed War with Danes ...... 269 906 Treaty of " Yttingaforda " ; Christianity recognised . . — 907 Chester re-fortified . . . . . . . .270 911 Battle of Wodnesfield ....... — 912 Death of Æthelred, Ealdorman of Mercia . . — Sub-division of Mercia .... . . 270 913 Æthelflæd, ' Lady of the Mercians,' Her Mound Forts . 271 914 War again ......... 914, 915 Æthelflæd building Forts at Tamworth, .Stafford, Warwick; Fresh Danish landing . . . . .272 Their defeat and expulsion , . **. . . .273 917 West Saxon progress in Essex .... . 918 Fresh Danish losses; Derby recovered; Submission of Cambridge ........ 274 919 Death of Æthelflæd ; Mercia incorporated -with Wessex . 275 921 Alleged homages of Northern Princes at Bakewell; Scotland t Strathclyde ; Reingwald King of York . . .'276 Question of Scottish Homage ; Eadweard's Dominion : 924 His Death .... . CONTENTS XXI A.D. PAGE Eadweard's Ecclesiastical Policy . . . . .278 His legislation — His Issue ........ 279-280

Chapter XVII

924 Æthelstan, His early life; His accession opposed; His rivals disposed of . . . . . .281 Hallowed as King of Mercia ...... — Progress of Wessex . . . . . . . .282 926 Homages to Æthelstan at Dacre ..... — Howel Dha, Constantine, and Eogan .... — Æthelstan Lord Paramount of Great Britain ■ . . . 283 Affairs of Northumbria ....... 284 934 Æthelstan invades Scotland . . . ... — 937 Northern Coalition ; Battle of " Brunnanburh," i.e. Bourne in Lincolnshire ...... 285-7 Defeat of the Allies ; Results of the Battle ... — 940 Death of Æthelstan ; Welsh tribute . .... 287 An English Bishop for Cornwall . . . . .288 Conspiracy of the Ætheling Eadwine .... — Foreign relations of Æthelstan ..... — Allan of Brittany : Herlouin of Ponthieu ; Church Foundations, Chertsey Abbey, St. John of Beverley . 288-289 Legislation of Æthelstan ; Sanctuary .... 290 Responsibility of Lords ....... 291 940 Peace Gilds ; Pursuit of Thieves .... 291-292 Division of Goods ; Self Help — The Sheriff; The Ordeal, by Iron ; by Water ; Currency 293 Charitable Bequests . . . . . . .294

Chapter XVIII

940 Eadmund I. King ; Revolt of Danes .... 295 A Pacification ......... — 941 Northern Affairs ... ..... 296 945 Strathclyde ravaged . — 946 Death of Eadmund ; His legislation . . . . -297 His Issue 298 Eadred King ......... — Homage of all England and Wales ..... 299 949 Struggle with Northumbria ; Olaf Cuaran again . . — 950 His expulsion ; Eric son of Harold Blaatand . . . 300 952 His Death ......... — Ealdormanries of the Period . . . . . -301 Ecclesiastical Affairs ....... — 955 Death of Eadred — St. Dunstan ; His birth and parentage ; Education ; takes monastic vows ........ 302 Has enemies at Court ; appointed Abbot of Glastonbury ; Trains monks ........ CONTENTS XXII A.D. PAs*E Connexion with Abbey os Fleury . . . • ■ 304 Character of Dunstan ; His Somnambulism Visions; Presages 3°5 His accomplishments ; Painting, Music, Metal Work Eadwig King of Wessex and Mercia .... 307 Feminine intrigues ; Coronation Banquet .... 308 Dunstan outlawed ........ — ■ 957 Revolt of Mercia and Northumbria . . . . 309 Eadgar King North of the Thames . ... — Dunstan recalled and appointed Bishop of Worcester . — 959 Death of Eadwig 310 Appendix to Chapter XVIII Archbishop Odo and Ælfgifu —

Chapter XIX

959 Eadgar King of Wessex as well as of Mercia and Northumbria • elected but not crowned ; Wessex at its Zenith . . . . . . . .311 Ministry of Dunstan ; Dunstan Archbishop . . .312 961 Oswald Bishop of Worcester ...... 313 963 Æthelwold Bishop of Winchester ..... 314 Monastic Revival ; Celibacy of Clergy .... — Married Canons ; work of Oswald ; His Theological College ; Founds Ramsey Abbey . . . . .315 Resounds Winchcomb ; Action of Æthelwold ; His drastic measures . . . . . . . . .316 Ely and Peterborough resounded ... . — 962 Plague and Fire in London . . . . . .317 966 Westmoreland harried ....... — 965 North Wales overrun ....... 318 973 Eadgar crowned at last ....... — The Coronation Service ...... 319-320 Homages of Celtic Princes at Chester .... 320 975 Death of Eadgar; Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex reduced to substantial unity . . . . .321 Mercian Shires mapped out ; Possible cession of Lothian to Scotland ...... . -222 Royal Navy ; Legislation ; Ordinance of the Hundred ; Borh ...... 323--*t24 Dealings in Cattle; Currency; Weights and Measures; Church Dues ..... -25 Tithes; Canons of Dunstan • Monastic Foundations . 326 The King's Issue ..... . ,27 Appendix A to Chapter XIX Celibacy of the Clergy ,2g Appendix B to Chapter XIX Date and Origin of our Coronation Service . . CONTENTS XXIII