Popular Lectures on Geology, treated in a comprehensive manner ... Translated by ... J. G. Morris, and edited by Professor F. Hall

Front matter

Mo, A - PO Ft LECTURES T? t'i. T / W * "V" , ya a i POPULAR LECTURES ON GEOLOGY, TREATED IN A VERY COMPREHENSIVE MANNER BY K. C. VON LEONHARD, Counsellor of State, and Professor at the University of Heidelberg, in Germany WITH ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS. TRANSLATED BY REV. J. G. MORRIS, A. M. AUD EDITED BY PROFESSOR F. HALL, M. D. Formerly Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Middlebury College, Vermont; and afterwards Professor of Chemisiry and Mineralogy College, Hartford, Conn. BALTIMORE, PUBLISHED BY N. HICKMAN. WM. "WOOUDr, PRINTER. 1839. Entered according to the act of Congress in the year 1839, by N. Hickman, in the Clerk's Office of the Dis trict Court of Maryland. iERRATA. Page 25, line first, top of t^e page, insert below for above. Same page, third line from bottom, insert of before 1,400.

Page 57, second line from bottom, write on for in, after fluor spar. Page 69, line 17 from top, write non-conductors for non -conductors. Page 80, line 14 from top, Silicium for Silica. Same page, line 15, write Magnesium for Ma^nium. Page 84, line 1 1 from bottom, in the Note, Hic/m instead of Hieim. Page 88, line 7 from bottom, seizes instead of siezes.

Preface

TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. The publisher of the following sheets believes, that he is conferring a valuable favor on the American community, and particularly on that portion of it, which is occupied in the pursuit of mineralogical and geological science, or in the operations of mining, by offering to it, at the presentl interesting period in the natural history of his country, the Popular Lectures of Professor Leonhard. The title of the work is exceedingly appropriate. The Lectures are, in the best sense of the word, popular, and are, at the same time, elaborate, and sufficiently scientific for all practical and useful purposes. It may safely be asserted, that if the readers in general derive as much in formation and delight from the perusal of these pages, as have fallen to the lot of the Translator and Editor, they will thank us for placing them within their reach.

The Author needs no recommendation from our pen. He is advantageously known to the student, and the read ing public, on both sides of the Atlantic, as a distinguished Professor in the University of Heidelberg, in' Germany, and as the author of several important publications. His Manual of Geology and Geognosy — a large and labored performance — has won for the writer, in Europe and the United States, an enviable celebrity. His Treatise on Ba saltic Formations in their relation to normal and abnor mal Rocks, is accounted a masterly production. In proof of the high estimation in which Professor Leonhard is held by his sovereign, it may be stated, that he has been admitted to an order of knighthood, and honored with the appointment of counsellor to the king. The work will be issued in nurrlbers of about 100 pages each, which will succeed each other as fast as they can be done into English, and prepared for the press.

The Editor has no intention to enlarge, materially, the bulk ofthe work. The few notes which he has interspersed, will, it is hoped, render some parts of the Lectures more intelligible to the common reader, and may possibly cast a little more light on the subject of American Geology. AUTHOR'S

PREFACE.

. My object is to make geological knowledge the common property of all intelligent persons, and by opening new sources of instruction and entertainment, to afford them an opportunity of partaking of one of the purest enjoyments. My labors will contribute more materially to the promotion of the science than will appear at first sight; for when the intelligent begin to feel an interest in it, the real savans will be the better pleased, and the more excited to pursue their investigations. The favorable light in which my Popular Lectures on Geology were received by the citizens of Heidelberg, proved that the design is not impracticable, and that it only requires a slight impulse to awaken a lively interest in the subject. The enterprize in which I embarked,, was difficult; this will readily be perceived by men of science.

The subject was to be exhibited in such a manner, that without detracting from its dignity, it would still excite the attention of those who until then had been entirely unacquainted with it, and who had perhaps conceived prejudices against it; besides very few of my auditors possessed the requisite preliminary knowledge, and yet it was to be represented in a manner instructive and intelligible to all. In these lectures, which were as concise as the nature of the subject would admit without being obscure, I always aimed at mingling the useful and entertaining. Every fact adduced was illustrated by various and striking examples, either taken from natural phenomena, or from the affairs of ordinary life, such as trades and arts. By introducing and mingling together such a variety of subjects, although 1* VI intimately associated with each other, a pure scientific, systematic order could not be well observed ; but still I flatter myself that I did not fail to accomplish my de sign.

Those examples had a good effect, which was man ifested in more than one way. They imparted life and spirit to the theoretical speculations — they afforded an opportunity of removing many prejudices, and correcting erroneous opinions, — of enlightening the public mind too often determined by superficial observation, and of communicating to my audience valuable opinions and facts, and enlarging their views and feelings. The idea of a Popular View of Geology is not of re cent occurrence to me. I have been engaged for some years in collecting materials for such a work. But I was not insensible to the great difficulties connected with it; many of them seemed insurmountable. The Lectures alluded to above; gave me courage to prosecute my de sign; yea, I cheerfully acknowledge that they suggest ed many ideas relative to the subject, which perhaps other wise would have never occurred to me.

England and France have had their systems of Popular Geology for many years,, and their works on this subject in a great degree answer the intended design. But in Germany — where works on Popular Astronomy and Natural Philos ophy have long been common — such a book is still a de sideratum. And this will account for the fact, that whilst in France, and especially in England, Geology has become a favorite study, the science does not enjoy that distinction in Germany. That the reader may not be discouraged on account of his want of auxiliary knowledge, and to remove all difficulties arising from that source, that which is most useful and necessary in Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and Mineralogy shall be treated in such a comprehensive manner, that its immediate application to Geological phenomena will constantly be kept in view and be easily under^ stood.

I have only occasionally mentioned the sources from which I drew my facts. Frequent references to authori ties would not have been compatible with the design of the work, and for many readers they would have been useless and burdensome. My Manuals of Geology and Mineralogy can be consulted for such purposes, and from them it will be seen that it is not my practice to be unjust to the merits of others.. For the various demonstrations which I so usefully employed in orally presenting the subject, I will substitute figures, as far as possible. For such a work, figures are indispensable — they frequently present a subject in a clearer light, than can be possibly done by words. My Geological Atlas, published some years ago, will afford important aid in this respect, and in the choice of sub jects, constant reference shall be had to that which is in structive and attractive in several respects.

I have but one more observation to make, and that relates to the Lecture on Mining, the first in the series; I have enlarged particularly on that subject; the reasons are obvious, and hence I apprehend no blame. On other points wliich are better understood, I will often confine myself to mere hints. Heidelberg, December, 1835. POPULAR LECTURES ov GEOLOGY. LECTURE I. Sources of geological knowledge — importance of the art of mining in geological researches — description of mines and miners uith their operations. In investigating the subject of the internal structure of the earth, we are necessarily confined to a comparatively limited sphere of observations. Opportunities of gaining particular information are afforded only in places where the crust of the earth is exposed by deep valleys, by the removal of masses of rocks in consequence of powerful convulsions, earthquakes, mountain slides, inundations, &c. — and where the laborious mi ner has penetrated the interior, or generally where hu man agency has been employed in search of the min eral treasures of the earth.

There are some places at which the banks of rivers afford the only opportunity of determining the geological character of the vicinity. At others, the towering rocks on the sea coast, when exposed for any consid siderable distance, present the greatest facility of in vestigating the nature of the formation. In pla.ces where waves and breakers are constantly wearing away the mar gins of rocks, they are frequently undermined, and thus the various strata are distinctly exposed to view. Not less important in this respect are quarries, at least such as penetrate deep into the rocks. But the most valuable field of geological investigation is, undoubtedly, presented by the art of mining. It is so intimately associated with our science, that it must be regarded as one of our MINING. most important and useful auxiliaries.

Moreover, that occupation is one of a very peculiar character; besides un wearied patience, untiring industry and sleepless vigilance, it requires a high degree of courage and bold resolu tion. Doubtless many of you desire to receive more par ticular information respecting an art presenting so many interesting facts, and developing so many curious geo logical phenomena. You shall hear what difficulties are to be surmounted, what privations and hardships are to be endured, and what dangers are to be incurred; for, in these respects, the profession of the miner may well be compared to that of the mariner. Places are known, where out of 10,000 miners employed, there is an annual loss of about seven in the pits, and nearly two hundred are more or less mutilated in other ways. In certain countries out of 250 miners from 12 to 16 annually are killed.

Some knowledge of mining is necessary in our wanderings through the mountains, in order to derive all the benefits afforded by an examination of these subterranean works. You must then become acquainted with the localities, which present the most valuable field of observation to the industrious geologist ; and if you are there lost in wonder at the abundance of the mineral treasures, which nature with such a lavish hand has deposited in the earth, you will, at the same time, be amazed at the power and inven tive genius of man, by which those treasures are elevated to the surface. Doubtless it will be difficult to exhibit the subject in all its interest to those of you to whom it is entirely new, and I am not certain whether I can express myself with sufficient distinctness ; for the imagination cannot easily represent a true picture of the life and operations pursued in those deep caverns, and of all the remarkable occur rences, which are usually of uncommon extent and fearful interest.

A peculiar feeling, a secret reluctance seizes the uninitiated, in wandering through this subterranean world. The bare sight of steep ladders, on which men boldly venture to descend, for the purpose of digging for the treasures of the earth so far removed from the surface, has in it something terrible to the unaccustomed eye ; you VISIT TO MINES MORALS OF MINERS. feel yourself agitated with horror, and seized with dizzi ness. The galleries above, beneath and around you, ex tending in various directions, the vaults and lofty halls, as they are seen in mines which have been worked for many years : this labyrinth, in which, without a guide, you could not find your way ; the faint glimmering of small smoking lamps in the dark recesses ; and here and there more brilliant masses of light, from which strange forms, like dark shadows, proceed, soon again to vanish from your sight ; the silence, only broken by the clinking of the miner's hammer, who here spends his days in severe labor; the roar of the water; the rattle of wheels, the monotonous clatter of the machinery by which the ore is raised ; and then again, convulsions occasioned by subter ranean explosions ; single reports, which, like the roar of heavy artillery, reverberate fearfully through the deep caverns, until finally lost in the distance ; your uncom fortable and confined position in passages so low, that you can only move in an inclined posture, often scrambling over broken fragments ; the fearful sensation of having masses of rock suspended over your head, which threaten to crush you to atoms ; the alarm, the involuntary shud der in looking down an abyss of awful extent and fright ful depth, — all these afford a view, and create impressions which few men axperience in any other condition.

There are, consequently, associated with the examina tion of mines, much exertion, difficulty and danger. But these should by no means deter us, and no person will ever regret having made such a tour. A visit to mines is richly rewarded with a variety of information, and, by re maining in them a considerable time, we experience an agreeable and mingled sensation of fear and security. But a visit to mines is interesting in a psychological view. You become more intimately acquainted with a class of men, who are quite isolated from the world, who, though laboriously engaged in depths never visited by the light of the sun, yet lead happy and harmless lives, and who, in their honesty, industry and temperance, have perpetuated from distant generations their peculiar customs and habits. Moralists, who have censured the Spaniards for their indolence, should not have judged of their cha- " MINING. racter from the effeminacy which prevails in certain cities in which the people have sadly degenerated ; for in the mountains of Estramadura they would have found an active, laborious population, to which the conquerors of Mexico and Peru had bequeathed all their energy and perseverance.

It is true, there are exceptions to this rule. Thus the barbarous, intemperate, lawless miner of India bears scarcely any resemblance to the genteel, though needy European of the same profession, and especially to the German miner, who is looked upon by all with respect and also with sympathy! In South America, the population, devoted to this pursuit, leaves the most unfavorable impression on travellers, and no miners are more degraded than those of Cerro de Pasca in Peru. The life and manners of the miners, says Poeppig, their faithlessness, and utter destitution of principle, their wretched poverty, occasioned by licentiousness and dissipation, deter genteel persons from associating with men, who speak of nothing but future gain, — who do not pursue their profession with the dignity of men who love it, but with the feverish excitement of miserable gamblers, whose sensibilities are blunted with respect to every thing else.

Superfluity of silver, and general effeminacy have prevented proper education, from their earliest youth. The germ of moral corruption for the possessors of mines, as well as for the laborers, lies in the system they pursue. The revolution has doubtless increased the evil ; but even many years ago, the "mineros" were not considered the most honorable class of society by their own countrymen. In Mexico, according to Burkhardt, so little confidence is reposed in the honesty of miners, that productive mines are surrounded by high walls, and a special guard is set. Yet with all these precautions, the abstraction of ore cannot be prevented. The workmen labor almost naked, but they leave no artifice untried to steal and hide their ill gotten booty. Whilst I am endeavoring to instruct you in matters most essential to mining, it is proper to inform you, that you must learn a number of technical phrases.

These, for reasons that will afterwards appear, will be of great ser vice as we proceed. In every new subject we study, it is necessary to learn, as it were, in some respects a new Ian- ORIGIN OF MINING. guage,* Every science, art or trade has its particular ex pressions, which either peculiarly belong to it, or which, in reference to it, are employed in a limited sense. Such expressions are called technical, from the Greek word te^hi, signifying art. The learning of these words is one of the difficulties to be encountered, but they must not intimidate the student, inasmuch as they are of great advantage. They express the meaning briefly and clearly. The mi ner speaks a peculiar language, unknown to the uninitiat ed; we must become well acquainted with it, in order to understand him. I cannot pass over these technical ex pressions, even if it subjects me to the charge of pedantry.

As it respects the origin of mining, it extends back to a very remote age ; we do not know when men first dug for metals. Moses even speaks of Tubal Cain as a master in brass and iron. Doubtless the Asiatic mines are the most ancient. Very probably men discovered certain metals, especially the precious, lying on the surface, or a little be low it. The profitable uses to which they were put, occasioned the search after them to greater depths. Much of what is said in Job, chap, xxviii. may have some relation to mining. Ægypt gives evidence of very ancient mines. The Phœnicians introduced the art into Spain. The his tory of Portuguese mining is lost in the times of the Car thaginians, Romans and Moors. In Germany, according to Tacitus, silver mines were worked in the vicinity of the Rhine and the Mayne, in the first century.

Many on the Hartz date their origin from the tenth century. Freyberg, the most important mining town in Saxony, is said to have been founded between 1168 and 1180. The art of mining and geology mutually support and illustrate each other. As the geologist is indebted to the labors and observations of the miner, for many important facts relative to the formation of the crust of the earth, so the miner must possess some degree of geological know ledge, if he desires to ascertain the presence of useful minerals in his district, such as ores, precious stones, coal, or rock salt. He who abandons the simple and correct *Many of these phrases having no corresponding terms in English have not been retained in the text, but the idea has been expressed in our own language. — Tr. MINING. way pointed out by geological experience, runs the risk os groping in conjecture and doubt, and this is of particular importance in mining, for it is an enterprise, brilliant and full of promise, but at the same time expensive, and often illusory.

Excepting mariners and foresters,* there is no class of men more superstitious than miners. The reasons of this are to be found in their secluded life, in their exposure to delusions of various kinds, in the dangers which they en counter, and in their constant conflict with subterranean difficulties, and the elements ; much must remain enigmati cal to the unenlightened miner, and even the progress of knowledge, which distinguishes the present times, has not entirely dispelled his awful dread of the higher mysterious powers of nature, and hence the legends of tormenting spirits,! so prevalent in mountain districts. The discovery of metallic veins and deposites of ore is connected with narratives, that border on the fabulous. It is said that in Spain some shepherds discovered a silver mine, by observing the melted metal on the ground, in places where the forest had been cleared by a conflagra tion.

The discovery of the celebrated silver ore of Po tosi, in Peru, (1545,) is ascribed to an Indian hunter. He tore a shrub from the earth, around the roots of which were twisted the finest threads of silver, which proved to be the shoots ofa large metallic mass. A poor man pick ing up wood first discovered the rich deposite of silver, which the sterile soil of Cossiasso in Chili affords, (1832.) Within four days, sixteen veins of silver were exposed, and in less than three weeks, they amounted to forty. Of the discovery of the mines at Kremnitz and Chemnitz in Hun gary, it is related, that it was occasioned by finding nu- *A peculiar class of men on the continent of Europe, who keep the forests in order, of about the same grade as the "game keepers" of English noblemen. — Tr. j-Cobalt, the name of one of the ores, is of German origin, and, in that language, signifies an evil being or a malicious spirit.

It was given to it, says the Abbe Haiiy, by the German miners, on account of the inconvenience experienced by them from the arsenical vapor, which proceeded from the ore, and which, they imagined, was sent out by an unfriendly genius, who inhabited the mines, and who de lighted in tormenting them. — Ed. DISCOVERT OF ORES. merous grains of gold in the entrails of pheasants and par tridges, which had been shot in the vicinity,just as sand is found in other animals. It is said that a very productive vein of copper was discovered near Brunswick in the United States, from some persons having observed near the place late at night, blue flames which shot up from the earth about six feet, but were soon again extinguished. After digging a short depth, it is said, several masses of native copper were found.* The belief is prevalent among the miners of Transylvania, that the appearance of flames on the surface is a sure indication of the presence of me tallic veins below.

Even Born, who has distinguished himself by his labors relating to the art of mining in Aus tria, and who is worthy of confidence, says, "that the eruption of an inflammable atmosphere'' in the forest of Nageg-Ader, led to the discovery of the rich metallic de posit at that place. The legend is still prevalent at Falun in Sweden, so celebrated for its productive mines, that a stag was caught with his horns entirely covered with a crust of ochre. We can easily distinguish between the true and fabulous in these and similar stories ; many ex ceed the bounds of credibility. Columbus — who himself seems to have regarded gold as one of the sacred and mysterious treasures of the earth, relates, that in his time the superstitious opinion prevailed among the natives of Hispaniola, that if a man desired to find gold in distant mountains, he must first endure fasting and other priva tions.

A remarkable example of superstition reigning among this class of men, and at the same time, an evidence of the difficulty of eradicating these deeply rooted prejudices, is afforded by that oracle of antiquity, the divining rod. In Germany, where it was probably introduced in the 11th century, it has nearly fallen into disuse. Whilst some re garded the rod as operated on by a charm, or as self-delu sion, others looked on it as a fantastical speculation, until * We do not know to which Brunswick the author refers. There are no less than eleven towns of that name in the U. States. It is probable, however, it is Brunswick, New Jersey. Of the incident here mentioned we have no knowledge, and are inclined to regard it as fabulous. — Ed. MINING. finally the majority came to the conclusion, that the use of such means for the purpose of determining the locality of ores or water, militated against sound reason and the laws of nature; — that the motion of the rod was the result of contemptible trickery by pressure, or an unobserved turning of the wrist.

About sixty years ago a book ap peared in France, in which the use of the magic rod was violently defended, and its effects attributed to the laws, which govern magnetism aud electricity. The common miners in Cornwall — where the divining rod was intro duced by a Spanish renegado — believe that its operatioa ceases, as soon as the slightest confidence in its infallibili ty is lost. It is said still to have some advocates in the United States ; at least it was the case not many years ago, and it was particularly employed in determining the lo cality of subterranean springs.* *It is believed that very few persons, possessed of science, or of common sense, can, at the present day, tic found in the United States, who have the slightest confidence in the pretendi-dly wonderful powers ofthe divining rod.

The period of that strange delusion has vanished and gone, never, it is hoped, to return. There were, it is true, fifteen years ago, a multitude of individuals, scattered throughout the length and breadth of the land — men of talents, of integrity, and even men of unquestionable piety, who were, in relation lo this matter, "deceived and deceivers." Their reasoning faculties were spell-bound by the influence of this ancient charm. Seldom, and perhaps never, did they, at that period, exercise their skill in attempting to make known, where there is "a vein for the silver, or the place for gold." Their labors had a different end in view. They were able, as many of them honestly thought, to determine, with absolute certainly, the location of subterranean springs, and what depth the well-digger must sink his pit, in order to reach the unfailing fountain.

This wonderful agent has, we are aware, been employed, in different ages of the world, for very different purposes — not only for the discovery of underground springs of fresh and salt water— and of beds and veins of the ores of different metals— but, also for the finding of stolen property, and, particularly, for the detection and obtainment of those chests of money, buried, as report proclaims, all over the country, by that notorious gentleman, Captain Kidd. In searching for the last mentioned article, it was supposed to be essential, that the seeker should have same fellowship with spirits ofthe nether world— or a sort of co-partnership with his majesty of the black art. But at the time to which we allude, no such pretensions were made, or entertained. Hundreds ot the practitioners would have THE DIVINING ROD.

I will explain in a few words, the character of this talis man, and its mysterious operation. The divining rod, virgula divinitoria, is a forked branch of any tree with a smooth bark ; in some places the hazel is preferred. If cut in a proper quarter of the moon, this twig will serve to discover hidden treasures, veins of precious metals, and deposites of rock salt, as well as springs of water. It is been horror-struck, at the merest intimation, that they were operated on by any unhallowed, and more especially, by any satanic influ ence. They did, indeed, imagine that they had, without the use of unauthorized means, unlocked Dame Nature's port-folio, and taken away from her ladyship one more of her valuable secrets. It was the persuasion of some, that, in an age when the sun of science was pouring such a flood of light on the world, man had been enabled to detect a new principle in philosophy — something similar, perhaps, to electricity, or magnetism, and who knows, thought they, but it will, when fully understood, prove as important to mankind as either of those sciences.

Those, who were so fortunate as to possess hands, in which the rod would divine — for it would not in all hands — exercised their new talent, exclusively, we believe, in giving instruction to the uninitiat ed, in relation to the proper places for digging wells. Some made it their sole business — their profession — to impart information on this subject, and for their services, had as regular a compensation, as the physician has for his. Among a certain class of men, it was deemed extremely injudicious, and wasteful of property, to attempt to dig for water, without having first ascertained, by the diviner's rod, the pre cise spot where it could be obtained most certainly, and with the least expense. Others imparted their supposed knowledge to their neighbors and friends without charge. A worthy clergyman, who was at my house, many years since, on a visit, told me that he was a firm believer in the efficacy of the divining rod; that he had not the shadow ofa doubt, that it was an infallible indicator of water.

"You are incredulous, said he, but there is, I assure you, nothing inexplicable in this affair: It is only a new principle of electricity. The vapor from the water, impreg naiing the rod, causes it to incline towards the spring, in the same manner that light bodies are drawn towards a piece of rubbed am ber, or that the magnetic needle turns towards soft iron. You want to dig a well," continued the gentleman, "and I will give you a practical lesson on the subject." From a peach tree, he cut a fork ed branch, and having prepared it, secundum artem, he grasped a limb of it in each hand, and walked slowly over the grounds near the house. After a few minutes, the electrical motion commenced, and directed the carrier of the rod to the desired point. "Here," said the good man, "here is water, and you will not be obliged to go 2* MINING. not in every man's hands that the rod will display its astonishing properties ; it is necessary to be born in a certain month ; a warm, soft hand is especially important.