System of Universal Geography; founded on the works of Malte-Brun and Balbi ... A new edition, revised and corrected throughout, etc

Front matter

SYSTEM "F UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. » SYSTEM OF UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY; FOUNDED ON THE WORKS OF MALTE-BRUN AND BALBI; EMBRACING THE HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERT, THE PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, AND A COMPLETE DESCRIPTION, FROM THE MOST RECENT SOURCES, OF ALL THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD- ANEW EOITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED THROUGHOUT WITH ALPHABETICAL INDICES OF 13.500 NAMES EDINBURG II ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK; AND LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, LONDON. MDCCCXL1X. STKU.EOTTPED AND PRINTED BY 6TEVENS0N 4 DO.* THISTLE STREET, IllNCU U. • PREFACE, «.i'i When the Publishers of the present Work had completed the English Transla tion of Malte-Brun's Geography, in nine volumes octavo, they were repeatedly urged to publish an abridgment of it in a single volume. With this view they engaged the services of several writers, whose talents and studies peculiarly fit ted them for the departments respectively allotted to them ; while the whole work was, at the same time, placed under the care of a gentleman well qualified to undertake the general superintendence.

Before, however, much progress had been made in preparing the materials for the press, it was discovered that a mere abridgment of Malte-Brun's text would be very unsatisfactory ; and the attention of the Editor having been di rected to the second edition of Adrien Balbi's " Abrege de Geographie," he was satisfied that the perspicuous and systematic arrangement of that book offered a better plan for the construction of the present volume. It has accordingly been adopted as the basis of this Work ; which, however, is not so much an abridgment of the labours of these two celebrated Geographers, as an entirely new compilation, embodying information communicated by later writers, and not accessible at the time when the large work of Malte-Brun was published. In reference to the authorship ofthe following Work : — the " Historical Sketch ofthe Progress of Geographical Discovery," which forms the First Chapter of the Introductory portion, was originally written by M. Larenaddiere, Editor of the French Abridgment of Malte-Brun's " Precis."

It was translated by Robert Hamilton, M. D , and considerable modifications and additions to the present time, were made by Mr. Laurie. The Second Chapter, containing the " Principles of Mathematical Geography," was, with similar modifications and additions, translated from Malte-Brun's text, by Thomas Galloway, Esq., Secretary to the Royal Astronomical Society. " Physical Geography in relation to the Inorganic part ofthe Globe," which forms the subject of the Third Chapter, is from the pen of J. P. Nichol, LL.D., Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The first Three Sections of the Fourth Chapter were written by John H. Balfotjr, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh ; and the remaining Section, as well as the first three Sections of the succeeding Chapter on Political Geography, were contributed principally by Mr. James Laurie.

Preface

. was written by Mr. James Laurie, and conducted by him as general Editor to its completion. The object kept in view throughout has been to produce a Work on Geo graphy which would be generally useful. The Contributors conceived it to be no part of their business as Geographers to give minute descriptions and long classified lists of the various objects of Natural History. All that they deemed it necessary to do in this respect, was to give those general views of Natural Science connected with Geography which will be found in the Introduction ; while, in the body of the work, they have confined themselves, with very few exceptions, to short notices of such objects of Natural History as are conducive to the subsistence and the comfort of man, or to the promotion of national in dustry and the useful arts— objects, in short, the nature of which all can under stand and appreciate.

As a book of reference, its value will be understood at once from the simple fact, that the principal Index contains a much larger num ber of names than is to be found in any English Gazetteer. The sources from which the Work has been compiled are generally indicated in their proper places throughout the volume. The writers have stated nothing but on what they conceived to be good authority, though in many cases they have found the authorities so perplexingly at variance as to make it extremely difficult to determine which ought to be followed. They have not allowed themselves to indulge in those moral, economical, and political speculations, with which some Geographers largely intersperse their works, conceiving that the space necessary for these may be much better em ployed in the statement of facts, from which the readers may draw inferences for themselves.

They have confined themselves to such subjects as they considered within their legitimate province, and such as are calculated to be useful to the great bulk of the reading Public. With this view, particular attention has been directed to the Sections embracing the British Islands, and the principal British Colonial Possessions, which, in addition to the strictly Geographical details, will be found to contain a larger amount of statistical information connected with their natural productions, commerce, and manufactures, than has yet appeared in any work of the same size. To facilitate the conversion of Foreign Weights and Measures into the British standard, part of an able article on that subject, from the Seventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, has been prefixed to the Work. . No pains have been spared to procure the latest and most correct accounts of the various countries of the world.

The most recent books of travels have been consulted, and due advantage has been taken of the Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society of London — the most valuable contributions which modern research has made to Geographical Science. In short, it is confidently hoped that, in respect of accuracy and extent of information, the present work will be found, at the least, not inferior to any similar publication. CONTENTS. INTROD UCTJO]!f'.os Eu**-' I. — Historical Sketch of the Progress of Geographical Discovert, page 1. II. — Principles of Mathematical Geography. — § 1. Of the Earth considered with relation to the other Celestial Bodies, 29. § 2. Of the Dimensions and Figure of the Earth, 40.— § 3. Of Globes and Maps, 44. § 4. Of the Calendar, § 5. Principal Elements of the Solar System, 55. § 6.

Measure of Latitude, 56. III. — Physical Geography, in relation to the Inorganic Part of the Globe. — § 1. Phenomena of the Land, 57. § 2. Phenomena of the Water which covers part of the surface of the Globe, and its action upon the Land, 63. § 3. The Constitution and Motion of the Atmosphere ; Physical Climate ; Meteorological Phenomena, 73. IV. — Physical Geography, in relation to Organized Beings ; or the Geographical Distribution of Vegetables, of Animals, and of the Human Race. — § 1. On the Geographical Distribution of Vegetables, 83. § 2. On the Geographical Distribution of Animals, 93. § 3. On the Fossil Remains of Organic Bodies, Vegetable aud Animal, 100. § 4. On the Geographical Distribution of the Human Race, 105. V. — Political Geography, or Geographical Science, in relation to Mankind in Society. — § 1.

The Influence of External Causes on the Social Condition of Man, 110. § 2. Of the Classification of Mankind according to their Languages, 116. § 3. Classification of Mankind according to their Religions, 117. § 4. Of Mankind in. respect to Civil Government and the Customs of Society, 128. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. General Description of Europe. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Seas, and Gulfs, 137. Straits and Capes, 139. Peninsulas, Rivers, 140. Lakes, Islands, 141. Mountains, 142. Tablelands or Plateaux, Volcanoes, 166. Valleys and Plains, Deserts, Steppes and Lands, Climate, 167. Minerals, 169. Vegetation, 170. Animals, 171. Population, People, and Languages, 172. Rebgions, 175. Government and Political Divisions, 176. ENGLAND and WALES. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 177.

Gulfs, Bays, and Strait, 180. Capes, Islands, Sandbanks, Shoals, 180. Rivers, 181. Mountains, Valleys, Plains, Climate, 182. Geology and Mineral Productions, 183. Soil and Vegetation, 188. Animals, 189. People and Language, 190. Population, 191. Religion and Ecclesiastical Divisions, 194. Education, 195. Government, 197. Finances, 198. Army and Navy, 199. Productive Industry — Agriculture, 201. Fisheries, 202. Mines, 203. Manufactures, 204. Commerce, 207. Income of the Population, 216. Internal Communication — Roads, 216. Canals, 217. Railways, 220. Administrative and Ancient Divisions, 222. Topography, 224. List of Parliamentary Cities and Boroughs, 257. SCOTLAND. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 260. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, 261. Capes, 263. Islands, Sandbanks, Shoals, Rivers, 263.

Lakes, 264. Mountains, Valleys, Plains, Climate, Geology and Mineral Productions, 265. Animals, 268. People and Language, Population, Religion, and Ecclesiastical Divisions, 269. Education, 274. Government, 275. Public Revenue, 276. Productive Industry — Agriculture, 276. Fisheries, Manufactures, Commerce, 277. Internal Communication — Canals, Railways, 278. Administrative Divisions, Cities, and Towns, 279. Parliamentary Representation, 291. IRELAND. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 292. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, 293. Capes, Islands, 294. Rivers, Lakes, Mountains, Climate, 295. Geology and Mineral Productions, 296. Soil and Vegetation, 298. Animals, People, and Population, 299. Religion, 300. Education, 301. Government and Finances, 302. Productive Industry — Agriculture, 302.

Fisheries, Ma- CONTENTS. nufaetures, 303. Commerce, 304. Roads and Inland Navigation 304. Civil Divi sions, 305. Ecclesiastical Divisions, 306. Cities and Towns, 307. Parliamentary Representation, 310. Tabular View of the British Empire, 311. FRANCE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 315. Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Capes, 316. Rivers, 317. Mountains, Geology and Mineral Productions, 318. Climate, 321. Vegetable Productions, 322. Animals, 323. People, 325. Population, 326. ReUgion and Ecclesiastical Divisions, 327. Education, 328. Government, 330. Administrative Divisions, 331. Judiciary Establishments, 332. Public Revenues, 333. Military Administration, Forts and Naval Stations, Army and Navy, 334. Productive Industry, 339. Commerce, 339. Internal Communication, 340.

Table ofthe Old Provinces, with the Corresponding Departments, 341. Geographical and Statistical Table of the Eighty-six Departments, 342. Cities and Towns, 343. Colonies and Foreign Possessions, 361. Republic of Andorre, 361. SWITZERLAND.— Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 362. Lakes and Rivers, 364. Mountains, People, Religion, Government, 365. Revenues, Army and Fortresses, 366. Productive Industry, 367. Commerce, and Divisions, 368. Topography, 369. BELGE or BELGIUM. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Area and Appropriation of the Provinces, Rivers, Climate, 376. Geology and Mineral Productions, 377. People and Population, 377. Religion and Education, 378. Government and Military Force, 379. Productive Industry and Commerce, 380.

Internal Communication, 381. Administrative Divisions, 381. Cities and Towns, 382. HOLLAND. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 385. Area and Appropriation of the land, Rivers, Canals, Seas, Gulfs, Islands, 386. People, Religion, Education, Government, 387. Fortresses aud Naval Arsenals, Productive Industry, Commerce, 388. Administrative Divisions, Cities and Towns, 389. Colonies, 391. GERMANY. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Mountains, Rivers, 392. Lakes, Canals, Railroads, 394. Geology, 395. Minerals, CUmate, 396. Vegetable Productions, 397. Animals, 398. People, 399. Education and Religion, 400. Government, 401. Industry, 403. Commerce, 405. Commercial League, 406. Political Divisions and Topography, 407. German Empire and Mediatized Princes, 420.

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Component Parts, Physical Aspect, Climate, &c, 422, People, Religion, 423. Education, 424. Government, 425. Finance, 426. Army and Navy, 427. Industry and Commerce, 429. Internal Communications, 433. Topography — German Provinces, 434. Polish Countries, 444. Hungarian Countries, 445. Italian Provinces, 577. PRUSSIA. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, 462. Islands, Rivers, Climate, Vegetable Productions, Animals, People, 463. Population, Religion, Education, 464. Government, Revenues, 465. Army, 466. Productive Industry, 467. Internal Communications, Administrative Divisions, Topography, 470. DENMARK — Astronomical Position, Boundaries, General Aspect, Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, Capes, Islands, 476.

Rivers, Lakes, Climate, Vegetation, Animals, 477. People and Language, Population, Religion, 478. Education, Government, Revenues, 479. Army and Navy, Productive Industry, 480. Internal Communications, Administrative Divisions, 481. Cities and Towns, Foreign Possessions, 482. Heligoland, 483. SWEDEN and NORWAY, or THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA.— Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 484. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, 485. Capes, Islands, Rivers, Lakes, 486. Mountains, Climate, 487. Geology and Mineral Productions, 488. Soil and Vegetation, 489. Animals, 491. — Sweden. People, 491. Religion, 492. Education, 493. Government, 494. Finances, Army and Navy, 495. Productive Industry, 496. Internal Communication, 497. Administrative Divisions, Cities and Towns, 498. — Norway. People, 479.

Religion, Education Government, 500. Revenues, Army and Navy, Productive Industry, 501. Inland Communication, Administrative Divisions, Cities and Towns, 503. RUSSIA in EUROPE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 505. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, Capes, Islands, Rivers, 506. Lakes, 507. Climate, Geology and Mineral Productions, 508. Soil and Vegetation, 510. Animals CONTENTS. IX People and Population, 511. Education, 518. Religion, Government, Finances, 520. Army and Navy, 521. Productive Industry, 522. Internal Communication, Admi nistrative Divisions, 523. Topography, 524. Kingdom of Poland, 530. SPANISH PENINSULA. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 531. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, Capes, Islands, Rivers, 533. Lakes, Mountains, Climate, 534.

Geological Structure, 535. Vegetable Productions, 536. Animals, 537. — Kingdom of Spain. People, 537. Population, Education, Religion, 538. Government, 539. Finances, Army and Navy, Productive Industry, 540. Inland Communication, 543. Administrative Divisions, 544. Cities and Towns, 546. Foreign Possessions, 551.. — Kingdom of Portugal. People, 551. Education, Religion, Government, 552. Productive Industry, 553. Administrative Divisions, and Topography, 554. Foreign Possessions, 556. ITALY. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, 558. Capes, Islands, Rivers, 559. Lakes, 560. Climate, 561. Geology, 562. Soil and Vegetation, 563. Animals, People, and Language, 565. Religion, Education, 566. Government, and Political Divisions, 567. Productive Industry, 568.

Internal Communication, 573. Topography — 1. Sardinian States, 573. Island of Sardinia, 576. — 2. Lombardo -Venetian Kingdom, 577. — 3. Duchy of Parma; 4. Duchy of Modena, 580, 582.-5. Grand-Duchy of Tuscany, 581. — Duchy of Lucca ; 6. States of the Church, 582. — 7. Kingdom of Naples, or the two Sicilies, 586. — 8. Island of Sicily, 589. Malta, Gozo, Comino, 592. TURKEY IN EUROPE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Geology and Orography, 593. Gulfs, Bays, Straits, 595. Capes, Islands, 596. Rivers, Lakes, CUmate, 597. Soil and Vegetation, 598. Animals, People, 599, Religion, 601. Education, Government, 602. Finances, 603. Army and Navy, 604. Manufactures and Trade, 605. Internal Communication, 606. Divisions, Cities, and Towns, 607. HELLAS or GREECE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 614.

Climate, 615. Soil and Vegetation, Animals, 616. People, 617. Government, Education, Administrative Divisions, Religious Establishment, Finances, Army and Navy, Productive Industry, 618. Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places, 619. Islands, 620. Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Capes, Rivers, Lakes, Mountains, 621. IONIAN ISLANDS. — Names and Dimensions, General Aspect, People, Religion, Education, 621. Government, Productive Industry, 622. Cities and Towns, 623. Mediterranean Sea, 623. Recapitulatory Table of the European States, 623. ASIA. General Description. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Mountains, 625. Volcanoes, 629. Deserts, 630. Plains, Valleys, and Tablelands, Seas, Bays, Gulfs, Straits, Rivers, 631. Lakes, Islands, Climate, 632. Minerals, Vegetation, 633. Animals, People, 634.

Government, Divisions, 636. TURKEY or OTTOMAN ASIA. . — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Climate, 637. Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Capes, Islands, Rivers, 641. Lakes, 643. People, 644. Government, Productive Industry, Commerce, Divisions, 646. Cities and Towns in Asia-Minor and Armenia, 647. Cities and Towns, &c. in Syria and Palestine, 651. Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places in Algezira and Mesopotamia, 654. ARABIA. — Astronomical Position, Boundaries, Dimensions, General Aspect, Climate, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, 658. Capes, Islands, 659. Minerals, Vegetable Productions, Animals, People, 660. Government, Productive Industry, 661. Divisions, Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places, 663. PERSIA. — Situation and Divisions. — Kingdom of Iran. Astronomical Division, Boundaries, Dimensions, General Aspect, 665.

Climate, Natural Productions, People, 666. Religion, Education and Learning, 667. Government, Productive Industry, Commerce, Divisions, and Topography, 660. Islands, Rivers, Capes, 673. — Affghanistan. Situation, Boundaries, Dimensions, General Aspect, and Natural Productions, 675. People, 676. Cities and Towns, 676. Rivers and Lakes, 677. Beloochistan, 677. INDIA. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Name, General Aspect, 679. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, Capes, Rivers, 682. Lakes and Morasses, Geology and Mineral Productions, 683. Climate, 686. Vegetable Productions, 685. Animals, 689. CONTENTS. X People, 691. Languages, Education, 699. Religion, 700. Government, 705. Fi nances, Army and Navy, 707. Productive Industry, 708. Internal Communications, 710. Divisions and States, 711.

Topography— § 1. Government of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, 712. § 2. Government of Agra, or the N.W. Provmces, 717. fe A. Pre sidency of Madras, 721. § 4. Presidency of Bombay, 723. § 5. Subject States 725 § 6. Independent States, 732. § 7. Foreign Possessions, 735. § 8. The Islands of India, Ceylon, &c, 736. SOUTH-EASTERN PENINSULA.— Situation, Extent, Boundaries, General Aspect, Rivers, Capes, Islands, 742. People, Government, Industry, Commerce, Division, 743. § 1. Birman Empire, 744. § 2. Siam, 746. § 3. An-nam, 748. § 4. The Country of the Laos, 749. § 5. British Provinces, 749. § 6. The Malay States, 751. THE CHINESE EMPIRE.— -China. Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Name, General Aspect, 753. Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Islands, 754. Rivers, Lakes, Climate, 755. Vegetable Productions, Animals, People, 756.

Population, Education, Science and Literature, 758. Religion, 761. Government, 763. Finances, 763. Army and Navy, 764. Productive Industry, Public Works, 765. Commerce, 766. Division, Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places, 767. Subject Territories beyond China Proper, viz. Mongolia, 770. Little Bucharia, 771. Mantchouria, 772. Corea and Thibet, 773. Loochoo, 773. Ladakh, 773. TURKESTAN. — Situation, Extent, Boundaries, General Aspect, 775. Rivers, 776. Lakes, Climate, and Natural Productions, People, 777. Divisions — 1. Bokhara ; 2. Khunduz ; 3. Pamer ; 4. Khokhand, Kokhan or Ferganah, 779. — 5. Khiva and Turkmania, 780. RUSSIAN ASIA. — § 1. Caucasian Provinces, 781. §2. Siberia — Situation, Extent, and General Aspect, 787. Rivers and Lakes, 788. Climate, 789. Natural Productions, Animals, 790.

Mines and Minerals, People, 791. Industry and Commerce, 794. Divisions and Topography, 795. Seas, Bays, and Gulfs, Capes, Islands, 797. Kamtshatka, 797. THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN, 798, AFRICA. General Description. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Name, General Aspect, 801. Mountains, Plains, and Deserts, 802. Rivers and Lakes, Islands, Capes, Climate, Minerals, 803. Vegetable Productions, Animals, 804. People, 805. Religion, Government, Industry, and Commerce, 807. Social State, 808. Divisions, 809. REGION OF THE NILE.— Astronomical Position, Constituent Parts, River Nile, 810. § 1. Egypt — Situation and Extent, 811. General Aspect, 812. Oases, Deserts, &c, 813. River, Lakes, Canals, 814. Climate, 816. Vegetable Productions, 817. Animals, People, 819. Government, 822. Productive Industry, Education, 824.

Manufactures and Trade, 825. PubUc Works, Internal Communication, 826. Divisions, 827. Cities and Towns, 828. Antiquities, 830. § 2. Nubia, 832. § 3. Abyssinia, 834. MOGHREB or MAGHRIB. — Barbary. Boundaries and Dimensions, General Aspect, 837. Rivers and Lakes, Gulfs, Islands, 838. Climate, Vegetable Productions, 839. Animals, People, 840. Divisions— 1. Morocco; 2. Algeria or Algiers, 845. 3. Tunis, 848. 4. Tripoli and Barca, 848. Es-Sahara or The Desert, 848. Soudan or Negroland, 850. SOUTHERN AFRICA.— § 1. Countries on the West Coast, 858. § 2. Countries on the East Coast, 859. § 3. South Africa and the Cape Colony, 860. THE ISLANDS OF AFRICA.— Madagascar, Comoro Islands, Bourbon, 869. Mauritius, Seychelles, Socotra, Cape-Verd Islands, Fernando-Po, Principe, San Thome, Annobon, 870. St. Helena, Ascencion, Tristan da Cunha, Canary, Madeira, &c, 871.

AMERICA. General Description.— Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 872. Mountains 873. Seas, Gulfs, Straits, 875. Capes, Rivers, 877. Lakes, 882. Geology, 884 Mineral Productions, 885. Climate, 885. Vegetable Productions, 889. Animals, 891. People and Population, 893. Religion, 900. Divisions, RUSSIAN AMERICA, 901. CONTENTS. XI BRITISH CONTINENTAL TERRITORY in NORTH AMERICA §1. Hudson's Bay Company's Territories, 902. § 2. Canada, 902. § 3. New Brunswick, 912. § 4. Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, 912. § 5. Honduras, 913. UNITED STATES of NORTH AMERICA.— Situation, Extent, Boundaries, General Aspect, 914. Climate, 916. Vegetable and Mineral Productions, 917. People, 918. Education, 919. Religion, 922. Government, 923. Army and Navy, 925. Finances, 926. Productive Industry, 928.

Banking System, 935. Internal Communications, 937. Divisions, 940. Cities and Towns, 941. Western Territory, Western District, Oregon Territory, 948. Texas, 949. Mejico or Mexico, 949. California, 951. Yucatan, 952. United States of Central America, 952. Colombia, including Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador, 953. Peru, 954. Bolivia or Upper Peru, 955. Chili, 955. United Provinces of La Plata, or Argentine Republic, 956. Paraguay, Uruguay or Banda Oriental, Brazil, 957. Guiana, 958. Patagonia, 959. Islands of America, 959. The Arctic Polar Regions, 966. OCEANIA or OCEANIC A. I. — MALAYSIA. — General Description, 967. People, 968. Religion, Government, Industry, 972. Islands, 974. Seas and Capes, 979. II. — AUSTRALASIA. — Australia — Astronomical Position, General Aspect, Seas, Bays, Gulfs, Straits, 980.

Islands, Climate, 981. Vegetable Productions, 982. Animals, 983. People, 985. Divisions — 1. New South Wales, 986 ; 2. South Australia, 993 ; 3. Western Australia, 996 ; 4. North Australia, 997. Tasmania or Van Dieman's Land, 998. New Zealand, 1002. New Guinea, &c. 1009. III. — POLYNESIA. — General Description, 1011. Climate and Natural Productions, 1012. People, 1012. Languages, Government, Rebgion, 1013. Divisions — 1. Bonin Islands ; 2. Ladrone or Marian Islands ; 3. Carolinas or Caroline Islands ; 4. Feejee, Fidji, or Viti Islands, 1014. 5. Tonga or Friendly Islands ; 6. Navigator's, or Samoa or Hamoa Islands ; 7. Cook's or the Hervey Islands ; 8. The Society, Georgian, and Low Islands, with the dangerous Archipelago, 1015. 9. The Austral Isles ; 10. The Marquesas and Washington Islands ; 11.

The Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands, 1016. 12. Kermadec Islands ; 13. Scattered Islands, 1017. ANTARCTIC REGIONS, 1018. POPULATION of Great Britain, and Islands in the British Sea, 1020. INDEX of PLACES, 1023. INDEX of the Names of Nations, Tribes, Families of Mankind, of Religious Sects, and Miscellaneous Information, 1055. TABLES of WEIGHTS and MEASURES, page xiii of Introduction. USED IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Great Britain — The following is a tabular view of the Weights and Measures according to the present state of the law, throughout the British empire. In some of the Colonies, however, and particularly in India, a variety of other weights and measures are still in use, which will be found under their proper heads. It is only necessary to observe, that all the quantities in the same horizontal line of the same table are equal to each other.

TROY WEIGHT. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. In these two weights the grain, the ounce, and pound are the same. The troy is used for the precious metals and for jewels, as also in trying the strength of spirituous liquors, and for comparing different weights with each other. Four grains trov make a carat. But this term when applied to gold denotes its degree of fineness. Thus, the weight of any quantity or compound of that metal being supposed to be divided into 24 equal parts, if the mass be pure gold, it is said to be 24 carats fine. If it consist of 23 parts of pure gold and 1 of alloy, it is said to be 23 carats fine, and so on. Diamonds and pearls are also weighed by carats of 4 grains, but 5 diamond grains are only equal to 4 troy grains. This sort of weight is not very different all over the globe.

There are 150 diamond carats in the troy ounce. Apothecaries' weight is chiefly used for medical prescriptions ; but drugs are mostly bought and sold, especially in wholesale, by avoirdupois weight. AVOIRDUPOIS OR COMMERCIAL WEIGHT. The above lb. of 7000 troy grains was formerly subdivided into 7680 avoirdupois grains, 10 of which made a scruple, 30 a dram, and 480 an ounce. The troy pound is less than the avoirdupois in the proportion of 144 to 175, or of 14 to 17 nearly; but the troy ounce is greater than the avoirdupois in the proportion of 192 to 175, or of 79 to 72 nearly. MEASURES OF LENGTH. Three inches make a palm, 4 inches a hand, 5 feet a pace, and 6 feet a fathom. In cloth measure, 2^ inches = 1 nail, 4 nails = J quarter, and 4 quarters- 1 yard. Grains. Dwts. Oz. 24 1 ... 480 20 I 5760 240 12 Lb. 1 Troy Grains. 20 60 480 5760 Scruples. 1 3 21 288 Drams.

Oz. "i "! 8 1 96 12 Lb. i Troy Grains. 437'5 7000 98000 196000 784000 15680000 Drains. 16 256 3584 7168 28672 573440 1 16 224 448 1792 35840 Oz. 1 14 28 112 2240 Lb. Stones. 1 2 8 tea Qrs. Cwts. Ton. 20 1 I 4 80 Inches. Links. Feet. \ Yards. ; | I 7'92 1 ... j .. 12 1-515 1 36 4-545 3 1 198 25 16-5 5-5 702 100 66 22 7920 1000 660 220 63360 18000 5280 1760 Pole or Perch. Chains. hZg's. Mile- "i '.'.'. 8 1 1 "4 40 320 1 10 MEASURES OF SURFACE. of stone, brick, or slate work, 36 square yards are termed a rood, and 100 square feet of flooring a square. There are 1728 cubic inches in the cubic toot, and 27 cubic feet in the cubic yard ; 40 cubic feet of rough, or 50 of hewn timber, make a load or ton. A cubic yard of earth is called a load. IMPERIAL LIQUID AND DRY MEASURE, Deduced from the Standard Gallon containing 10 Us. avoirdupois of distilled water at the ueauceujroi temperature of62o Fahrenheit, and Barometer 30 inches.

This measure came first into operation 1st January 1826, but has only been com pulsory as the sole legal measure of capacity since 1st January 1836. The peck, bushel, coomb, and quarter are dry measures only. Foreign. In the following general comparison of the principal foreign weights Foreign. In the following general comparison of the principal foreign weights and measures with the British, instead of the term imperial, which alone must be nearly unintelligible to foreigners, and indeed has become next to superfluous after every other standard has ceased to be legal in this country, we shall use the term British to denote such of the standards as are uniform, and troy and avoirdupois to express the two different kinds of weight respectively. Algiers. — Since the French conquest, the metrical system and systeme usuel of France are generally used by European merchants.

The metalli of oil = 37 '375 lbs. avoirdupois; and 100 rotoli = 119 lbs. avoirdupois. The metical=73 troy grains. The Turkish pic used for cloth = 24-5 British inches ; but the Moorish pic is only three fourths as long; and 16 tarries = 1 caffise = 8'75 British bushels. Arabia The weights and measures of Egypt are much used where tbe sway of Mehemet Ali has extended. Besides these, 200 rattles = 100 maunds = 10 frazils =1 bahar _ 222-5 lbs. avoird. Argentine Republic Same as in Spain. Austria. — Ofthe weights, 32 loths = 16 oz. =4 quarters = 1 commercial lb. ; and 100 lbs. =1 centner = 123-56 lbs. avoird. Also 20 lbs. = 1 stone. The Vienna mark of 4333 grains troy is used for gold and silver. Five such marks make nearly 6 marks of Cologne. Of Vienna measures, 6 feet make one klafter or fathom=6'23 Brit, feet; 1 ell = 30-6 Brit, inches; 4000 klaftern = l posting mile = 4-71 Brit, miles; and the joch = 6889 Brit. sq. yds.

Also 70 kopfen = 40 masses = 4 viertels = 1 1 2-46 Brit. gall. Of wine, 32 eimers=l fuder ; and 30 eimers = l dreyling. Eight achtels of corn= 4 viertels = 1 metzen = l'69 Brit, bushel, and 30 metzen make 1 muth. At Trieste, the woollen ell = 26-6 Brit, inches ; the silk ell = 25-22 Brit, inches ; the eimer or orna of wine = 12-45 Brit, gallons; the barile = 144-5 Brit. gall. The orna of oil= 14-17 Brit. gall. ; and the stajo of corn = 2-272 Brit, bushels. But sometimes the weights and measures of Venice are used here. In public and official matters, the decimal system of France was in effect adopted, though under a different nomenclature, in the Austrian states of Italy in 1804. Thus Square Inches. Square Links. Square Feet. Square Yards. Square Pole or Perch. Square Chain. Square Rood. Acre- 62-729 1 ••• 144 2-295 1 1296 20-661 9 i 39204 625 272-25 30-25 627-'64 10000 4356 484 1568160 25000 10890 1210 6272640 100000 43560 4840 1 16 40 160 1 2-5 10 i 4 "i 5s £ 'tt.S Ife a. 3 a _j5 i | 0. g i a O £ a 1 Qt 1-25 2-5 5 10 20 80 320 640 34-659 69-318 138-637 277-274 554-548 2218191 8872-763 17745526 4 8 16 32 64 256 1024 2048 1 2 4 8 16 64 256 512 1 2 4 8 32 128 256 1 2 4 16 64 128 2 8 32 64 1 4 16 32 i 4 8 f 2 "i 10,000 grani=1000 denari = 100 grossi=10 oncie = l libra nouva=l kilogramme ='2-2086 lbs. avoird. ; 1000 atomi=100 ditti=10 palmi = l metre = 393708 Brit, inches; and 1000 copi = 100 liti = 10 mine = 1 soma = 1 hectolitre = 27512 Brit, bushels.

The de cimal system is principally used in public affairs, the old weights and measures being in more general use for ordinary trade. In Milan, the mark = 3627 grains troy ; the lb. peso grosso = 23343 lbs. sottile= 1-6818 lb. avoird. ; and the oil rubio = 475 same lbs. The wine brenta =1572 Brit, gall.; the corn stajo = 2-008 Brit, pecks. In Venice, the lb. peso grosso = 1-0519 lb. avoird.; the lb. sottile = -6643 lb. avoird. ; and the mark = 3681-5 grs. troy. The woollen braccio=26-6 Brit, inches; the silk braccio = 248 same inches ; the wine seccho = 2-376 Brit. galL ; the oil miro = 3-354 Brit. gall. ; and the corn stajo = 2-20 Brit, bushels. Australia. — Same as in Britain. Baden. — One hundred lbs. = 10 stones =1 centner = 50 kilogrammes = 1 10'2429 lbs., avoird. There are 2 feet in the new aune=6 decimetres=23.62 Brit, inches.