System of universal geography, founded on the works of Malte-Brun and Balbi, etc

Front matter

SYSTEM OF UNIVEESAL GEOGRAPHY SYSTEM OF UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY, FOUNDED ON THE WORKS OP MALTE-BRUN AND BALBI; EMBRACING A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY, THE PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, AND A COMPLETE DESCRIPTION, FROM THE MOST RECENT SOURCES, OF THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF ALL THE COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD; WITH NUMEROUS STATISTICAL TABLES, AND AN ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF 12,000 NAMES, EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK; AND LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, LONDON. MDCCCXLII. STEREOTYPED AND PIUNTKD BY STEVENSON * CO, THISTLE 6TREKT, E!>I>Bl'B6H.

Preface

. The Publishers of the present Work, when they had completed the English Translation of Malte-Brun's Geography, in nine volumes octavo, were re peatedly urged to publish an abridgment of it in one volume. With this view they engaged the services of several writers, whose talents and studies peculiarly fitted them for the departments respectively allotted them ; while the whole Work was, at the same time, placed under the care of a gentleman well qualified to undertake the general superintendence. Before, however, much progress had been made in preparing the materials for the press, it was discovered that a mere abridgment of Malte-Brun would be very unsatisfactory ; and the attention of the Editor having been directed to the second edition of the " Abrege de Geographie par A. Balbi," he was satisfied that the perspicuous and systematic arrangement of that book offered a better plan for the construction of the present volume.

It has accordingly been adopted as the basis of this Work; which, however, is not so much an abridgment ofthe labours of these two celebrated Geographers, as an entirely new compilation, the Editor having preferred the information communicated by later and more correct writers, to that which was accessible at the time when the large work of Malte-Brun was published. Of the following Work, Chapter I. of the Introduction was originally written by M. Larenaudiere, Editor of the French Abridgment of Malte-Brun, and was translated by Robert Hamilton, M. D., with considerable modifications and additions. Chapters II. III. and IV. are also translations from the work of Malte-Brun, with similar modifications and additions: Chapter II., by Thomas Galloway, Esq. ; Chapter III., by J. P. Nichol, LL.D., Professor of Astro nomy in the University of Glasgow ; and Chapter IV., by John H. Balfour, M. D., Professor of Botany in the same University.

Section 4 of Chapter IV., and Sections 1, 2, 3, of Chapter V., were contributed by Mr. James Laurie, and Section _ of Chapter V. by Mr. Hugh Smith, being founded principally on the basis of the Abrege of Balbi. For the Geological Sections of England, Scot land, and France, the Editor is chiefly indebted to Alexander Rose, Esq., of Queen's College, Edinburgh. The remainder of the volume was written by Mi- James Laurie, who has also performed the duty of general Editor. The object kept in view throughout has been to produce a Work on Geo graphy which would be generally useful. The Contributors conceived it to be no part of their business as Geographers to give minute descriptions and long classi- VI

PREFACE.

. fied lists of the various objects of Natural History. All that they deemed it necessary to do in this respect, was to give those general views of Natural Science connected with Geography which will be found in the Introduction ; while, in the body of the work, they have confined themselves, with very few exceptions, to short notices of such objects of Natural History as are conducive to the subsist ence and the comfort of man, or to the promotion of national industry and the useful arts—objects, in short, the nature of which all can understand and appre ciate. As a book of reference, its value will be understood at once from the simple fact, that the Index contains a much larger number of names than is to be found in any English Gazetteer. The sources from which the Work has been compiled are generally indicated in their proper places throughout the volume.

The writers have stated nothing but on what they conceived to be good authority, though in many cases they have found the authorities so perplexingly at variance as to make it extremely difficult to determine which ought to be followed. They have not allowed themselves to indulge in those moral, economical, and political speculations, with which some Geographers largely intersperse their works, conceiving that the space necessary for these may be much better em ployed in the statement of facts, from which the readers may draw inferences for themselves. They have confined themselves to such subjects as they considered within their legitimate province, and such as are calculated to be useful to the great bulk of the reading Public. With this view, particular attention has been directed to the Sections embracing the British Islands, and the principal British Colonial Possessions, which, in addition to the strictly Geographical details, will be found to contain a larger amount of statistical information connected with their natural productions, commerce, and manufactures, than has yet appeared in any Work of the same size.

To facilitate the conversion of Foreign Weights and Measures into the British standard, part of an able article on that subject, from the Seventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, has been prefixed to the Work. No pains have been spared to procure the latest and most correct accounts of the various countries of the world. The most recent books of travels have been consulted, and due advantage has been taken of the Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society of London — the most valuable contributions which modern research has made to Geographical Science. In short, the Editor flatters himself, that in respect of accuracy and extent of information, the present Work will be found, at the least, not inferior to any similar publication. CONTENTS.

Introduction

. L — Historical Sketch op the Progress of Geographical Discovery, page 1. IL — Principles of Mathematical Geography. — § 1. Of the Earth considered with relation to the other Celestial Bodies, 29. § 2. Of the Dimensions and Figure of the Earth, 40.— § 3. Of Globes and Maps, 44. § 4. Of the Calendar, § S. Principal Elements of the Solar System, 55. § 6. Measure of Latitude, 56. III. — Physical Geography, in relation to the Inorganic Part of the Globe. — § 1. Phenomena of the Land, 57. § 2. Phenomena of the Water which covers part of the surface of the Globe, and its action upon the Land, 63. § 3. The Constitution and Motion of the Atmosphere ; Physical Climate ; Meteorological Phenomena, 73. IV. — Physical Geography, in relation to Organized Beings ; or the Geographical Distribution of Vegetables, of Animals, and of the Human Race. — § 1.

On the Geographical Distribution of Vegetables, 88. § 2. On the Geographical Distribution of Animals, 93. § 3. On the Fossil Remains of Organic Bodies, Vegetable and Animal, 100. § 4. On the Geographical Distribution of the Human Race, 105. V. — Political Geography, or Geographical Science, in relation to Mankind in Society. — § 1. The Influence of External Causes on the Social Condition of Man, 110. § 2. Of the Classification of Mankind according to their Languages, 116. § 3. Classification of Mankind according to their Religions, 117. §4. Of Mankind in respect to Civil Government and the Customs of Society, 128. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. General Description of Europe. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Seas, and Gulfs, 137. Straits and Capes, 139. Peninsulas, Rivers, 140. Lakes, Islands, 141.

Mountains, 142. Tablelands or Plateaux, Volcanoes, 166. Valleys and Plains, Deserts, Steppes and Lands, Climate, 167. Minerals, 169. Vegetation, 170. Animals, 171. Population, People, aud Languages, 172. Religions, 175. Government and Political Divisions, 176. ENGLAND and WALES. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 177. Gulfs, Bays, and Strait, 180. Capes, Islands, Sandbanks, Shoals, 180. Rivers, 181. Mountains, Valleys, Plains, Climate, 182. Geology and Mineral Productions, 183. Soil and Vegetation, 188. Animals, 189. People and Language, 190. Population, 191. Religion and Ecclesiastical Divisions, 1 94. Education, 195. Government, 197. Finances, 198. Army and Navy, 199. Productive Industry— - Agriculture, 201. Fisheries, 202. Mines, 203. Manufactures, 204. Commerce, 207.

Income of the Population, 216. Internal Communication — Roads, 216. Canals, 217. Railways, 220. Administrative and Ancient Divisions, 222. Topography, 224. List of Parliamentary Cities and Boroughs, 257. SCOTLAND. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 260. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, 261. Capes, 263. Islands, Sandbanks, Shoals, Rivers, 263. Lakes, 264. Mountains, Valleys, Plains, Climate, Geology and Mineral Productions, 265. Animals, 268. People and Language, Population, Religion, aud Ecclesiastical Divisions, 269. Education, 274. Government, 275. Public Revenue, 276. Productive Industry — Agriculture, 276. Fisheries, Manufactures, Commerce, 277. Internal Communication — Canals, Railways, 278. Administrative Divisions, Cities, and Towns, 279. Parliamentary Representation, 291.

IRELAND. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 292. Gulfs, Bjiys, and Straits, 293. Capes, Islands, 294. Rivers, Lakes, Mountains, Climate, 295. Geology and Mineral Productions, 296. Soil and Vegetation, 298. Animals, People, and Population, 299. Religion, 300. Education, 301. Government and Finances, 302. Productive Industry — Agriculture, 302. Fisheries, Ma- CONTENTS. nufactures, 303. Commerce, 304. Roads and Inland Navigation. 304. Civil Divi sions, 305. Ecclesiastical Divisions, 306. Cities and Towns, 307. Parliamentary Representation, 310. Tabular View of the British Empire, 311. FRANCE.— Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 315 Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Capes, 316. Rivers, 317. Mountains, Geology and Mineral Productions, 318. Climate, 321.

Vegetable Productions, 322. Animals, 323. People, 325. Population, 326. Religion and Ecclesiastical Divisions, 327. Education, 328. Government, 330. Administrative Divisions, 331. Judiciary Establishmeuts, 332. Public Revenues, 333. Military Administration, Forts and Naval Stations, Army and Navy, 334. Productive Industry, 339. Commerce, 339. Internal Communication, 340. Table ofthe Old Provinces, with the Corresponding Departments, 341. Geographical and Statistical Table of the Eighty-six Departments, 342. Cities and Towns, 343. Colonies and Foreign Possessions, 361. Republic of Andorre, 361. SWITZERLAND.— Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 362. Lakes and Rivers, 364. Mountains, People, Religion, Government, 365. Revenues, Army and Fortresses, 366. Productive Industry, 367.

Commerce, and Divisions, 368. Topography, 369. BELGE or BELGIUM. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Area and Appropriation ofthe Provinces, Rivers, Climate, 376. Geology and Mineral Productions, 377. People and Population, 377. Religion and Education, 378. Government and Military Force, 379. Productive Industry and Commerce, 380. Internal Communication, 381. Administrative Divisions, 381. Cities and Towns, 382. HOLLAND. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 385. Area and Appropriation of the land, Rivers, Canals, Seas, Gulfs, Islands, 386. People, Religion, Education, Government, 387. Fortresses and Naval Arsenals, Productive Industry, Commerce, 388. Administrative Divisions, Cities and Towns, 389. Colonies, 391. GERMANY. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Mountains, Rivers, 392.

Lakes, Canals, Railroads, 394. Geology, 395. Minerals, Climate, 396. Vegetable Productions, 397. Animals, 398. People, 399. Education and Religion, 400. Government, 401. Industry, 403. Commerce, 405. Commercial League, 406. Political Divisions and Topography, 407. German Empire and Mediatized Princes, 420. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Component Parts, Physical Aspect, Climate, &C, 422, People, Religion, 423. Education, 424. Government, 425. Finance, 426. Army and Navy, 427. Industry and Commerce, 429. Internal Communications, 433. Topography — German Provinces, 434. Polish Countries, 444. Hungarian Countries, 445. Italian Provinces, 577. PRUSSIA. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, 462. Islands, Rivers, Climate, Vegetable Productions, Animals, People, 463.

Population, Religion, Education, 464. Government, Revenues, 465. Army, 466. Productive Industry, 467. Internal Communications, Administrative Divisions, Topography, 470. DENMARK — Astronomical Position, Boundaries, General Aspect, Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, Capes, Islands, 476. Rivers, Lakes, Climate, Vegetation, Animals, 477. People and Language, Population, Religion, 478. Education, Government, Revenues, 479. Army and Navy, Productive Industry, 480. Internal Communications, Administrative Divisions, 481. Cities and Towns, Foreign Possessions. 482 Heligoland, 483. SWEDEN and NORWAY, or THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA.— Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 484. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, 485. Capes, Islands, Rivers, Lakes, 486. Mountains, Climate, 487. Geology and Mineral Productions, 488.

Soil and Vegetation, 489. Animals, 491.— Sweden People, 491. Religion, 492. Education, 493. Government, 494. Finances, Army and Navy, 49o. Productive Industry, 496. Internal Communication, 497. Administrative Divisions, Cities and Towns, 498.— Norway. People, 479. Religion, Education, Government, aOO. Revenues, Army and Navy, Productive Industry, 501. Inland Communication, Administrative Divisions, Cities and Towns, 503. RLSbIA in EUROPE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 505. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, Capes, Islands, Rivers, 506. Lakes, 507 Climate, Geology und Mineral Productions, 508. Soil and Vegetation, 5 1 0. Animals' CONTENTS. IX People and Population, 5 1 1 . Education, 518. Religion, Government, Finances, 520. Army and Navy, 521. Productive Industry, 522.

Internal Communication, Admi nistrative Divisions, 523. Topography, 524. Kingdom of Poland, 530. SPANISH PENINSULA. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 531. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, Capes, Islands, Rivers, 533. Lakes, Mountains, Climate, 534. Geological Structure, 535. Vegetable Productions, 536. Animals, 537. — Kingdom of Spain. People, 537. Population, Education, Religion, 538. Government, 539. Finances, Army and Navy, Productive Industry, 540. Inland Communication, 543. Administrative Divisions, 544. Cities and Towns, 546. Foreign Possessions, 551. — Kingdom of Portugal. People, 551. Education, Religion, Government, 552. Productive Industry, 553. Administrative Divisions, and Topography, 554. Foreign Possessions, 556. ITALY. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, 558.

Capes, Islands, Rivers, 559. Lakes, 560. Climate, 561. Geology, 562. Soil and Vegetation, 563. Animals, People, and Language, 565. Religion, Education, 56i_. Government, and Political Divisions, 567. Productive Industry, 568. Internal Communication, 573. Topography — 1. Sardinian States, 573. Island of Sardinia, 576. — 2. Lombardo -Venetian Kingdom, 577. — 3. Duchy of Parma; 4. Duchy of Modena, 580, 582.-5. Grand-Duchy of Tuscany, 581. — Duchy of Lucca; 6. States of the Church, 582. — 7. Kingdom of Naples, or the two Sicilies, 586.-8. Island of Sicily, 589. Malta, Gozo, Comino, 592. TURKEY IN EUROPE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Geology and Orography, 593. Gulfs, Bays, Straits, 595. Capes, Islands, 596. Rivers, Lakes, Climate, 597. Soil and Vegetation, 598.

Animals, People, 599, Religion, 601. Education, Government, 602. Finances, 603. Army and Navy, 604. Manufactures and Trade, 605. Internal Communication, 606. Divisions, Cities, and Towns, 607. HELLAS or GREECE. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 614. Climate, 615. Soil and Vegetation, Animals, 616. People, 617. Governmeut, Education, Administrative Divisions, Religious Establishment, Finances, Army ana Navy, Productive Industry, 618. Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places, 619. Islands, 620. Gulls, Bays, Straits, Capes, Rivers, Lakes, Mountains, 621. IONIAN ISLANDS. — Names and Dimensions, General Aspect, People, Religion, Education, 621. Government, Productive Industry, 622. Cities and Towns, 623. Mediterranean Sea, 623. Recapitulatory Table of the European States, 623.

ASIa4. General Description. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Mountains, 625. Volcanoes, 629. Deserts, 630. Plains, Valleys, and Tablelands, Seas, Bays, Gulfs, Straits, Rivers, 631. Lakes, Islands, Climate, 632. Minerals, Vegetation, 633. Animals, People, 634. Government, Divisions, 636. TURKEY or OTTOMAN ASIA. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, Climate, 637. Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Capes, Islands, Rivers, 641. Lakes, 643. People, 644. Government, Productive Industry, Commerce, Divisions, 646. Cities and Towns in Asia-Minor and Armenia, 647. Cities and Towns, &c. in Syria and Palestine, 651. Cities, Towns, aud Remarkable Places in Algezira and Mesopotamia, 654. ARABIA. — Astronomical Position, Boundaries, Dimensions, General Aspect, Climate, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, 658.

Capes, Islands, 659. Minerals, Vegetable Productions, Animals, People, 660. Government, Productive Industry, 661. Divisions, Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places, 663. PERSIA. — Situation and Divisions.— Kingdom of Iran. Astronomical Division, Boundaries, Dimensions, General Aspect, 665. Climate, Natural Productions, People, 666. Religion, Education and Learning, 667. Government, Productive Commerce, Divisions, and Topography, 660. Islands, Rivers, Capes, 673. — Affghanistan. Situation, Boundaries, Dimensions, General Aspect, and Natural Productions, 675. People, 676. Cities and Towns, 676. Rivers and Lakes, 677. Beloochistan, 677. INDIA — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Name, General Aspect, 679. Gulfs, Bays, and Straits, Capes, Rivers, 682. Lakes and Morasses, Geology and Mineral Productions, 683.

Climate, 686. Vegetable Productions, 685. A_i___-_, 689. CONTENTS. X People, 691. Languages, Education, 699. Religion, 700. Government, 705. Finances Army and Navy, 707. Productive Industry, 708. Internal Communications, 710. Divisions and States, 711. Topography -§ 1 • Government of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, 712. § 2. Government of Agra, or the NW. Provinces, 717. § 3. presidency of Madras, 721. § 4. Presidency of Bombay, 723. § 5. Subject States / 2o § 6. Independent States, 732. § 7. Foreign Possessions, ,35. § 8. Ine islands ol India, Ceylon, &c, 736. SOUTH-EASTERN PENINSULA.— Situation, Extent, Boundaries, General Aspect, Rivers, Capes, Islands, 742. People, Government, Industry, Commerce, Division, 743. § 1. Birman Empire, 744. § 2. Siam, 746. § 3. An-nam, 748. § 4. The Country of the Laos, 749. § 5.

British Provinces, 749. § 6. The Malay States, 751. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. — China. Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Name, General Aspect, 753. Gulfs, Bavs, Straits, Islands, 754. Rivers, Lakes, Climate, ' 755. Vegetable Productions, Animals, People, 756. Population, Education, Science and Literature, 758. Religion, 761. Government, 763. Finances, 763. Army and Navy, 764. Productive Industry, Public Works, 765. Commerce, 766. Division, Cities, Towns, and Remarkable"Places, 767. Subject Territories beyond China Proper, viz. Mongolia, 770. Little Bucharia, 771. Mantchouria, 772. Corea and Tlubet, 773. Loochoo, 773. Ladakh, 773. TURKESTAN. — Situation, Extent, Boundaries, General Aspect, 775. Rivers, 776. Lakes, Climate, and Natural Productions, People, 777. Divisions — 1. Bokhara ; 2.

Khunduz ; 3. Pamer; 4. Khokhand, Kokhan or Ferganah, 779. — 5. Khiva and Turkmania, 780. RUSSIAN ASIA. — § 1. Caucasian Provinces, 781. §2. Siberia — Situation, Extent, and General Aspect, 787. Rivers and Lakes, 788. Climate, 789. Natural Productions, Animals, 790. Mines and Minerals, People, 791. Industry and Commerce, 794. Divisions and Topography, 795. Seas, Bays, and Gulfs, Capes, Islands, 797. Kamtshatka, 797. THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN, 798. AFRICA. General Description. — Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, Name, General Aspect, 801. Mountains, Plains, and Deserts, 802. Rivers and Lakes, Islands, Capes, Climate, Minerals, 803. Vegetable Productions, Animals, 804. People, 805. Religion, Government, Industry, and Commerce, 807. Social State, 808. Divisions, 809. REGION OF THE NILE. — Astronomical Position, Constituent Parts, River Nile, 810. § 1.

Egypt — Situation and Extent, 811. General Aspect, 812. Oases, Deserts, &c, 813. River, Lakes, Canals, 814. Climate, 816. Vegetable Productions, 817. Animals, People, 819. Government, 822. Productive Industry, Education, 824. Manufactures and Trade, 825. Public Works, Internal Communication, 826. Divisions, 827. Cities and Towns, 828. Antiquities, 830. § 2. Nubia, 832. § 3. Abyssinia, 834. MOGHREB or MAGHRIB. — Barbary. Boundaries and Dimensions, General Aspect, 837. Rivers and Lakes, Gulfs, Islands, 838. Climate, Vegetable Productions, 839. Animals, People, 840. Divisions — 1. Morocco ; 2. Algeria or Algiers, 845. 3. Tunis, 848. 4. Tripoli and Barca, 848. Es-Sahara or The Desert, 848. Soudan or Negroland, 850. SOUTHERN AFRICA.— § 1. Countries on the West Coast, 858. § 2. Countries on the East Coast, 859. § 3.

South Africa and the Cape Colony, 860. THE ISLANDS OF AFRICA.— Madagascar, Comoro Islands, Bourbon, 869. Mauritius, Seychelles, Socotra, Cape-Verd Islands, Fernando-Po, Principe, San Thome, Annobon, 8/0. St. Helena, Ascencion, Tristan da Cunha, Canary, Madeira, e&c.,871. AMERICaI. g™eral Description.- Astronomical Position, Dimensions, Boundaries, General Aspect, 8,2. Mountains 8,3. Seas, Gulfs, Straits, 875. Capes, Rivers, 877. Lakes, _So gi'' I' ?',""_ Pr°du^ons, 885. Climate, 885. Vegetable Productions, 889. Animals, 891. People and Population, 893. Religion, 900. Divisions RUSSIAN AMERICA., 901. CONTENTS. XI BRITISH CONTINENTAL TERRITORY in NORTH AMERICA.— § 1. Hudson's Bay Company's Territories, 902. § 2. Canada, 902. § 3. New Brunswick, 912. § 4. Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, 912. § 5.

Honduras, 913. UNITED STATES of NORTH AMERICA.— Situation, Extent, Boundaries, General Aspect, 914. Climate, 916. Vegetable and Mineral Productions, 917. People, 918. Education, 919. Religion, 922. Government, 923. Army and Navy, 925. Finances, 926. Productive Industry, 928. Banking System, 935. Internal Communications, 937. Divisions, 940. Cities and Towns, 941. Western Territory, Western District, Oregon Territory, 948. Texas, 949. Mejico or Mexico, 949. California, 951. Yucatan, 952. United States of Central America, 952. Colombia, including Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador, 953. Peru, 954. Bolivia or Upper Peru, 955. Chili, 955. United Provinces of La Plata, or Argentine Republic, 956. Paraguay, Uruguay or Banda Oriental, Brazil, 957. Guiana, 958. Patagonia, 959. Islands of America, 959.

The Arctic Polar Regions, 966. OCEANIA or OCEANICA. I. — MALAYSIA. — General Description, 967. People, 968. Religion, Government, Industry, 972. Islands, 974. Seas and Capes, 979. II. — AUSTRALASIA. — Australia— Astronomical Position, General Aspect, Seas, Bays, Gulfs, Straits, 980. Islands, Climate, 981. Vegetable Productions, 982. Animals, 983. People, 985. Divisions— 1. New South Wales, 986 ; 2. South Australia, 993 ; 3. Western Australia, 996 ; 4. North Australia, 997. Tasmania or Van Dieman's Land, 998. New Zealand, 1002. New Guinea, &c. 1009. III.— POLYNESIA.— General Description, 1011. Climate and Natural Productions, 1012. People, 1012. Languages, Government, Religion, 1013. Divisions — 1. Bonin Islands ; 2. Ladrone or Marian Islands ; 3. Carolinas or Caroline Islands ; 4. Feejee, Fidji, or Viti Islands, 1014. 5.

Tonga or Friendly Islands ; 6. Navigator's, or Samoa or Hamoa Islands ; 7. Cook's or the Hervey Islands ; 8. The Society, Georgian, and Low Islands, with the dangerous Archipelago, 1015. 9. The Austral Isles ; 10. The Marquesas and Washington Islands ; 11. The Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands, 1016. 12. Kermadec Islands ; 13. Scattered Islands, 1017. ANTARCTIC REGIONS, 1018. ADDITIONS and CORRECTIONS, 10*20. POPULATION of Great Britain, and Islands in the British Sea, 1021. INDEX of PLACES, 1025. INDEX of the Names of Nations, Tribes, Families of Mankind, of Religious Sects, and Miscellaneous Information, 1056. TABLES of WEIGHTS and MEASURES, page xiii of Introduction. USED IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Great Britain. — The following is a tabular view of the Weights and Measures according to the present state of the law, throughout the British empire.

In some of the Colonies, however, and particularly in India, a variety of other weights and measures are still in use, which will be found under their proper heads. It is only necessary to observe, that all the quantities in the same horizontal line of the same table are equal to each other. TROY WEIGHT. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT In these two weights the grain, the ounce, and pound are the same. The troy is used for the precious metals and for jewels, as also in trying the strength of spirituous liquors, and for comparing different weights with each other. Four grains troy make a carat. But this term when applied to gold denotes its degree of fineness. Thus, the weight of any quantity or compound of that metal being supposed to be divided into 24 equal parts, if the mass be pure gold, it is said to be 24 carats fine.

If it consist of 23 parts of pure gold and 1 of alloy, it is said to be 23 carats fine, and so on. Diamonds and pearls are also weighed by carats of 4 grains, but 5 diamond grains are only equal to 4 troy grains. This sort of weight is not very different all over the globe. There are 150 diamond carats in the troy ounce. Apothecaries' weight is chiefly used for medical prescriptions ; but drugs are mostly bought and sold, especially in wholesale, by avoirdupois weight. AVOIRDUPOIS OR COMMERCIAL WEIGHT The above lb. of 7000 troy grains was formerly subdivided into 7680 avoirdupois grains, 10 of which made a scruple, 30 a dram, and 480 an ounce. The troy pound is less' than the avoirdupois in the proportion of 144 to 175, or of 14 to 17 nearly ; but the troy ounce is greater than the avoirdupois in the proportion of 192 to 175, or of 79 to 72 nearly.

There are 1728 cubic inches in the cubic foot, and 27 cubic feet in the cubic yard; 40 cubic feet of rough, or 50 of hewn timber, make a load or ton. A cubic yard of earth is called a load. IMPERIAL LIQUID AND DRY MEASURE, Deduced from the Standard Gallon containing 10 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled icater at the -^ temperature of 62° Fahrenheit, and Barometer 30 inches. This measure came first into operation lst January 1826, but has only been com pulsory as the sole legal measure of capacity since lst January 1836. The peck, bushel, coomb, and quarter are dry measures only. Foreign. — In the following general comparison of the principal foreign weights and measures with the British, instead of the term imperial, which alone must be nearly unintelligible to foreigners, and indeed has become next to superfluous after every other standard has ceased to be legal in this country, we shall use the term British to denote such of the standards as are uniform, and troy and avoirdupois to express the two different kinds of weight respectively.

Algiers Since the French conquest, the metrical system and systhne usuel of France are generally used hy European merchants. The metalli of oil = 37 375 lbs. avoirdupois; and 100 rotoli = 119 lbs. avoirdupois. The metical=73 troy grains. The Turkish pic used for cloth = 24-5 British inches ; hut the Moorish pic is only three fourths as long; and 16 tarries = 1 caffise = 8'75 British bushels. Arabia The weights and measures of Egypt are much used where the sway of Mehemet Ali has extended. Besides these, 200 rattles = 100 maunds_ 10 frazils =1 bahar_ 222-5 lbs. avoird. Argentine Republic Same as in Spain. Austria — Ofthe weights, 32 loths = 16 oz. =4 quarters = 1 commercial lb. ; and 100 lbs. = 1 centner = 123-56 lbs. avoird. Also 20 lbs. = 1 stone. The Vienna mark of 4333 grains troy is used for gold and silver.

Five such marks make nearly 6 marks of Cologne. Of Vienna measures, 6 feet make one klafter or fathom=6-23 Brit, feet; 1 ell = 30-6 Brit, inches; 4000 klaftern = l posting mile = 471 Brit, miles; and the joch = 6889 Brit. sq. yds. Also 70 kopfen = 40 masses = 4 viertels = 11246 Brit. gall. Of wine, 32 eimers=l fuder ; and 30 eimers=l dreyling. Eight achtels of corn= 4 viertels = 1 metzen = l-69 Brit, bushel, and 30 metzen make 1 muth. At Trieste, the woollen ell = 26-6 Brit, inches ; the silk ell = 25-22 Brit, inches ; the eimer or orna of wine = 12-45 Brit, gallons; the barile = 144-5 Brit. gall. The orna of oil=1417 Brit, gall.; and the stajo of corn = 2-272 Brit, bushels. But sometimes the weights and measures of Venice are used here. In public and official matters, the decimal system of France was in effect adopted, though under a different nomenclature, in the Austrian states of Italy in 1804.

In Milan, the mark = 3627 grains troy ; the lb. peso grosso = 2-3343 lbs. sottile= P6818 lb. avoird. ; and the oil rubio = 47-5 same lbs. The wine brenta= 15-72 Brit, gall.; the corn stajo = 2-008 Brit, pecks. In Venice, the lb. peso grosso = 1-05 19 lb. avoird.; the lb. sottile = '6643 lb. avoird. ; and the mark = 3681-5 grs. troy. The woollen braccio=26'6 Brit, inches; the silk braccio = 248 same inches ; the wine seccho = 2-376 Brit. gall. ; the oil miro = 3-354 Brit. gall. ; and the corn stajo = 2-20 Brit, bushels. Australia. — Same as in Britain. Baden One hundred lbs. = 10 stones=l centner = 50 kilogrammes = 1 10'2429 lbs., avoird. There are 2 feet in the new aune=6 decimetres = 23.62 Brit, inches. The morgen of land = 36 French ares = -8896 Brit. acre. Also 150 litres =1 ohm = 33015 Brit, gallons; and 20 makers of corn = 1 last = 30 hectolitres = 10-32 Brit, quarters.

Bavaria. — The centner or quintal =100 lbs. = 5 stones = 56 kilogrammes = 1235 lbs. avoird. Gold and silver are weighed by the Cologne mark of 3608 troy grains. The ell = 32-8 British inches; the eimer of wine = 60 maas = 8- 12 Brit, gallons; and 12 viertels = 6metzen = l sheffel = 9'98 Brit, bushels. In the old system of Augsburg, 100 lbs. heavy weight=108-3 lbs. avoird.; and 100 lbs. light weight=104-231bs. avoird. The mark = 3643 troy grains, and is divided into 16 loths = 64 quintins. Belgium In 1820, this country and Holland being under one government, the French metrical system was introduced into both, hut with the old Dutch nomenclature, as follows. Ten korrels = l wigtje = l gramme = 15-434 troy grains; and 1000 wigtjes = 100 loods = 10 ons = 1 pond = 1 kilogramme = 2-20486 lbs. avoird.

The apothecaries' new pound is divided into 12 oz. = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 5760 grains = 5787 grains troy. Ten palms = 1 elie = 1 metre _. 39-3708 Brit, inches ; also 1 mijle = 1 kilometre = 1093-633 Brit, yds.; and 100 square elles = 10 sq. roedes = l sq. bunder = 1 are = 1 19-6033 Brit. sq. yds. The cubic elie = 1 stere = 1-30802 Brit, cubic yd. ; and 100 vingerhoeds = 10 maatjes=l kan = l litre; and 100 kans = 1 vat liquid measure = 1 hectolitre = 22-009 Brit, gallons. Also 100 kops = 10 schepels= 1 mudde or zak dry measure = 1 hectolitre = '3439 British quarter. Of the old systems still partially in use in many places, the Brabant lb. =.10335 lb. avoird. ; the ell = 27'58 Brit, inches ; and the league = 6076 Brit. yds. The aam of 50 stoops = 32-4 Brit, gallons; the velte = 4'l. Brit, gall.; and 375 viertels = l last = 82 Brit, bushels.

The Antwerp silk ell = 27'32 Brit, inches, and the woollen ell = 26 97 of same inches. Brazil. — In general the same as in Portugal. But in trade the following are also in use. The lb., of which 99 = 100 lbs. avoird. Five varas = 6 British yds. ; and 4 covadoes = 3 Brit. yds. The medida of Rio Janeiro, of which 100 = 61.1 Brit gall.; and 12 alqueires= 12-86 Brit, bushels. The Canada of Bahia = 1-667 Brit. gall. ; and 7 alqueires = 5.817 Brit, bushels. The alqueire of Maranham = 111 Brit, bushel. Bremen The lb. consists of 16 ounces, and the lispond of 14 such lbs., of which 116=1 centner=127'44 lbs. avoird. Hence 10 lbs. of Bremen make nearly 11 avoird. The Cologne mark is used for gold and silver. The ell of 2 feet=22'76 Brit, inches. and 180 quarts = 45 stubchens = 20 viertiels=l ahm = 3P5 Brit, gallons.