The Half-Century; or, a History of changes that have taken place, and events that have transpired, chiefly in the United States, between 1800 and 1850. With an introduction by Mark Hopkins

Introduction

BY MARK HOPKINS, D. D. BY EMERSON DAVIS, D.D. BOSTON: TAPPAN AND WHITTEMORE, 114 Washington Street. 1851. Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1850, by Tappan and AVhittemop.e, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts. CONTENTS. .'.I'.!

INTRODUCTION.

xi

Chapter I. Political Changes And Events

peer. 1. In the United States 1 2. Indians ; Particulars of the Georgia Controversy 31 3. Political Changes in South America 41

Chapter II. Educational Changes

1. Common Schools 50 2. Infant Schools 68 3. Lancasterian, Pestalozzian, and Fellenberg Schools 71 4. Colleges 75 5. Professional Schools 79 6. Parochial Schools 83 7. Military Acai'.my at AVcst Point 8G 8. School Books 87 9. Newspapers ' 92 10. Periodical Journals CONTENTS. IV

Chapter III. Charitable Educational Institutions

1. Sabbath Schools 102 2. Institutions for Deaf Mutes .107 3. Instruction of the Blind HI 4. Lunatic Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane Ill 5. Instruction of Idiots 118 6. American Education Society 121 7. Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Education at the West 126 8. Societies for furnishing the West with accomplished and well-qualified Common School Teachers 128

Chapter IV. Moral Reformation

1. The Temperance Reformation 130 2. Anti-Slavery 144 3. Anti-Masonry 163 4. Prison Discipline, Imprisonment for Debt, and Houses of Reformation 169 6. Peace Societies 178 6. The Sabbath, and the Means used to promote its Observance 183 7. Moral Reform 188

Chapter VIII. Christian Benevolence

1. The Monthly Concert of Prayer 299 2. Foreign Missions 301 a* CONTENTS. VI 3. Home Missions 315 4. American Bible Society 321 5. Tract Societies 329 6. Societies for the Moral and Religious Benefit of Seamen. . . 335 7. Jewish and Protestant Societies 337 8. Benevolence of the Age 339

Chapter IX. Religious Controversies

1. Unitarianism 345 2. New Measures 355 3. The Connecticut Controversy 364 4. The Presbyterian Church 371 5. The latest Controversy 386 6. Subjects of Controversy in the Protestant Episcopal Church 390

Chapter X. New Religious Sects

1. Mormons, or Latter-Day Saints 394 2. Millerism, or Second Adventism 401 3. New Sects, mostly evangelical 406

Chapter XI. Miscellanies

1. Exploring Expeditions 418 2. Diseases , , „ 419 3. New Systems of Medicine . 24 4. Rural Cemeteries . „„ CONTENTS. VII 5. Supplying Cities with Water 431 6. Ice Trade 433 7. Famines at the Cape Verd Islands and in Ireland 436 8. Literary and Scientific Associations 438

Appendix

. Fugitive Slave Law 443 Eleventh Asteroid 443 Deaths of European Sovereigns The question was gravely discussed at the commencement of the present year, (1850,) whether this is the last of the first half, or the first of the last half, of the nineteenth century. Many maintained that the half century Avas complete at the end of 1849, and a few semi centennial sermons were then preached. For a time, there was reason to fear that all the enthu siasm which the completion of a half century excites Avould be used up before the set time for the appearance of this volume had arrived. There was a similar discussion at the close of 1799; many supposed the eighteenth century was then complete, and that the year 1800 was the beginning of a new century. On the 1st of January, 1801, an editor of a newspaper said, — Precisely twelve o'clock last night The eighteenth century took its flight.

Full many a calculating head Has racked its brains, its ink has shed, X To prove, by metaphysics fine, A hundred means but ninety-nine ; While at their wisdom others wondered, Eut took one more to make a hundred." The half century that is now so nearly com pleted has been, on many accounts, the most remarkable the world has ever known. The progress of liberty, education, and religion has been very great. Intellectual and moral culture and the arts of civilized life have received a new impulse. It seemed to me that I should perform a good service to my countrymen if I should post up the books and present a condensed view of those events Avhich, at the time, excited the most gen eral interest, and of those changes which have taken place in our social condition. It has re quired much patient toil to collect so many facts and dates as the reader will find in the following pages, and to put each in its appropriate place.

I have sometimes found it difficult to knoAv what to omit and what to insert. Many, probably, Avill think that undue prominence has been given to some things, and too little to others. In reply to those whose complaints respecting omissions and deficiencies I anticipate, I would say that few men have time enough to spare from their daily occupation to keep themselves fully informed of all that is doing in all the departments of lit erature and science, of arts and manufactures, and of politics and religion, so as to write a per fect history of them all. I have done what I could, and will ask the reader to consider Iioav much of the ground has been surveyed, before he censures me for not having surveyed the whole. I fully 'intended, in the plan I at first marked out, to have given some prominence to natural, intellectual, and moral philosophy, and also to agriculture ; but the time has passed, and I find myself obliged to omit these topics entirely.

I leave them for the benefit of those Avho may be gleaners in the field. Some may wonder why a subject so marvellous as animal magnetism should not have received even a passing notice. If they Avill begin with the lectures of Charles Poyen, in 1834, and at tempt to trace its metamorphoses through pathe tism, clairvoyance, and spiritual knockings, and fix the date bf each new development, and its connection Avith the first principle from Avhich it started, they will guess the reason why it has been passed in silence. The author flatters himself that there is enough in this volume to render it highly acceptable and useful to every scholar, to every professional man, to every business man, and to every family, in the length and breadth of the land. I have endeavored to treat every man and every class of men and their sentiments fairly and kindly.

It is a very delicate task to write a his tory of contro\Terted subjects, and present the facts in such a manner that all concerned will feel that justice has been done them. * Perhaps those Avho may charge me with giving a wrong view of their opinions, or of those of their friends, would themselves have erred in the opposite direction if they had written on the same subject. " To err is human ; " but I am con soled with the thought, that I have not know ingly misrepresented any one, nor " set down aught in malice." E. DAVIS. Westfield, October 28, 1850. INTRODUCTION, BY MARK HOPKINS, D. D. Centuries and half centuries are periods of time neither indicated by any movement in the heavens, nor coinciding Avith any distinct eras in the political or religious history of the Avorld. They are arbi trary divisions of the one continuous movement of nature and of time, by Avhich Ave are enabled the better to group and study successive events.

But these divisions, though arbitrary, have the same effect upon the mind as if they Avere natural. They enter into all our conceptions of past ages ; they are made the landmarks of history ; and they have so far affected the imagination, that those have not been wanting Avho have assigned to each century its own particular ': mission." This is doubtless fan ciful ; still coincidences, more or less striking, do occur, and among these may be reckoned that be tween the opening and progress of the present b

INTRODUCTION.

. XIV century, and a distinct era in the history of human affairs. Making every alloAvance for our proximity in time, and for our tendency to magnify Avhat has relation to ourselves, we yet cannot be mistaken in supposing the past half century to be among the most remarkable in all time. Should any one be inclined to doubt this, Ave Avill only commend to him the perusal of the folloAving Avork. The movements Avhich have rendered the past half century remarkable, have apparently arisen from the struggling up into the distinct consciousness of the community of three ideas, and from attempts, more or less definite, to realize those ideas. Society, in its groAvth and progress, Avas compared by Lord Bacon to a child, Avhose experience and tvisdom accumulate as his years increase. The same comparison will hold in another respect.

There is a period when the energies and tendencies of the child are mere blind forces, put forth instinctively ; and it is an era in the history of every individual when he takes conscious possession of his poAvers, and begins to direct them intelligently to the accomplishment of a chosen end. In the same Avay, there are often great ideas and strong tendencies at work in society, like leaven, long before they come into the distinct consciousness of the masses, and before the age fully

INTRODUCTION.

. XV understands the objects it Avould realize. At times, such ideas and tendencies find free scope, but more frequently they are overlaid by old forms, or degrad ing superstitions, or oppressive exactions. They then show themselves only by indefinite yearnings, by sighings, as under a hard bondage, till they gather strength ; and at length some Moses gives them utter ance and guidance, and society passes on, through seas of difficulty, to its desired Exodus. In such cases, if the tendency is towards a moral object, and the highest Avhich man can pursue, then it Avill embrace within its sweep all subordinate objects, and lead on to a true and an indefinite progress. It Avill originate a movement that will never cease. But if the tendency is toAvards any thing selfish or partial, or inadequate to meet the full Avants of our nature, then, hoAvever high the movement may rise, however broadly' it may extend, Avhatever elements and forms of civilization it may imbosom within itself, it must yet find its limit and subside ; the forms through which its life has circulated must be broken up, the incrustations of the old lava must be disintegrated, and go to form the soil for a new and permanent growth. Hitherto the history of the Avorld has been but the history of such isolated and partial movements, the

INTRODUCTION.

. XVI most of Avhich have not tended at all toAvards the true end of the race, and in all of Avhich the limits and conditions of the globe, and the relations of its different races, have been but very imperfectly knoAvn. But when America had been discovered, Avhen the globe had been circumnavigated, Avhen emotions of curiosity and Avonder, and dreams of El Dorados, and mad schemes of conquest had given place to a sober survey of the earth as it is, then there began to be felt the inspiration of a higher idea, the possibility of a nobler end, than had before been conceived. Christianity has, indeed, always proposed to herself the subjugation of the Avorld; but she had practically fallen back from her undertaking, not knowing the extent or character of her field. Gradually these Avere opening upon her, until about the commencement of the present century, Avhen the command of Christ, interpreted by modern discov eries, began to Avork in the heart of the church.

This, though as yet far from assuming the place and creat ing the movement it ought, is still to be regarded as the central idea. Every thing tends to show that this is to be the ultimate result of God's plan ; but there are other ideas, Avhich began about the begin ning of the present century to come into the distinct comprehension of the masses, which, though subor-

INTRODUCTION.

. XVII dinate to this, may just now seem to be playing a more conspicuous part in human affairs. The first of these is the idea of the subjugation of the powers of nature to the use of man. In the earlier ages, the poAvers of nature^were regarded Avith dread, and the occasional manifestation of those ter rific energies by which alone they are capable of such effective service, Avas the source of superstitious terror. Within the present century, scientific pur suits Avere generally regarded as merely theoretical. But now men view Avith Avild delight and unlimited expectations this new inheritance of the race. Hith erto, this has been as effectually concealed as Avas formerly this continent ; but iioav it opens upon us Avith mines of Avealth and power, Avith means of enjoyment and progress, far surpassing any thing that could be furnished by the gold and silver of the new world.

As this application of science to the arts has gone on, it has effected a silent and gradual, but a mighty, revolution. The Avorld of to-day is not that of fifty or tAventy-five years ago. Enterprise has found new fields, and capital new channels. Old implements, and machinery, and forms of industry are super seded ; the habits of social and domestic life are changed ; the poAver to effect exchanges, whether of b*

INTRODUCTION.

. merchandise or thought, is vastly augmented; and so intimate is the connection becoming between different parts of the country, that Ave can almost fancy these vast states to be but a single body, pervaded by one sympathetic nerve, and capable of being simul taneously moved by the same electric flash of thought. ' Already have the dreams of imagination been transcended, and yet the impression and belief is, that Ave have but just commenced this grand career. A second idea, the attempt to realize Avhich has caused extensive movement Avithin the last half cen tury, is that of the liberty and rights of the individ ual man. In the ancient republics, and generally in monarchies, the individual has been regarded as com paratively nothing. He Avas for the state. Now, the idea is finding its Avay that the state is for the individual.

As man himself is the highest product of this loAver world, those institutions Avould seem to be the best Avhich shoAv, not the most imposing results of aggregated labor, but humanity itself, in its most general cultivation and highest forms. This idea finds its origin and support in the value which Christianity puts upon the individual, and, fully carried out, must overturn all systems of darkness and mere authority. Individual liberty and responsibility

INTRODUCTION.

. XIX involve the right of private judgment ; this involves the right to all the light necessary to form a correct judgment ; and this again must involve the education of the people, and the overthrow of every thing, civil and religious, Avhich will not stand the ordeal of the most scrutinizing examination and of the freest discussion. This idea might doubtless be realized in a good degree under a monarchy ; but with the purposes, usages, and modes of administration commonly con nected with that form of government, it could not. Hence the necessity of a struggle, and of those civil revolutions Avhich have been so conspicuous during a portion of the past half century. Old forms of government, as they existed and were administered, were to the progress of this movement what old im plements, and machinery, and forms of industry Avere to the progress of that already noticed.

A third class of movements, Avhich have been con spicuous during the last half century, have been the benevolent and reformatory. These, so far as they are legitimate, spring from the conscience, and their object is to bring human conduct and institutions into conformity with the idea of right. This, natural conscience would tend to do ; but it is only as it is quickened by Christianity that it can aggregate XX

INTRODUCTION.

. individuals into organizations, and lead to systematic, protracted, and self-denying effort. This has been done, and a distinctive feature of the past half century has been the existence of those voluntary asso ciations, apart from the church, which have it for their object to remedy particular evils, or to accomplish particular good ends, aside from that general and radical reformation of men Avhich Christianity contemplates. In some cases, as in missionary boards, Avhere the object is the same with that of the church, these organizations have been adopted for the greater convenience of transacting busi ness, and to unite different denominations of Christians in one common effort, but generally a specific and less comprehensive effort has been pro posed. That this form of effort should give rise to men of one idea, to something of enthusiasm and fanati cism, of display and self-seeking, under the pretence of religion, Avas, perhaps, to be expected ; but it has also given a poAverful impulse to thought, has called out the affections and energies of multitudes of the wisest and best men in Christendom, and has, thus far, we doubt not, resulted in a vast preponderance of good. These movements are still going on, and, if continued with a wise subordination to the great

INTRODUCTION.

. XXI end of Christianity, Ave see no reason why they may not go on till that end is realized. In each of these movements, as the neAV has strug gled Avith the old, there has been great diversity of vieAvs respecting the immediate ends to be pursued, and the best means of pursuing them. Some have clung to old forms and organizations with a stupid conservatism ; others, from an exaggerated vieAV of the importance of reform, have attacked old organi zations Avith a mad and reckless spirit ; Avhile the lovers of real progress, of true liberty, and of a pure and spiritual Avorship, have sought to reform existing evils through a reformation of individual character, and have borne onward the banner of a rational and feasible progress. • The first and second of these general movements might be consummated, and the third also in any one of its forms, and yet not insure that triumph of Christianity in Avhich alone the perfection of society is involved.

Still, these movements are a natural, and almost necessary, preparation for such a triumph. Just in proportion as steamships, steam presses, railroads, and telegraphs can be made instruments of evil, they can also be made efficient for the removal of ignorance, and the speedy destruction of old systems of superstition, and of every form of civil and

INTRODUCTION.

. XXII ecclesiastical tyranny. Just in proportion as the individual man throws off particular vices and evils, and becomes enlightened and free, does he become the better fitted to receive those influences of Christian ity through Avhich alone our perfect manhood can now find its consummation. Thus, Avhile Christian ity, as Ave believe, so underlies each of these move ments that Avithout it they could not have reached their present poAver, they, in their turn, contribute to its advancement. It is as the ocean to these rivers of reform. They come originally from it, and "unto the place from Avhence the rivers come thither they return again." As has been said, the force of these movements is not yet spent. On the contrary, there is every reason to suppose that they must go on Avith increasing poAver, and that the future history of the world will very much depend on the purity, Avisdom, and skill of those by whom they shall be guided.

But to such Avisdom and skill, purity of purpose being supposed, nothing can contribute so much as a full his tory of past mistakes, of Avhat has been attempted. and Avhat has been done. Hence, it Avas a happy idea to give the statistics, and, so far as may be, the principles and spirit, of these great movements during the past half century,

INTRODUCTION.

. XXIII in Avhich they have all either originated, or received so much of impulse and augmentation. If the time had come when, in one of these departments a year book of facts was called for, it Avas surely time to gather the scattered fragments of their early history, and to give the facts respecting each ; thus giving guidance to the practical man, and enabling the future historian and philosopher to place them in their mutual relations. Such is the object of the folloAving Avork, and, if properly executed, there is no class of persons by Avhom it may not be read Avith great interest and profit. That the work has been properly executed I believe, both from an examination of portions of it, and from my acquaintance with the author. It will, I am confident, be found to be so characterized by the richness of material, the accuracy, the candor, and the sound judgment Avhich are appropriate to such a Avork, as to make it highly valuable, both now and in coming time. Williams College, October 1, 1850.

Chapter I. Political Changes And Events

Section 1. In the United States. Most of those Avho, fifty years ago, were the leading men in public affairs, and filled places of responsibility and influence in this nation, have been laid in their graves, or are sinking down under a Aveight of years. Those Avho iioav stand at the helm, both of our national and state governments, at the com mencement of this century were in their boyhood, or in early manhood ; Avhile many, Avho are acting important parts on the stage of life, are less than half a century old. I propose, in this section, to present a brief outline of the changes that have been made in our geo graphical boundaries, and in the number of states, during the period under revieAv, together Avith a brief notice of those events, Avhich, at the time, excited the deepest and most general interest.

My object is not to enter into the minute details of these events, nor to discuss particularly the policy of different political measures, but simply to narrate, as a chronicler of the past, the leading facts, with the dates and the names of the principal actors. I will ask the reader to compare what is with Avhat was, and judge for himself whether any progress has been made in civilization and social reform. Some events, which the reader may expect to find in this section, will be introduced into subsequent chapters ; and some, no doubt, Avhich ought to have a place, Avill be omitted. At the commencement of the present century, the middle of the Mississippi River Avas the Avestern boundary of the Union — but iioav the Pacific Ocean. Our southern boundary Avas the northern limit of the 31° of north latitude and St. Mary's River — but now the Gulf of Mexico.

The superficial area of the United States was then 1,000,000 square miles — it is noAV 3,250,000. The following additions have been made to our territory, in the manner and at the times specified : In 1803, the United States bought of France all that portion of our country that is bounded north by the British possessions, east by the Mississippi River, south by the Gulf of Mexico, Texas, NeAV Mexico, and Upper California, and Avest by the Pacific Ocean. The price paid for it Avas $15,000,000; it Avas called the Louisiana Territory, and contained 1,540,000 square miles. The tract of country situated between the Iberville and Perdido Rivers, extending from the Gulf of Mex ico to the northern limit of the 31° north latitude, having an area of 30,000 square miles, Avas claimed by our government as a part of the Louisiana purchase.

It was undoubtedly the property of Spain ; and though it was very desirable Ave should have it, Ave had, I suppose, no legal claim to it. Many American families had settled upon it, and, in the summer of 1810, they declared themselves an independent state ; and, in October, the president issued a proclamation, de claring it to be a part of the United States. In 1819, a treaty was concluded betAveen the Spanish and American commissioners, by Avhich it was stipulated that Spain should cede to the States the Avhole of Florida, as an indemnity for spoliations upon our commerce. The king of Spain refused at first to ratify the treaty. He finally did ratify it, and our government took formal possession of it July 10, 1821. In 1845, Texas, having become independent, applied to be admitted as one of the United States.

She Avas accordingly received, much against the Avill of a large portion of the people. The details of the history of the annexation of this territory may be found in Jay's and Livermore's Histories of the Mex ican War. If Texas is understood to be bounded west by the Rio Grande, it contains 325,520 square miles. At the conclusion of the Mexican war, Mexico ceded to the United States New Mexico and Upper California, which contains 526,078 square miles. In January, 1801, there were in the Union sixteen States, since which fifteen have been added : — Arkansas, June 15, 1836. Michigan, Florida, May 3, 1845. Iowa, " " " Texas, Dec. 29, " Wisconsin, May 29, 1848. California, Sept. 7, 1850. Ohio, Nov. 29,1802. Louisiana, April 30, 1811. Indiana, Dec. 11, 1816. Mississippi, Dec. 10, 1817. Illinois, Dec. 3, 1818.

Alabama, Dec. 14, 1819. Maine, March 16, 1820. Missouri, Aug. 10, 1820. It will be observed that the states that have been admitted have been alternately free and slave states. An act establishing the territorial government of Oregon was approved by Congress, August 14, 1848, and another establishing the territorial government of Minesota was approved March 3, 1849. The territorial government of New Mexico and Utah was established September 7, 1850. In the year 1800, the seat of government Avas removed from Philadelphia to the city of Washington, where the last session of the last Congress of John Adams's administration Avas holden. In his opening address, the president said, " It Avould be unbecoming the representatives of this nation to assemble for the first time in this solemn temple, Avithout looking up to the Supreme Ruler of the universe, and imploring his blessing.

May this territory be the residence of virtue and happiness. In this city, may that piety and virtue, that wisdom and magnanimity, that constancy and self-government, which adorned the great character Avhose name it bears, be forever held in veneration." The political excitement growing out of the election of president, in the year 1800, was very great. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the candidates. The friends of the former were denounced by those of the latter, as the allies of England, and as paying homage to British poAver ; Avhile those of the latter Avere called the allies of France, and Avere accused of preparing the Avay to corrupt the morals of the nation, and to destroy its liberties. They were known by the distinctive names of Federalists and Democrats. The French had aided us in the war of the revolution, and were themselves then in the midst of a revolutionary struggle.

They had just adopted a constitution Avith a consular government, at the head of Avhich Avas Napoleon Bonaparte. England had declared Avar against France, and the latter Avished us to pay the debt of our gratitude by aiding her in her conflict. A strong sympathy was felt in this country for the French people ; they Avere looked upon as engaged in a struggle for liberty, and the Americans very naturally Avished them success. The national vanity of not a few was flattered by the persuasion that the spark Avhich lighted the flame of liberty there Avas taken from our altar ; or, as Franklin said, " the French, having served an apprenticeship in America, had set up for themselves." On the other hand, there were many who feared the influence of French 1* infidelity, the seeds of Avhich had already been Avide ly disseminated in this country.

The electioneering articles of that year, on both sides, Avere exceedingly severe, and abounded in extravagant expressions. Jefferson was elected by a majority of eight votes, and entered upon the duties of his office March 4, 1801, and was reelected in 1805, by a majority of one hundred and forty-eight electoral votes. June 10, 1801, Congress declared war against Tripoli for piratical depredations upon our commerce. Other nations had been accustomed to pay the Barbary poAvers an annual tribute to keep them quiet. Our nation Avas the first that set the example of refusing tribute, and obliging them to respect its flag. A fleet Avas sent to cruise off the coast. General William Eaton, of Brimfield, Mass., then consul at Tunis, led a company of Egyptian troops, furnished by a brother of the reigning pacha, over the desert, in a long and wearisome march, and took the city of Derne.

He repulsed the pacha of Tripoli, and concluded with him a treaty of peace in 1805. July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton Avas killed in a duel, at Hoboken, near NeAV* York, by Aaron Burr, vice-president of the United States. Hamilton had said he regarded Burr as "a dangerous man, and one who ought not to be trusted Avith the affairs of the government." The truth of the remark Avas made manifest by Burr's subsequent conduct. On retiring from office, in March, 1805, he became a wanderer in the Western States, and seemed evidently to be endeavoring to carry into effect some great design, the character of Avhich Avas not certainly known. He made Blenerhasset's Island, in the Ohio River, the place of rendezvous, and by his intrigues blasted the hopes of Blenerhasset's family. He there fitted out boats furnished Av.ith armed men, and sent them down the river.

It Avas supposed that he had con ceived the design of uniting Florida and the regions Avest of the Alleghanies into a separate government, and placing himself at the head of it. He Avas arrested in Mississippi, February 19, 1807, and tried before the Circuit Court at Richmond, Virginia, on the charge of high treason. The trial Avas continued by adjournment until August, Avhen the jury rendered a verdict " not guilty." William Wirt, of Virginia, ad dressed the jury in support of the charge, and made one of the most eloquent speeches ever delivered in a court-room. The. conclusion to Avhich an unprejudiced community have come in relation to that matter is, that Burr had no treasonable designs ; that he OAvned lands on the Washita River, Avhich Avere forfeited unless they should be settled before a given time ; that he was about to commence a settlement upon them, and the armed force Avas fitted out for its pro tection.