XXXIV. INTEROCEANIC COMMUNICATION (part 1 of 3)

XXXIV. INTEROCEANIC COMMUNICATION (part 1 of 3)

1801-1887.

ANCIENT IDEAS ON THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE—FROM PERU TO LA PLATA—CAPE HORN DISCOVERED—ARCTIC REGIONS—MCCLURE'S SUCCESSFUL VOYAGE—CROZIER'S DISCOVERY—FRANKLIN'S ATTEMPTS—FINDING BY NORDENSKIÖLD OF THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE—PROJECTS TO UNITE THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS ACROSS THE ISTHMUSES—PLANS ABOUT TEHUANTEPEC—EXPLORATIONS FOR A SHIP-CANAL ROUTE IN NICARAGUA, PANAMÁ, AND DARIEN—THE NICARAGUA ACCESSORY TRANSIT COMPANY—CONSTRUCTION OF THE PANAMÁ RAILWAY, AND ITS GREAT BENEFITS—FURTHER EFFORTS FOR A CANAL—ORGANIZATION OF A FRENCH COMPANY—A SHIP-CANAL UNDER CONSTRUCTION ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMÁ—DIFFICULTIES AND EXPECTATIONS—CENTRAL AMERICAN RAILROADS AND TELEGRAPHS—SUBMARINE CABLES.

No sooner had lands been discovered to the westward of Europe than the minds of cosmographers became fixed in the idea of short routes to India in that direction;[XXXIV-1] nor would they abandon it until long after both shores of the western continent had been explored from the Arctic sea to Cape Horn.[XXXIV-2]

[Sidenote: EARLY EXPLORATIONS.]

I have elsewhere presented a full account of explorations by land and sea to establish communications between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans prior to the opening of the present century.[XXXIV-3] The most important of the earlier discoveries, since Magalhaes' time, was that of the open polar sea south of Cape Horn, which was named by the Dutch navigators Le Maire and Van Schouten.[XXXIV-4] The north-west passage, so long the object of search, was at last found in 1851 by an English expedition. The discovery was effected by Robert Le Mesurier McClure, who, in command of the Investigator, sailed, together with the Enterprise under Richard Collinson, from England in 1850. Before the close of the year, McClure passed Point Barrow, pushed along the continent, doubled the south end of Banks Island, and sailed through Prince of Wales' Strait, where he wintered near Melville Sound. In 1851, the west side of the peninsular part of Wollaston Island to Prince Albert's Sound was surveyed. By finding the strait connecting the continental channel with Melville Sound, McClure became the discoverer of the north-west passage, and was the first navigator to pass from Bering Strait to Baffin Bay.[XXXIV-5] Yet he gave to Captain Crozier, second in command of Franklin's expedition, the credit of prior discovery. McClure with the Investigator was shut in during the winters of 1851-2, and 1852-3. In the spring of 1853 he resolved to abandon the ship and seek Mackenzie River and Lancaster Sound in two parties, a journey which would have been disastrous. At this moment, April 6th, Lieutenant Pym of the Resolute appeared.[XXXIV-6] The McClure party were taken to the Resolute, and reached England in 1854.

[Sidenote: NORTH-EAST PASSAGE.]

The north-east passage was discovered by Adolf Erick Nordenskiöld in 1879, after 326 years from the first attempt by Hugh Willoughby in 1553.[XXXIV-7]

* * * * *

The necessity of shorter communication between the two oceans becoming more evident from day to day, with the increase of traffic with the western coast of America, with China, and with the numerous islands of the Pacific, various projects were entertained to establish such communication either by canal or railway. At Tehuantepec, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the isthmus of Panamá were formed the most favorable conditions for a forced or artificial transit.[XXXIV-8]

[Sidenote: TEHUANTEPEC ISTHMUS.]

The breadth of the isthmus of Tehuantepec between the bays of Campeche and Tehuantepec at the narrowest point is 130 miles. It is drained by the rivers Coatzacoalcos and Tehuantepec, the former running northward, discharging its waters into the first-named bay, and extending over three fourths of the width of this isthmus; the latter flowing into the bay of Tehuantepec. There are several lakes and lagoons. At one time it was proposed to cut a canal across this isthmus, and to improve the navigation of the Coatzacoalcos, to which end surveys were made.[XXXIV-9] But no action having been taken toward constructing a canal by the parties to whom franchises had been given, the scheme of a railroad across this section has been also contemplated,[XXXIV-10] and finally a grant was made to James B. Eads, to construct a ship railway between the two gulfs, capable of having transported over it the largest ships with their cargoes.[XXXIV-11] The scheme has been declared by Eads, and by other engineers of high repute in Europe and America, to be practicable. His opponents deride it. He applied, without success, to the United States government for assistance.[XXXIV-12]

[Sidenote: NICARAGUA ISTHMUS.]

The idea of uniting the two oceans, by means of a canal across the isthmus of Nicaragua, occupied the attention of the Spanish court from a very early day after the conquest to the last years of its occupation of the country.[XXXIV-13] Since the separation of Central America from the crown, the canal scheme has ever been uppermost in the minds of her rulers and thinking men, and many scientific engineers and capitalists of Europe and America have taken a deep interest therein. But for divers reasons nothing was accomplished toward establishing an adequate interoceanic communication, in any form, down to 1849.[XXXIV-14] This year a new arrangement was made with Cornelius Vanderbilt and Joseph L. White of New York, in which the government of the United States, through its representative, E. George Squier, became concerned. This arrangement gave rise to complications with Great Britain, which were finally settled by the Clayton-Bulwer treaty to perpetually guarantee the neutrality of the canal to be constructed. The contractors failed to carry out their agreement as regarded the construction of a canal, but established the Accessory Transit Company, and by means of steamers on the two oceans, and on the river San Juan and Lake Nicaragua, rendered valuable service in the transportation of passengers. The matter was given in detail, in connection with the relations of that company with the Nicaraguan government, including its history from the date of the foundation till 1869, when it ceased to exist. However, their engineer, O. Childs, made a survey of the route for a canal in 1851, and recommended one from the mouth of Lajas River to Port Brito, traversing the Rio Grande Valley.[XXXIV-15] Since that time many schemes have been contemplated, and contracts entered into, but none of them have given the desired result.[XXXIV-16]

[Sidenote: ACROSS MOSQUITIA.]

I have yet to mention Pim's scheme, advanced in 1853, of building a railway from Punta Mico on the Atlantic to San Miguelito, on the eastern shore of the lake, traversing Mosquitia. A company was formed, but the project was soon found to be impracticable.[XXXIV-17]

No efforts have been spared ever since by Nicaragua and American citizens to bring about the accomplishment of the long-expected canal, under the impression that it is the most desirable, feasible, and least expensive route. The assistance of the United States government has been solicited, and treaties made to afford facilities, but the American congress has thus far refused to do anything, except send commissions to explore the several lines, and their reports seem to be favorable.[XXXIV-18] The last treaty concluded between the two governments with reference to a canal was rejected by the United States senate. The last survey made under the auspices of the American government was that of Engineer Menocal, of the United States navy, who, with other officers, visited Nicaragua in January 1885. His report was presented in November of that year. The plan of this commission had been at first to convert the river San Juan above its junction with the Sarapiqui into an extension of the lake by constructing a dam 74 feet high, but it was found impracticable. The proposed route extends from San Juan del Norte to Brito. The total length is 169.8 miles, of which 38.98 miles will be excavated canal, and 130.82 navigation by Lake Nicaragua, the river San Juan, the basin of the river San Francisco, and seven locks. Lake Nicaragua will be connected with the Pacific by a canal, and with the Atlantic by slackwater navigation in the river San Juan, by a short section of canal from the San Juan to the basin of the San Francisco, by navigation through this basin, and by a canal thence to the Caribbean Sea. The route has been divided into three divisions, the western, eastern, and middle.[XXXIV-19] The cost was carefully estimated, including a contingent of 25 per cent, at $64,043,697. De Lesseps is of opinion, however, that a canal with locks would be inadequate to pass the traffic that will frequent it, and would suffer from uncertainty of sufficient water to supply the lockage and evaporation.[XXXIV-20]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: PANAMÁ ISTHMUS.]

One of the four routes suggested by Antonio Galvao to the king of Spain, for cutting a canal to join the two oceans, was the Isthmus of Panamá.[XXXIV-21] Soon after New Granada threw off the Spanish yoke, several surveys of Panamá and Darien were made, and canal projects recommended;[XXXIV-22] two of them, deemed the most important, were that of Lloyd's to build a railroad from Panamá or La Chorrera to the Trinidad River, a tributary of the Chagres; and that of a sluiced canal recommended in 1843 by Garella and Courtines, who studied the Isthmus under a commission of the French government. And there were other projects.[XXXIV-23]

The attention of the United States government was directed to the subject of interoceanic routes as early as 1825. In 1835 the executive was requested by the senate to enter into negotiations with the Central American states and New Granada, conducive to treaties for the protection of Americans who might attempt opening the communication between the two oceans. A treaty was made by the United States with New Granada on the 12th of December, 1846, under which the latter guaranteed to the former "the right of way or transit across the Isthmus of Panamá, upon any modes of communication that now exist, or that may be hereafter constructed." The United States government on its part guaranteed to New Granada the neutrality of the Isthmus, and the rights of sovereignty and property over its territory.[XXXIV-24] At last an American company, being stimulated by the great traffic across the Isthmus, took up the matter of a railway.[XXXIV-25]

[Sidenote: PANAMÁ RAILWAY.]

The termini resolved on were Colon on the Atlantic, and on the Pacific, a little to the eastward of the city of Panamá, quite clear of the suburbs. The work was begun in January 1850, and finished on the 28th of January, 1855. Its total length is 47 miles, 3,020 feet. The line is a single one, but has four very commodious sidings; namely, Gatun, 7½ miles from Colon; one near Barbacoas, 22 miles; one at Matachin, 30 miles; and one at the summit, 37 miles. There are stations at every four miles. The undertaking was a bold one, and was successfully carried out under the able and energetic superintendence of George M. Totten.[XXXIV-26] The actual cost, as per construction account, was eight million dollars. The road has been improved from year to year. Articles of the coarsest and heaviest description, as well as ordinary merchandise, have been constantly conveyed over it. The road began to yield some income since 1852, when it had reached Barbacoas. I give in a note some statistics on receipts and expenditures.[XXXIV-27] The company from the beginning of its operations had a line of telegraph between Panamá and Colon. In 1881 the railway was sold to the company organized to construct a canal for $17,500,000, being at the rate of $250 per share. Adding other items, and interest on annual instalments, the share-holders received about twenty million dollars.[XXXIV-28]

A survey made by United States officers in 1866, through Chiriquí, showed that it was practicable to build a railway through the cordillera. The harbors of Chiriquí and Sheperd on the Atlantic, and of Golfito in Golfo Dulce, were favorably reported upon by Commodore F. Engle.[XXXIV-29]

[Sidenote: VARIOUS SCHEMES.]

But the idea of an interoceanic canal was ever present.[XXXIV-30] Nothing was practically done, until the whole subject was discussed in 1875 at the congress of geographical sciences held in Paris, and a company was organized under General Türr for effecting the requisite explorations. Lucien N. Bonaparte Wyse, a lieutenant of the French navy, assisted by other engineers, was sent out to the Isthmus. The exploring commission effected their work thoroughly, and the section from Colon to Panamá was given the preference.[XXXIV-31] The Colombian government granted on the 18th of May, 1878, to the Civil International Interoceanic Association, residing in Paris, the exclusive privilege for ninety-nine years of constructing a canal between the two oceans, at the same time establishing the neutrality of the ports at the termini, and of the canal itself.[XXXIV-32]

De Lesseps, of Suez Canal fame, undertook in 1879 the task of constructing the canal, and the first meeting of the company, now called Compagnie Universal du Canal Interocéanique de Panama, took place in 1881. It was calculated that six hundred million francs, or be it $120,000,000, would cover the expense of construction and completion. One of the company's first acts was to establish in New York a branch board of directors, and another was to purchase the Panamá railway.[XXXIV-33] The works were commenced in October 1881.[XXXIV-34] The canal in course of construction follows the route of the railway, though keeping closer to the bed of the Chagres, which it is to cross again and again; on the Pacific side it will descend the Rio Grande Valley, and continue seaward to the island of Perico, a total length of fifty-four miles.[XXXIV-35]

[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES TO OVERCOME.]

The works have been prosecuted with more or less vigor, by the use of powerful dredges, until the capital became exhausted, and their operations declined for many months, seeming to confirm predictions of failure.[XXXIV-36] However that may be, De Lesseps and his friends are confident that the opening of the canal will become an accomplished fact within eight years from the time of commencement.[XXXIV-37] There can be no doubt that a large portion of the original capital was wasted, and if rumor is not at fault much was misappropriated. But public confidence in De Lesseps remains unshaken in France, and he has been able to obtain by subscription abundant funds to continue the work,[XXXIV-38] and it is now being vigorously pushed. His calculation is that there will be business for the canal to the extent of 7,250,000 tons, yielding 6 or 7 per cent on 2,000 million francs, or 108,000,000 francs, equivalent to $21,600,000.

* * * * *

This is not the place in which to speak of the several northern railways across the continent. The Central American states—exclusive of Panamá, which has had that benefit since 1855—have made some progress in late years toward establishing railway communication between the two seas. Guatemala has one line from Port San José, on the Pacific, to the capital,[XXXIV-39] and another from Port Champerico, also on the Pacific, to Retalhuleu.[XXXIV-40]

[Sidenote: CENTRAL AMERICAN RAILWAYS.]

Measures had likewise been taken to communicate the capital by railroads with the northern sea, contemplating at the same time to build another line from Coban to the Polochic River. However, these projects, so far as I know, have been, since President Barrios' death, in abeyance. The Spanish court was repeatedly urged to open communications between Puerto Caballos and the bay of Fonseca.[XXXIV-41] Traffic on mule-back was carried on between both seas in colonial times; but what we know of the isthmus of Honduras is derived from the surveys made by the British Honduras Interoceanic Railway Company, and reported by their agent, E. G. Squier. As a practicable route for a ship canal, Honduras is out of the question; but the construction of a railroad was begun between Puerto Caballos or Cortés, on the Caribbean Sea, and Amapala in the bay of Fonseca,[XXXIV-42] through the valley of the Goascoran and Humuya rivers—232 miles. The road was graded, and a narrow-gauge track was built from Port Cortés to San Pedro, of about 37 miles in length. The work was suspended in 1871, and abandoned in 1873. Civil disturbances and lack of means have prevented its resumption. Several franchises have been granted in later years for continuing it; but nothing of a practical nature has resulted.[XXXIV-43]

Salvador has no territory on the Atlantic slope. She has a railroad between San Miguel and Port La Union; another line is being built from Port Acajutla to the heart of the coffee region of Santa Ana. It is possible that in the future the republic may be placed in communication, by railway, with the Atlantic, through the territory of her neighbors.

In Nicaragua the line between Corinto and Chinandega, and hence to Leon, was in operation in 1881-2. The work steadily progressed. The western section was opened to public service in 1884, connecting it with the steam-ship line on the lake. Thus was Managua, the capital, placed in rapid and cheap communication by steam with Corinto, the chief port of the republic. The whole line from Momotombo to Corinto was yielding six and four fifths per cent on the capital invested. In the eastern section the work was going on rapidly at the end of 1884, and 20 miles to Masaya would soon be finished. The government contemplated to have a direct railway line from Villa de la Paz to Managua, thus establishing a continuous communication between Managua and Granada.[XXXIV-44]

Costa Rica, thus far, has three lines, or rather divisions or sections; namely, the Central, running between San Jose and the interior provinces, via Cartago, Heredia, Alajuela, Tres Rios, and San Joaquin; the Atlantic, from Limon to the interior, which is the route through which most of the country's foreign trade is carried on; and the Pacific which runs from Puntarenas to Esparta.[XXXIV-45]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: TELEGRAPH LINES.]

The five Central American republics are intersected by telegraph lines belonging to their respective governments, and communicating their chief towns with one another within themselves, and with the sister republics.[XXXIV-46] The isthmus of Panamá has a communication by submarine cable with Central America and Mexico at the port of La Libertad and Acapulco. The cities of Panamá and Colon are in direct communication by wire. The Isthmus is further connected by cable, on the Pacific, with Peru, via Buenaventura, which also places it in telegraphic communication with Bogotá and the rest of Colombia. A cable to Jamaica affords another connection, via Cuba, with the United States and Europe.[XXXIV-47]

The question of interoceanic communication by ship-canal across the isthmuses of Central America occupying, as it does, general attention, I have concluded to append hereto information on the subject by several competent authorities; namely, the British explorer, Dr Edward Cullen, and E. George Squier.

IGNORANCE RESPECTING DARIEN.—It is a very singular circumstance that the coast of Darien, the first settled in America (Santa Maria having been founded in 1509, and Acla in Caledonia Bay in 1514), within eighteen days' steaming from England, close also to such frequented ports as Chagres, Carthagena, and Kingston, Jamaica, should be at the present day as unknown as the coasts of Patagonia or of New Guinea, and that the vast advantages of this tract of country, for a canal, should have escaped the penetration of the great Humboldt, who, after having examined all the maps in the Depósito Hidrográfico of Madrid, appears to suggest the Chuquanaqua. He says: 'On the Pacific coast, also, the deep Golfo de San Miguel, into which falls the Tuyra with its tributary, the Chuchunque, runs far into the Isthmus; the river Chuchunque, too, in the upper part of its course, runs within sixteen geographical miles of the Antillean shore of the Isthmus, westward of Cape Tiburon.' Views of Nature, Potsdam, June 1849, p. 432 of Bohn's translation.

The Atrato route labors under the disadvantage of a bad harbor, on the Pacific side, Cupica being of very small extent, and open to the S. W.; and the Atrato has a bar with only five feet of water on it, while the rise of tide in the Gulf of Darien is only two feet.

The Chagres, or Limon Bay and Panama route, surveyed in 1829 by Col Lloyd and M. Falmarc, under a commission from the Liberator, Simon Bolívar, and subsequently by M. Garella, has such bad harbors that the idea of a canal by that line has been totally abandoned.

The route from Chepo mouth to Mandinga Bay, proposed by Mr Evan Hopkins,[XXXIV-48] who attempted to survey it in 1847, for the New Granada government, although the narrowest line across the Isthmus, being only twenty-seven miles across from Chepo to Carti, has the disadvantages of bad coasts, a very high cordillera, of from 2,000 to 6,000 feet elevation, and a large population of Indians.

The bar at the mouth of Chepo River is quite dry at low water, as is also a sand bank which extends several miles out into the bay of Panamá; the part of the Atlantic coast on the other side is beset with reefs, shoals, and kays, and is dangerous of approach.

Capt Fitzroy, R. N., in his Considerations upon the Great Isthmus of Central America, suggests a line from the upper course of the Tuyra to the Atrato, or the coast of Darien above its mouth, as an improvement of the route proposed by me; but this would be nearly twice the distance of the Port Escocés, and gulf of San Miguel route; there would be the mountain of Chacargun or the Sierra de Maly to cross, and should the canal open into the Atrato, there would be the very formidable obstacle of the bar to remove, while of the coast above the Atrato mouth, the Columbian Navigator says: 'All this coast from Tarena Kays to Cape Tiburon is high and precipitous, with deep water off it; and it is very wild in the season of the breezes. It is very advisable, therefore, at these seasons, to shun it.' Any route, however, in this direction, would be included in the privilege granted, on the 1st of June, 1852, by the New Granada government, to Edward Cullen, Charles Fox, John Henderson, and Thomas Brassey, for cutting a canal from Port Escocés to the gulf of San Miguel, which gives power to select any place from the west mouth of the Atrato to Punta Mosquitos, for the Atlantic entrance of the canal.

[Sidenote: DISCOVERY OF THE SAVANA RIVER.]

DISCOVERY OF THE SAVANA RIVER AND THE ROUTE FOR THE SHIP-CANAL. I imagine that the river Savana was not delineated in the maps which Humboldt saw.[XXXIV-49] Such, indeed, was the case with the map which I had on my first journey into Darien in 1849, so that I was totally ignorant of its existence until I actually saw it, after entering Boca Chica, when, finding the great depth of water at its mouth, and that it flowed almost directly from the north, I became convinced that I had at last found the object of my search, viz., a feasible route to the Atlantic, and thereupon immediately ascended it, and crossed from Cañasas to the sea-shore at Port Escocés and back, and subsequently, in 1850 and also in 1851, crossed and recrossed, at several times and by several tracks, the route from the Savana to Port Escocés and Caledonia Bay, notching the barks of the trees as I went along, with a machete or cutlass, always alone and unaided, and always in the season of the heaviest rains. I had previously examined, on my way from Panamá, the mouths of Chepo, Chiman, Congo, and several other rivers, but found them all obstructed by bars and sand banks, and impracticable for a ship passage, so that upon seeing the Savana, I had not the least hesitation in deciding that that must be the future route for interoceanic communication for ships.

THE DARIEN CANAL ROUTE.—Port Escocés, or Scotch Harbor, and the bay of Caledonia, on the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, present an extent of six nautical miles, from S. E. to N. W., of safe anchorage in all winds. These harbors are situated between Carreto Bay and the channel of Sassardi, and are 140 miles E. S. E. of Limon Bay, and twenty-one miles W. N. W. of Cape Tiburon, the N. W. boundary of the Gulf of Darien. Port Escocés extends to the S. E. to lat. 8° 50´ and long. 77° 41´; and Golden Island, or Isla de Oro, or Santa Catalina, which forms the N. W. boundary of Caledonia Bay, is in lat. 8° 54´ 40´´, and long. 77° 45´ 30´´.

The channel of Sassardi, also, extending from Caledonia Bay N. W. five miles to the Fronton, or point of Sassardi, is sheltered from the winds and seas of both seasons, and has good depth of water.

Twenty-two miles S. W. of Port Escocés is the site of the old Spanish settlement of Fuerte del Príncipe, on the river Savana, established in 1785, and abandoned in 1790. From thence the river Savana has nearly a S. by E. course for fourteen miles to its mouth, which opens into the river Tuyra, Santa Maria, or Rio Grande del Darien, three miles above Boca Chica and Boca Grande, the two mouths by which the latter discharges itself into the Gulf of San Miguel on the Pacific.

Thus the distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, by the route from Port Escocés or Caledonia Bay, to the gulf of San Miguel, by way of the river Savana, would be thirty-nine miles. In a direct line, from Port Escocés to the gulf, the distance is thirty-three miles.

In Considerations on the Great Isthmus of Central America, read before the Royal Geographical Society of London, on the 11th and 25th Nov., 1850, Captain Fitzroy, R. N., says: 'Any route that could be made available between San Miguel Gulf and Caledonia Bay, or the Gulf of Darien or Choco, would have the advantage of excellent harbors at each end, and a great rise of tide in one of them (San Miguel). The river Savana is recommended by Dr Cullen from personal examination, as being more navigable (for canoes[XXXIV-50]), and approaching nearer the north coast than the Chuquanaqua does; though this does not appear in the Spanish maps. From the head of the Savana, a ravine, about three leagues in length, extends to Caledonia Bay, and there (Dr Cullen says, having passed through it) he thinks a canal might be cut with less difficulty than elsewhere, if it were not for the opposition of the natives. He also speaks of the Indians transporting their canoes across at this ravine, and of the comparative healthiness of this part of the Isthmus.'

The whole work to be done, in order to make a ship-canal communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by this route, would be to cut from Príncipe or from Lara mouth to Port Escocés or Caledonia Bay, a distance of from twenty-two to twenty-five miles, of which there would be but three or four miles of deep cutting.

The canal, to be on a scale of grandeur commensurate with its important uses, should be cut sufficiently deep to allow the tide of the Pacific to flow right through it, across to the Atlantic; so that ships bound from the Pacific to the Atlantic would pass with the flood, and those from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the ebb tide of the latter. Such was the plan recommended in my report to Lord Palmerston. By such a canal—that is, one entirely without locks—the transit from sea to sea could be effected in six hours, or one tide.[XXXIV-51]

For the engineering details, and estimates of the cost of the work, I beg to refer to the valuable report of Mr. Lionel Gisborne, C. E., who, with his assistant, Mr. Forde, was commissioned, last April, by Messrs Fox, Henderson, and Brassey, to survey this route, which they found to be perfectly feasible for a ship-canal communication, and fully as eligible as I had represented it.

[Sidenote: PASSAGE FOR THE PACIFIC TIDE.]

It is needless to say that, under the auspices of Messrs. Fox, Henderson, and Brassey, who, with that clear discernment and prompt decision, which have placed them in the elevated position which they occupy, adopted this route in December 1851, after a careful examination of my statements, the great work of an interoceanic canal is sure, erelong, to be accomplished.

I trust that an attentive consideration of the advantages of this route—viz., its shortness, the excellence of its harbors, the low elevation of the land, the absence of bars at the Savana and Tuyra mouths, the depth of water and great rise of tide in the former, its directness of course and freedom from obstructions, the healthiness of the adjacent country, the exemption of the coasts from northers and hurricanes, the feasibility of cutting a canal without locks, and the absence of engineering difficulties—will fully justify me in asserting it to be the shortest, the most direct, safe, and expeditious, and in every way the most eligible route for intermarine communication for large ships.

An examination of the physical aspect of the country from Port Escocés to the Savana—presenting, as it does, but a single ridge of low elevation, and this broken by gorges, ravines, and valleys, and grooved by rivers and streams, with a champaign country extending from its base on each side—will prove the feasibility of making the canal entirely without locks, a superiority which this route possesses over others, which all present insurmountable physical obstacles to the construction of such a canal.

In fact, a glance at the map ought to convince the most sceptical that nature has unmistakably marked out this space for the junction of the two oceans, and the breaking of the continuity of North and South America; indeed, so narrow is the line of division, that it would almost appear as if the two seas did once meet here.

DETAILS OF THE ROUTE PROPOSED.—I shall now enter into a more detailed description of this route, which I discovered in 1849, and proposed for a ship-canal communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in the Panamá Echo of February 8, 1850, in the Daily News and Mining Journal of May 1850;[XXXIV-52] in a paper presented to the Royal Geographical Society, and read at the Edinburgh meeting of the British Association in July 1850; and in a report to Lord Palmerston, of January 15, 1851.

PORT ESCOCÉS.—Of Port Escocés, Caledonia Bay, and the channel of Sassardi, the Columbian Navigator, vol. 3, p. 218, says:

'Port Escocés, or Caledonia, lat. 8° 51´, long. 77° 44´, is a noble harbor; very safe, and so extensive that a thousand sail of vessels may enter it.

'Punta Escocés is the S. E. point of Caledonia Bay, the greater islet of Santa Catalina, or de Oro (gold), being the N. W. Between point and point the distance is four miles, and the points lie N. W. and S. E. (N. 40° W., and S. 40° E.), from each other; and in respect to this line the bay falls in one mile and two thirds. In the S. E. part of this bay is Puerto Escocés (or Scottish Harbor), which extends inward two miles in that direction, and forms good shelter. There are various shoals in it, which are represented in the particular plan of the harbor, by which plan any vessel may run in, for the depths are five, six, seven, and eight fathoms of water over a bottom of sand.

'Between Piedras Islet to the north, the west point of Aglatomate River to the south, and that of San Fulgencio to the S. W., is formed the Ensenada, or bay of Caledonia, and the channel of Sassardi.

CALEDONIA BAY.—'The Ensenada, or cove of Caledonia, is, strictly speaking, formed by the points already mentioned, which lie with each other N. N. W. ¾ W., and S. S. E. ¾ E. (N. 25° W., and S. 25° E.), one mile distant. This bay is clean, and has good deep water; the greater part of its coast is a beach, and near the middle of it disembogues the river Aglaseniqua. The point of San Fulgencio is salient, scarped, and clean, and it also forms an indent with little depth of water, bordered by mangroves and various kays at its western part.

THE CHANNEL OF SASSARDI.—'Between San Fulgencio point, the great Oro Island, Piedras Islet, and the Mangrove Kays, which are to the west of them, the channel of Sassardi is formed; the S. E. entrance to this channel is off and on, with four cables' length in extent, from edge to edge, and with from nine to twelve fathoms depth on oaze; and farther in, from eight to ten fathoms; as also between the turn of the bank off Piedras Islet, and the bay of Caledonia, the depth is from seven to fifteen fathoms; and the piece of sea which intervenes between this bay and the Puerto Escocés is of a good depth of water; but at a short mile S. E. by E. ½ E. (S. 55° E.), from Piedras Islet the sea breaks when the breeze blows fresh.'

From its entrance the channel of Sassardi extends N. W. five miles.

The engineer has here, then, a wide scope for selecting a locality for the Atlantic mouth of the canal, which may thus open anywhere from the S. E. end of Port Escocés to the N. W. entrance of the Channel of Sassardi, an extent of eleven nautic. miles.

Along a great extent of Port Escocés and Caledonia Bay, vessels can lie so close in shore that no boats would be necessary in the taking in or discharging cargo; the same great advantage also presents itself at several points in the channel of Sassardi.

[Sidenote: SOURCES OF FRESH WATER.]

Good fresh water may be obtained in abundance from any of the numerous streams which fall into these harbors, particularly from the Aglaseniqua or Aglatomate.

Port Escocés is entirely uninhabited, nor is there any settlement in and of it; at Caledonia, near the mouth of the Aglaseniqua, there are five huts, inhabited by a few Indians of the Tule tribe, and about two leagues up the river is another small settlement; this, however, is at a considerable distance westward of the projected line of canal.

From the sea-shore a plain extends for nearly two miles to the base of a ridge of hills, which runs parallel to the coast, and whose highest summit is about 350 feet. This ridge is not quite continuous and unbroken, but is divided by transverse valleys, through which the Aglaseniqua, Aglatomate, and other rivers have their course, and whose highest elevations do not exceed 150 feet.

The base of this ridge is only two miles in width; and from its south side a level plain extends for thirteen miles to a point on the river Savana, called Cañasas, which is about twenty miles above its mouth.

The river Savana, at Cañasas, has a depth of six feet of water, but is obstructed by ledges of a slate, called pizarra, or killes, for four miles, down to the mouth of La Villa, up to which the tide reaches. At Cañasas, there is a forest of a species of bamboo, so dense as to be impenetrable; and above it there is a fall of two feet, when the river is low, but after rains this entirely disappears. The first fall, in ascending the river, occurs at Caobano, a little above La Villa.

From La Villa, where there is a depth of ten or twelve feet, the river is perfectly free from obstructions down to Príncipe.

At Fuerte del Príncipe, two miles below La Villa, there is a single ledge of slate, visible only in a very low state of the river, which has here a depth of three fathoms, and a rise of tide of six feet. The banks of the river are elevated about ten feet above the level of the water, and are quite free from swamp. The site of the old Spanish settlement is here indicated by a patch of very dense scrubby bush, without high trees, on the west bank of the river; but the only remains to be met with are some fragments of botijas, or water-jars. Príncipe is in lat. 8° 34', and long. 77° 56', by my observations; it is only two or three hours' journey from the mouth of the river.

The Savana River, called by the Indians Chaparti, is very direct in its course, from Príncipe to its mouth, and free from sinuosities, playas, deep elbows, shoals, rocks, snags, or other obstructions.

Its banks, elevated several feet above the level of the water, are quite free from swamp and malarious miasmata, consequently the endemic fevers caused by these in Chagres, Portobello, Limon, and Panama, would not prevail in any settlements that may be formed in the neighborhood of the Savana. Indeed, it cannot be inferred that the Isthmus of Darien is unhealthy, because the towns on the Isthmus of Panama have all been settled in swampy localities, and in the most unfavorable positions in a sanatory point of view. A convincing proof of the freedom from swamp of the whole tract of country, from Port Escocés to the gulf of San Miguel, is the total absence of musquitoes, which invariably infest all swampy grounds in the tropics. The great longevity of the people of Darien, and the large proportion of very old men, also attest the healthiness of the climate.

From Príncipe to the mouth of Matumaganti, one mile S. S. W., the river increases greatly in width and depth; there are some islands in this reach; and on the west bank a very large cuipo-tree stands conspicuous, towering above the adjacent forest.

From Matumaganti to the mouth of Lara, two miles, the river has a depth of four fathoms, and a rise of tide of ten feet.

From Lara mouth to the islands in the second reach, four miles, the river is very direct in its course, with a depth of five or six fathoms. A ridge of hills runs parallel to each bank, at about two miles' distance. Just below this mouth, and above a widening of the river, called Revesa de Piriaki, is Cerro Piriaki, a hill of about 400 feet elevation, and above this there is no hill near either bank of the Savana. Above the islands, Estero Corotu, Rio Corredor, and other streams fall into this, the Calle Larga, or Long Reach.

From the islands to Areti mouth, S. S. E., three miles, the river has great width and depth; a ridge of hill here runs along each bank, at about two miles' distance.

[Sidenote: RELATIVE WATER DEPTHS.]

JUNCTION OF THE SAVANA AND TUYRA.—From Areti mouth to the junction of the Savana and Tuyra rivers, S., four miles, the river has a uniform width of two miles, and a depth of from eight to nine fathoms.

On the west bank of this reach is Punta Machete, with a small shoal above it, called Bajo Grande, and one below it, Bajo Chico. Both of these are close in shore, and oysters are found on them.

THE SAVANA MOUTH.—From the west point of the Savana mouth, in lat. 8° 21', long. 77° 54', the land rises into a ridge of hills of about 309 feet elevation, running N. for about four miles parallel to the river, from which it is separated by a strip of level land half a mile wide. There is a quebrada, or rivulet, in the ridge, called Laguadilla, which has plenty of fresh water in the driest season.

Behind Nisperal, the east point of the Savana mouth, there is a low ridge of hills; from the north bank of Iglesias, also, a narrow ridge follows the course of the Savana for about three miles. This is the Cerro Titichi, which gave its name to a mission of Indians at the mouth of the Chuquanaqua, the last survivor of whom is a man named Marcellino, who resides at Pinogana, on the Tuyra. On the north bank of Iglesias is Quebrada de Tigre, and on the Savana, above its mouth, is Quebradita la Monera, where fresh water may be obtained.

At the mouth of the Savana there are nine fathoms, at low water, and the tide rises from twenty-one to twenty-seven feet.

Boca Chica and Boca Grande, the mouths of the Tuyra, are perfectly safe entrances, and have a depth of thirteen to twenty fathoms of water respectively.

The gulf of San Miguel has good depth of water, and would hold the shipping of the world. Its mouth, between Cape San Lorenzo on the north, and Punta Garachiné on the south, is ten miles across, and opens into the Pacific, quite outside the bay of Panama. Its direction inward is N. E. fifteen miles to Boca Chica. Inside the bay of Garachiné, the shores of the gulf approach each other, and the width diminishes to four miles, between Punta Brava and Morro Patiño, with a depth of from nine to twenty fathoms, but again increases, and then diminishes to Boca Chica.

Close to Cape San Lorenzo is a small shoal, called El Buey, which may be easily avoided. There are several islands in the gulf, as Iguana, Cedro, Islas de San Diego, etc., etc., which are all safe of approach. On the north side, the rivers Congo, Buenavista; and on the south the Moguey, Guaca, Taimita, and Sambú, open into the gulf; while the Tuyra and Savana fall into its eastern end, the Ensenada del Darien, called by the Granadians 'Boca de Provincia,' or Mouth of the Province. Cullen's Isth. of Darien.

* * * * *

From what has been said, it sufficiently appears that Nicaragua is a country of great beauty of scenery and vast natural resources. She has, however, attracted the attention of the world less on these accounts than because she is believed to possess within her borders the best and most feasible route for a ship-canal between the two great oceans. The project of opening such a canal began to be entertained as soon as it was found that there existed no natural communication between the seas, as early as 1527. Since that period it has furnished a subject for much speculation, but beyond a few partial examinations, until very lately, nothing of a practical or satisfactory character had been attempted. In 1851 a careful survey was made of the river San Juan, Lake Nicaragua, and the isthmus intervening between this lake and the Pacific, by Colonel O. W. Childs, previously engineer-in-chief of the state of New York, under the direction of the now extinct Atlantic and Pacific Ship-canal Company. Until then, it had always been assumed that the river San Juan, as well as the lake itself, could easily be made navigable for ships, and that the only obstacle to be overcome was the narrow strip of land between the lake and the ocean. Hence, all the so-called surveys were limited to an examination of that part of the line. One of them was made under the orders of the Spanish government, by Don Manuel Galisteo, in 1781; another, and that best known, by Mr. John Baily, under the direction of the government of Central America, in 1838. An intermediate examination, quoted by Thompson,[XXXIV-53] seems to have been made early in the present century. The following table will show the results of these surveys as regards this particular section:

Greatest Greatest Elevation Elevation Authorities. Distance from Lake above above to ocean. Ocean. Lake. Galisteo, 1781 17 miles, 200 feet. 272 feet. 134 feet. Quoted by Thompson, 17 miles, 320 feet. 296 feet. 154 feet. 1829 Baily, 1838 16 miles, 730 feet. 615 feet. 487 feet. Childs, 1851 18 miles, 3,120 feet. 159 feet. 47½ feet.

As the survey of Colonel Childs is the only one which can be accepted as conforming to modern engineering requirements, it will be enough to present the detailed results to which he arrived. The line proposed by him, and on which all his calculations and estimates were based, commences at the little port of Brito, on the Pacific, and passes across the Isthmus, between the ocean and lake, to the mouth of a small stream called Rio Lajas, flowing into the latter, thence across Lake Nicaragua to its outlet, and down the valley of the Rio San Juan to the port of the same name on the Atlantic. The length of this line was found to be 194⅓ miles, as follows:

Miles. WESTERN DIVISION.—Canal from the port of Brito on the Pacific, through the valley of a small stream called Rio Grande, falling into the Pacific, into that of the stream called Rio Lajas, to Lake Nicaragua 18.588

MIDDLE DIVISION.—Though Lake Nicaragua, from mouth of Rio Lajas to Fort San Carlos, at the head of San Juan River 56.500

EASTERN DIVISION.—First Section.—Slack-water navigation on San Juan River from San Carlos to a point on the river opposite the mouth of the Serapiqui River 90.800

Second Section.—Canal from opposite mouth of Serapiqui to port of San Juan del Norte 28.505 ------- Total, as above 194.393

ORIGIN OF THE CANAL GRANT.—The charter of this company under which Colonel Childs carried on his investigations is dated September 22, 1849, and was obtained for a term of eighty-five years from the completion of the proposed canal. The surveys were to be commenced within one year, and the whole to be completed in twelve years. The canal, by the terms of the charter, was to be of dimensions sufficiently great to admit and pass vessels of all sizes with speed and safety. The company was to pay to the state, during the period assigned for the construction of the work, the annual sum of $10,000; to give to the state $200,000 of stock in the canal, on the issue of stock; the state to receive, for the first twenty years, twenty per cent annually out of the net profits of the canal, after deducting the interest on the capital actually invested, at the rate of seven per cent; and for the remaining sixty-five years, twenty-five per cent of the profits. The company, on the other hand, were to receive fifteen per cent annually out of the net profits of the canal for the first ten years after it should revert to the state, provided it did not cost over $20,000,000; but if it should cost more than that sum, the company to receive twenty per cent for twenty years. During the period of constructing the canal (twelve years), the company had the exclusive right of navigating the waters of the state by steam, and also the privilege of opening a transit route through its territories, upon the principal condition of paying ten per cent of the net profits to the state. There were some other provisions as to lands, tolls, etc., of no special importance.

Under this charter, the company perfected its organization. It divided its original shares into a considerable number, called 'canal rights,' which were sold, and their holders brought into the organization. The first instalment was paid, and in August 1850, just in time to meet the stipulation providing that the surveys should be commenced within one year from the date of the contract, a party of surveyors was sent out to Nicaragua. They were under the direction (as already said) of Colonel O. W. Childs as chief engineer. He arrived in Nicaragua on the 27th of August, 1850, and so far as his report is concerned, we are left to infer that he at once commenced the surveys for the canal. His report is dated March 9, 1852.

[Sidenote: DIVERSIONS OF THE CANAL.]

THE LINE OF SURVEY.—In the various projects for uniting the two seas, the line of the river San Juan has always been contemplated as that by which the great lake of Nicaragua is to be reached. From that lake to the Pacific, various routes have been suggested:

1. From Lake Nicaragua via the river Sapoa to the bay of Bolaños, in the gulf of Salinas, on the Pacific.

2. Via the Rio Lajas to the port of San Juan del Sur, or some point not far from it, on the Pacific.

3. Via the Rio Tipitapa into the superior lake of Managua, and from this lake to the Pacific at the little port of Tamarindo, the port of Realejo, or into the magnificent gulf or bay of Fonseca.

By his instructions, Colonel Childs was limited to a survey of the direct routes from Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific, provided either of them should prove practicable. As a consequence, finding a route which, in his opinion, was practicable, he made no surveys from the superior lake of Managua to the Pacific. He, however, made some observations on the line of the connection between the two lakes by the river Tipitapa—if a channel dry for most, if not all, of the year can be called a river. This is a source of great regret, especially in view of the deficiency, on the surveyed routes, of a good harbor on the Pacific, while both Realejo and the gulf of Fonseca are all that can be desired as ports.

Lake Nicaragua is estimated by Colonel Childs to be one hundred and ten miles in extreme length by thirty-five in (average) width. Its nearest approach to the Atlantic is at its southern extremity, from which, on a right line, it is about eighty miles distant. The point of its nearest approach to the Pacific is near the middle of its length, where, by the shortest line, the distance is about eleven miles.

The San Juan River was found by Colonel Childs to be, following its sinuosities, 119 miles in length. It has a great number of tributaries, generally small, with the exception of the San Cárlos and Serapiqui, which come in from the mountains of Costa Rica on the south. The first of these enters the San Juan at sixty-five miles, and the second ninety miles below the lake. These streams flow through valleys transversely to that of the San Juan, which is further intersected by ranges of hills, coming in both from the north and the south, at the Rapides del Toro, Castillo, Machuca, etc.

The lake of Nicaragua lies longitudinally, nearly parallel to the Pacific Ocean, and is separated from it, for nearly two thirds of the length of the lake, by hills of comparatively moderate acclivity and elevation, in most cases capable of cultivation to their summits. Within this distance, also, are several transverse valleys, extending nearly (Colonel Childs says quite) across, with summits varying in height, and furnishing generally good opportunities for direct communications by ordinary roads or by canal.

ROUTE VIA RIVER SAPOA.—This line lies chiefly in the department of Guanacaste, now in dispute between Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and actually occupied by the latter.

The examination of this line by Colonel Childs only proved its impracticability for the purpose of a canal. He found that to pass the summit a cut 119 feet in depth would be required, and an up-lockage from the lake of 350½ feet, and a down-lockage to the Pacific of 432 feet. Water to supply the upper locks, it was ascertained, could only be obtained with difficulty, and at great cost. Besides, a long rock cut of three fourths of a mile would be required from low-tide mark in the bay of Salinas to deep water. In short, the physical difficulties on this line, if not of a nature to make the construction of a canal impossible, were nevertheless such as to make it impracticable.

ROUTE FROM MOUTH OF THE RIO LAJAS TO BRITO.—The line from Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific, to which public attention has been most directed, is one starting from the mouth of the Rio Lajas, a few miles below the town of Rivas, or Nicaragua, to the port of San Juan del Sur, or Concordia, on the Pacific. As already stated, not less than three surveys had been made over this line; one in 1781 by Galisteo, a Spanish engineer, and the last by Mr. Baily, an Englishman, under the republic of Central America, published in Stephens' Incidents of Travel in Central America. The line pursued by both Galisteo and Baily was governed by the circumstance of a measurably good port on the Pacific—that of San Juan del Sur, the best on the whole line of coast from the bay of Salinas northward to Realejo. Baily's line is sixteen miles and 730 feet in length, and the greatest elevation above the lake 487 feet. That of Galisteo is seventeen miles 200 feet in length, and the greatest elevation above the sea 272, and above the lake 134 feet. Baily's line, for half of its distance, involved 209 feet of average vertical cutting; that of Galisteo, for half of its length, an average vertical cutting of 108 feet. These facts, and others, among which the absolute impossibility of supplying the summit levels with water, and the necessity of tunnels, combined to make the construction of a canal on this line wholly impossible.

[Sidenote: EXPLORING FOR A LINE.]

Colonel Childs seems to have been satisfied of the impracticability of this line, after a very rapid examination, and to have devoted himself to the discovery of one more feasible. In doing this, however, it was found necessary to abandon San Juan del Sur as the western terminus.

Starting at the point on the lake to the eastward of Rivas, levelling westward, through a transverse, moderately undulating plain, he ascended, on a distance of six and a half miles, 326 feet, to the summit of a broad valley, passing between the hills (which are here of moderate height), and connecting with another valley on the west side, which extends to a place on the Pacific called Brito, where a stream, named Rio Grande, flows into the sea. The quantity of water available for this summit being entirely inadequate, and the cut altogether too formidable, on the plan of carrying through the level, this route was abandoned. Another line, not far from this, was attempted, with very nearly the same result.

Colonel Childs next started from the mouth of the Rio Lajas, the same point with his predecessors, and carried a line of levels to the summit of a transverse valley lying about six and a half miles south of Rivas, and reaching between the valley of Rio Lajas and that of the Rio Grande, already mentioned as flowing into the Pacific at Brito. This summit was found to be only forty-seven and a half feet above the surface of the lake, as it stood on the 23d day of December, 1850, at which time it was three and a half feet above its lowest stages, and one and a half feet below the level at which it ordinarily stands at the height of the rainy season. The length of this line from lake to sea is about twenty miles. This is the route, and the only direct one, between the lake and sea, regarded by Colonel Childs as feasible, and upon this all his calculations respecting the proposed canal are based. In his own language: 'The conclusion was arrived at that the line leading from the lake, at the mouth of the river Lajas to the Pacific at Brito, presented more favorable conditions for the construction of the canal than any other; it was therefore determined to survey and carefully to locate a line across upon this route.'

This line, then, runs through the valley of the river Lajas, the waters of a principal branch of which interlock with those of the Rio Grande, and, through the valley of the latter, reaches the sea. The stream first named has its origin about ten miles south-westerly from its entrance into the lake, on the eastern slope of the dividing ridge, and after running north-westerly two miles, along the base of the hills, takes a northerly direction through comparatively level savannas, a distance of six miles or eight miles, when it bends to the east, and in a mile and three fourths enters the lake. The Rio Grande rises on the eastern slope of the same range of hills, and two or three miles north-west from the sources of the Lajas, and, after flowing some three or four miles at the foot of their slope, bends to the west, and by a narrow and somewhat irregular valley passes through the ridge, and thence, in a more capacious and uniform valley, into the Pacific.

WESTERN SECTION OF PROPOSED CANAL BETWEEN LAKE NICARAGUA AND THE PACIFIC.—The entire line of the canal proposed by Colonel Childs, and upon which all his calculations and estimates are based, is therefore through the valley of the river San Juan into Lake Nicaragua, across Lake Nicaragua to the mouth of the Rio Lajas, through the valley of that stream, and across the summit of forty-seven and a half feet which separates it from that of the Rio Grande, and down the valley of the Rio Grande to Brito, where that stream enters the Pacific.

Now, in order to understand Colonel Childs' conclusions, and appreciate the data which he gives, we must know what kind of a work he proposes. He contemplates a canal but seventeen feet deep; and as he intends to supply the western section, from the lake to the sea, by water from the lake, it would be necessary to commence construction in the lake at a point where the water is seventeen feet deep at mean stage. This point is opposite the mouth of the Lajas, and twenty-five chains from the line of the shore. From this point, for a mile and a half, partially along the river Lajas, the excavation will be principally earth; but beyond this, for a distance of five and a half miles, which carries the line beyond the summit, three fourths of the excavation will be in a trap rock. That is to say, the deepest excavation, or open cut, will be sixty-five feet, and involve the removal of 1,879,000 cubic yards of earth, and 3,378,000 cubic yards of rock. The excavation and construction in this five and a half miles alone are estimated at upward of $6,000,000.

The summit passed, and the valley of the Rio Grande reached, the excavation, as a general rule, will be only the depth of the canal. Colonel Childs found that the lake, at ordinary high water, is only 102 feet 10 inches above the Pacific at high and 111 feet 5 inches above it at low tide, instead of 128 feet, as calculated by Mr. Baily. This descent he proposes to accomplish by fourteen locks, of eight feet lift each, placed at proper points in the valley of the Rio Grande, thus bringing us to Brito, the terminus on the Pacific.

The harbor of Brito, as it is called, or the point where the Rio Grande enters the sea, is at best only a bad anchorage. There is here a small angular indentation of the land, partially protected by a low ledge of rock, but nothing adequate for the terminus of an important work like the proposed canal, or capable of answering the commonest requisites of a port. To remedy this deficiency, Colonel Childs proposed to construct an artificial harbor, of thirty-four acres area, by means of moles and jetties in the sea, and by extensive excavations in the land. If, as he supposes, the excavations here would be in sand, it is obviously almost impossible to get proper foundations for the immense sea-walls and piers that would be necessary for a work of this kind. On the contrary, if these excavations should be chiefly in a rock, as seems most likely, the cost and labor would almost surpass computation. Assuming the excavations for the purpose to be in earth and sand, Colonel Childs estimates the cost of making a harbor at a little over $2,600,000.

MIDDLE SECTION OF PROPOSED CANAL—LAKE NICARAGUA.—Proceeding from seventeen feet depth of water in the lake, opposite to the river Lajas, in the direction of the outlet of the lake at Fort San Cárlos, there is ample water for vessels of all sizes for a distance of about fifty-one miles, to a point half a mile south of the Boacos Islands. Here the depth of water diminishes rapidly to fourteen feet. For the remaining five and a half miles to the fort, the water is variable, averaging only about nine feet at low and about fourteen at high water. For this distance of five and a half miles, therefore, an average under-water excavation of eight feet would be required to make the channel, at low water, of the depth of the canal, or seventeen feet. But if the lake were kept at high level, the under-water excavation would be but an average of three feet.

Colonel Childs proposed to protect this portion of the channel by rows of piles driven on each side, along its whole extent, and thinks, after the excavation were made, a sufficient current would be established to keep the channel clear.

[Sidenote: THE RIVER SAN JUAN.]

EASTERN SECTION—THE RIVER SAN JUAN.—We come now to the section between Lake Nicaragua and the Atlantic, through or along the river San Juan. Excepting a small settlement at the Castillo Viejo, at the Castillo Rapids, thirty-seven miles from the lake, the valley of the San Juan is wholly uninhabited. This section, hitherto supposed the easiest, is, nevertheless, by far the most difficult part of the proposed enterprise.

Colonel Childs carried a line of levels from the lake at San Cárlos to the port of San Juan, on the northern bank of the stream. The whole distance from San Carlos to seventeen feet depth of water in the harbor of San Juan is 119⅓ miles; and the whole fall, from the surface of high lake to the surface of highest tide in the harbor, is 107½ feet—to lowest tide, 108¾ feet.

Of the above distance, the first ninety-one miles, or from San Carlos to half a mile below the Serapiqui River, Colonel Childs proposed to make the river navigable by excavating its bed, and by constructing dams, to be passed by means of locks and short canals; the remaining twenty-eight miles of the canal to be constructed inland, or independently of the river. Of the whole fall, sixty-two and a half feet occurs on that portion which it is proposed to improve by dams, and on which there were to be eight locks, and the remaining forty-six and a quarter feet occurs on the inland portion of the canal, on which were to be six locks—fourteen locks in all.

Colonel Childs proposed to place the first dam at the head of the Castillo Rapids, a distance of upward of thirty-seven miles from the lake, and to pass the rapids by means of a lateral canal. By means of this dam he proposed to raise the water, at that point, twenty-one and a half feet, and the entire level of Lake Nicaragua five feet above its lowest stages, or in other words, to keep it at high-water mark. The fall at this dam would be sixteen feet. He proposed also six other dams, four of eight feet fall, one of fourteen and a half feet, and one of thirteen and a half feet. Between all of these there would be more or less excavation in the bed of the stream, sometimes in earth, and often in rock.

Colonel Childs proposed further to improve the harbor of San Juan by moles, etc., and to construct an artificial harbor in connection with it of the capacity of thirteen acres.

In respect of the amount of water in the San Juan, we have some interesting statistics. This amount, of course, varies greatly with the different seasons. The quantity of water that passed from the lake at its lowest stage, on the 4th of June, 1851, was 11,930 cubic feet per second. The greatest rise of the lake is about five feet. When it stood at 3.43 feet above its lowest level, the flow of water was 18,059 cubic feet per second, being an increase of about fifty per cent. Supposing the same ratio of increase, at high lake the amount of water in the river would be doubled.

The river receives large accessions from its tributaries. Below these, and above the point of divergence of the Colorado, flowing direct into the sea from the San Juan, which falls into the harbor of the same name, the flow of water was 54,380 cubic feet per second, of which 42,056 passed through the Colorado branch into the ocean, and 12,324 through the San Juan into the port.

DIMENSIONS OF THE PROPOSED CANAL.—Where the excavation is in earth, Colonel Childs proposed (and all his estimates are founded on these dimensions) that the canal shall have a depth of 17 feet; that it shall be 50 feet wide at the bottom, 86 feet wide at 9 feet above the bottom, and 118 feet wide at the surface of the water. Where the excavation is in rock, the canal is to be 50 feet wide at bottom, 77 feet at 9 feet above bottom, and 78⅓ feet at the surface of the water.

LENGTH OF PROPOSED CANAL.—The total length of the line proposed by Colonel Childs, from San Juan del Norte on the Atlantic, to Brito on the Pacific, is 194⅓ miles, as follows:

Miles.

Canal from port of San Juan to its point of intersection with the river, near the mouth of the Serapiqui 28.505

Slack-water navigation on the San Juan River, from the above point to San Cárlos, at the outlet of the lake 90.800

From San Cárlos, across Lake Nicaragua, to the mouth of the Rio Lajas 56.500

From mouth of Rio Lajas to Brito 18.588 ------- Total, as above 194.393

ESTIMATED COST.—The cost of the work is estimated by Colonel Childs in detail. The recapitulation, by divisions, is as follows:

Eastern Division (i. e., from port of San Juan to $12,502,346 lake) Middle Division (through lake) 1,025,676

Western Division (from lake to Pacific) 13,896,603 ----------- $27,424,625

Add, for contingencies, 15 per cent 4,113,693 ----------- Total estimated cost of canal $31,538,318

The canal company published a pamphlet, in which the estimates for the canal were made at New York prices, and in which the total was put down at $13,243,099. 'The prices adopted in the estimate of $31,500,000,' says Colonel Childs, 'are made up with reference to the completion of the work within six years from the time of breaking ground, and a commencement of the settlement of the country in the vicinity of the line previous to letting the contracts.'

CAPACITY OF THE PROPOSED CANAL.—The charter of the canal company provided that the capacity of the work should be sufficiently great 'to admit vessels of all sizes.' And it is obvious that a work which will not pass freely the largest vessels can but imperfectly answer the purposes of its construction, or meet the requirements of commerce. But Colonel Childs proposed only one 17 feet deep, 50 feet wide at bottom, and 118 feet wide at top—a capacity wholly inadequate to pass the larger classes of vessels, and one which fails to meet the stipulations of the charter. The larger merchant-ships, such as are generally employed in the eastern trade, have a draught of from 20 to 25 feet, and would require, to say nothing of war vessels and large steamers, a canal of from 25 to 30 feet in depth, which would involve more than double the amount of excavation proposed, and probably treble the amount of cost, and carry it up from $31,500,000 to $100,000,000. Here is the fatal deficiency in the whole proposition of Colonel Childs.

To make the canal capable of passing vessels drawing 20 feet of water, Colonel Childs says, would increase to a very great degree the amount of the excavation on the river section, and still more the expense. 'Any considerable increase in the depth proposed (17 feet) would require under-water excavations between the lake and the Toro Rapids, a distance of 27 miles, to be almost continuous; it would very much lengthen the cuts on the other portions of the river, and the liability of these artificial channels to receive deposits of earth to such an extent as to obstruct navigation would be very much greater. On the inland portion of the canal,' continues Colonel Childs, 'a depth of 22 feet of water would, with fifty feet bottom-width, give a transverse water-section about 45 per cent greater than a depth of 17 feet, with the same bottom-width; and the expense of the inland portions would also, by reason of the greater depth of excavation, be increased in a still higher ratio.'

[Sidenote: THE VIEWS OF COLONEL CHILDS.]

Colonel Childs seems sensible of the inadequacy of a canal of the proposed dimensions, but thinks that by changes in model, etc., ships of great size could be built to pass a 17-foot canal. That is to say, the world may build ships for the canal, instead of the canal company a canal for the ships of the world! He states that most steamers draw less than 17 feet, and quotes from Murray's Treatise on Marine Engines to show that of 261 steam-vessels, principally English, 15 draw over 17 feet, 21 have 17 feet draught, and 225 less than 17 feet. But he neglects to tell us that experience and economy point to the construction of larger steamers than those now in use, and that such as would be used in the eastern trade, in the event of the construction of the canal, would be still larger than those of the Collins line, which draw over 22 feet. Besides, a canal of 17 feet is only adequate to the passage of vessels of 15 feet draught. No canal ought to be contemplated with a less depth than 25 feet, and with proportionate top and bottom width.

The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal has a depth of 10 feet.

The Welland Canal is 28 miles long, 9 feet deep, 35 feet wide at bottom, and 71 feet at top. It passes vessels of 350 tons.

The Caledonian Canal, between the eastern and western shores of Great Britain, is 59 miles in length, of which 21½ miles is inland and 37½ through lakes. It is 50 feet wide at bottom, 110 feet at top, and is 20 feet deep. It is capable of passing frigates of 32 guns, and merchant-vessels of 1,000 tons.

The canal from Amsterdam to New Dieppe, in Holland, is 50 miles long, 36 feet wide at bottom and 124 at top, and is 20 feet 9 inches deep.

In respect of navigating the canal, according to Colonel Childs' suggestions, steamers will propel themselves, and sail-vessels will be moved by tugs constructed for the purpose, except on the portion west of the lake, and between the river and port of San Juan, where the delay of the driving steamers in passing the locks would make the use of animal-power advisable. Calculating 24 minutes as the time required for a vessel to pass each lock, 60 vessels, it is calculated, could be passed in a day. The average rate of speed with which steamers might safely move in the inland portions of the canal is calculated at 2½ miles per hour, on the river portions 7 miles an hour, and on the lake, 11 miles an hour. Sailing vessels propelled by horse-power might move on the canal at the rate of two miles an hour, and on the river and lake with an average speed of 4 miles per hour. For steamers, therefore, the passage from sea to sea is estimated at 46½ hours, or about two days; for sailing vessels, 77 hours, or 3¼ days.

FACILITIES FOR CONSTRUCTING THE CANAL.—There are many considerations connected with an enterprise of this kind besides its feasibility in a mere engineering point of view, such as labor, materials, etc., etc. To all of these Colonel Childs seems to have devoted some attention.

Timber.—As compared with those of the United States, the original forests of Nicaragua are inferior in size, and the kind and quantity of timber proper for use less in proportion. The tree called the 'cedro,' or cedar, is produced in considerable abundance, and can be usefully applied. It grows to a great height, and will produce timber 36 to 40 feet long, and 12 to 18 inches square. The 'roble,' a species of oak, is also a tall tree, and furnishes timber equal to the cedar in size. The 'níspero,' 'laurel,' 'madera negra,' and others, answer a very good purpose. The 'níspero' is 29 per cent stronger than white oak, and may be procured in sufficient quantities, in the opinion of Colonel Childs, to be relied on as a substitute for all the purposes in which oak is required. He thinks that, in the aggregate, the forests of Nicaragua, in the sections traversed by the canal, will probably produce all the lumber required.

Stone.—Along the river San Juan, the rock is chiefly trap, graywacke, and shale; in many localities too friable for use, but in others, Colonel Childs thinks, it may be found fit for the purposes required. On the west side of the lake limestone quarries were found, capable of producing good lime in abundance. The stone, generally, between the lake and Pacific, on the proposed canal line, is not good, but it was thought that in case of need it might be obtained from Granada, sixty miles to the north-west, and from a lower point on the Isthmus. Very good and abundant clays were found, and a stone from which water-lime of a fair quality may be obtained.

Labor.—Colonel Childs concedes that the prosecution of the works of the canal would be attended with vast difficulties, resulting from a lack of all the essential requisites in the shape of mills, roads, carriages, etc., etc. He thinks the oxen of the country may be obtained in sufficient numbers to do all the necessary hauling of materials. But there is yet a consideration of vastly more importance, viz., labor. Colonel Childs apprehends that it would be necessary to rely chiefly on foreigners. He says that, although the laboring population of the country, when under compulsory circumstances, are capable of great activity and of enduring much fatigue, in their ordinary avocations they are tardy and irregular in their labor. An exception is, however, made in favor of a class of boatmen employed on the river, some 400 in number, in whom we have an example of physical labor and exposure to the elements scarcely equalled in any country, endured by them with no perceptible prejudice, but apparently with advantage to their health. These men sleep on a narrow plank across their boats, with no other protection than a single blanket; yet there is probably in the world no class of men of more athletic forms, and notwithstanding their indifferent attention to the conditions of health, more capable of hard service. So far as can be gathered from Colonel Childs' observations, it seems that he would rely chiefly on foreign labor for the construction of the proposed work.

[Sidenote: CLIMATIC TRIALS.]

He seems to think it is not unlikely that foreigners, already accustomed to hard labor, may, when thoroughly acclimated, and under no unnecessary exposure, be capable of a fair amount of labor in this country, although not as great an amount as in higher latitudes. He states that of the party engaged in the survey west of the lake, nine were unaccustomed to the climate. After a few months, a slight fever, followed by ague, prevented some of the number from continued daily exercise; but being in all cases under the control of medicine, it was of short duration. During seven months in this part of the state, illness in the party at no time interrupted a daily prosecution of the survey. Upon the San Juan River, the surveying party consisted of twelve persons, exclusive of native citizens. The survey occupied six and a half months, from March to September. 'The party generally enjoyed good health, and no individual was prevented by indisposition, beyond a day or two, from full service. Of those engaged as axemen in clearing the line, two were northern men, whose daily exercise exceeded that usual to men in canal-work, without detriment to health or constitution.'

Soil.—From San Juan Harbor to where the proposed canal would strike the river, the soil is vegetable mould, coarse sand, and sandy loam. Along the river it is of a more mixed character, clay and loam predominating in the valleys, and a gravelly clay, with detached stones, on the hills. West of the lake, the central portion of the summit is principally clay; the remainder, together with the soil through the valley to Brito, has a very nearly uniform and equal intermixture of clay, sand, and gravel. The surface soil is generally fine, and contains enough of vegetable mould to render it capable of great production.

Food.—Among the staple articles of food that would, during the construction of the canal, be most required for consumption, may be named maize, plantains, and beans. Of the former and latter two crops are annually raised on the same ground, and the supply of plantains is constant. Besides these are bananas, oranges, lemons, pineapples, cocoanuts, squashes, melons, tomatoes, and other garden vegetables. Colonel Childs, while considering these sources of supply in food, is nevertheless of opinion that salt meat and flour would have to be brought in large quantities from abroad. Fresh beef, pork, and poultry are abundant in the country.

OPINION OF COLONEL ABERT AND LIEUTENANT-COLONEL TURNBULL.—Although a different impression has been sought to be produced in the public mind, yet the government of the United States had no direct interest in the proposed canal, nor manifested any other than might naturally attach to any enterprise of supposed general importance. The surveys of Colonel Childs seem, nevertheless, to have been sent to the secretary of war, with a request for the opinion of the government engineers. Mr Conrad politely referred it to Colonel Abert and Lieutenant-colonel Turnbull, of the bureau of topographical engineers, who give their opinion in a brief letter, dated March 20, 1852. Proceeding upon Colonel Childs' data, they think his plan practicable, that his estimates for a canal of seventeen feet are liberal, and that some reductions might possibly be made. They think that a shorter line might be traced between the port of San Juan and the point of intersection with the river, and recommend another survey of that portion.

OPINION OF ENGLISH ENGINEERS.—The American minister in England, at the request of the company, appears to have transmitted Colonel Childs' surveys to the earl of Malmesbury, with a wish that he would submit it to competent English engineers for their opinion. James Walker, Esq., civil engineer, and Edward Aldrich, captain of the royal engineers, were named for this service. They seem not only to have examined Colonel Childs' survey, but to have subjected that gentleman, who was then in England, to a very close personal examination. Taking his plans, measurement, and statements to be correct, their opinion is, on the whole, favorable. They think that his estimates for work are ample, but regard the amount set down for 'contingencies' (fifteen per cent) too small by at least ten per cent, that is to say, that it should have been twenty-five instead of fifteen per cent. Of all the works of the proposed navigation, they regard the Brito or Pacific harbor as least satisfactory. To use their own language: 'Presuming Colonel Childs' statements and conclusions to be correct, the Brito harbor is in shape and size unworthy of this great ship navigation, even supposing the Pacific, to which it is quite open, to be a much quieter ocean than any we have seen or have any information of.'

They also object to the proposed size, and suggest a canal twenty feet deep instead of seventeen, sixty feet wide at the bottom instead of fifty, and the locks 300 feet instead of 250, as being one 'more efficient for the general purposes of trade, by steam or sailing vessels.' This would, of course, be attended with great additional cost; but, as they truly observe, 'if the junction of the Pacific with the Atlantic be worth doing at all, it is worth doing well.' They conclude that, judging from the data, without presuming to vouch for their accuracy, the work is practicable, 'and would not be attended with engineering difficulties beyond what might naturally be expected in a work of this magnitude;' that the surveys have every appearance of accuracy, and they are satisfied of the perfect fairness and candor of Colonel Childs; that the works are generally sufficient for the purpose they are intended to answer; and 'that the estimates upon the present value of money are adequate, in a general way, so far as judgments can be formed from the documents produced and the explanations of Colonel Childs.'

OPINION OF BRITISH CAPITALISTS.—We come now to a point not indicated in the report of Colonel Childs, viz., the refusal of the leading capitalists of England to engage in the projected work.

It is well known that at least two expeditions or missions to England were undertaken by agents of the canal company. At their first visit in 1851, they were unable to present any specific data upon which to solicit the aid of capitalists; they, however, made out a hypothetical case, which they submitted, and received for answer, 'Substantiate your statements by facts, and no difficulty will be experienced in securing the financial aid which you desire; until then, we can return you no definite answer.' This reply was not made public in terms, but the agents, on their return, proclaimed that the 'great European capitalists had engaged to furnish half the capital for the enterprise.' A few, and it is believed only a few, persons, considering the precise source whence this vaunt came, attached the slightest importance to it.

[Sidenote: REASONS FOR DECLINING.]

The second expedition was made in 1852, and this time the agents took out with them both Colonel Childs and his surveys. The opinion of certain British engineers (as we have seen) was procured, and the whole matter resubmitted to the great capitalists, who now, for the first time, thought it sufficiently advanced to merit their serious attention. The result of their examination was communicated to the company in a letter from Mr Bates, head of the house of Baring Brothers, in August 1852, and consisted in a declension to embark in the enterprise, for a variety of reasons, chiefly, of course, financial.

1. The dimensions of the canal were not such as, in their opinion, to meet the requirements of commerce, and the work could not be used except by medium-sized steamers and small vessels.

2. That the proposed dimensions were not in conformity with those required by the charter of the company, and that it could not be built of the proposed dimensions without securing a modification of the charter, which, in the existing state of feeling in Nicaragua, it was not likely could be effected.

3. That, supposing the work not to exceed the estimated cost of $31,000,000, the returns, to meet the simple interest of the investment at six per cent, must be at least $1,860,000 over and above its current expenses; or, to meet this interest, and the percentage to be paid to Nicaragua, it must reach, over and above its expenses, $2,269,200. Estimating the expenses of repairs, superintendence, cost of transportation, etc., at $400,000 a year (a sum regarded as too small), then the gross returns to make the work pay must be $2,670,000.

4. But it is found, by inquiry and calculation, that little, if any, of the European trade with the Orient would pass through the canal, inasmuch as the passage by the way of Cape Good Hope is, on an average, 1,500 miles nearer than by way of the proposed work.

5. That even if the distance were in favor of the proposed canal, its small size would prevent nearly, if not quite, two thirds of the vessels engaged in the Indian trade from passing it; and this objection would equally lie against most of the vessels employed in the trade with western America, the only trade in which the canal would prove serviceable to Europe.

6. That the heavy toll of $3 a ton on ships would prevent such vessels as could pass the canal from doing so, inasmuch as on a vessel of 1,000 tons the toll would be $3,000, or more than the average earnings of such vessels on their voyages.

7. That a canal of the proposed size could only be used by small passenger-steamers, the returns from which would not be adequate to pay the current expenses of the enterprise.

While unhesitatingly conceding the immense local advantages of a canal to the United States, these capitalists confessed themselves utterly unable to discover how it could prove of compensating value to the men who should invest their money in the enterprise. They therefore, for these and other reasons, declined to meet the views of the projectors and their agents.

GUARANTEE OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC.—By the convention of 1850 between the United States and Great Britain, a qualified guaranty was extended to this enterprise, in common with several others. There was also a clause inserted with direct reference to this company, which provided that it should 'have a priority of claim over every other company to the protection of the United States and Great Britain,' on condition that it should, within 'one year from the date of the ratification' of the convention, 'conclude its arrangements and present evidence of sufficient capital subscribed to accomplish the undertaking.' The treaty was ratified, and the ratifications exchanged July 5, 1850. No subscription of stock having taken place, and no evidence of capital having been presented in the time specified, or indeed at any other time, the company forfeited this special protection in July 1851; and as the twelve years within which the work was to be constructed will expire in 1861, it may be assumed that its prosecution will depend upon new conditions and combinations. Indeed, it may be questioned if the opening of railways between the oceans may not indefinitely postpone the project of a canal; for, however desirable such a work may be, its realization will depend upon precisely those practical considerations which apply to the simplest works of public utility. It will not do to foot up the commerce between Europe and Asia, and assume, as has generally been the case, that the totals will pass through the canal, if constructed. Now, the simple truth is, that, so far as Europe is concerned, that part of her trade which goes to ports on the Pacific coast of America, to the Sandwich Islands, Japan, the northern ports of China, to New Zealand and Australia, is all that will be materially benefited by the construction of a canal. As regards Australia, the principal advantage would be in having a safer, easier, and consequently quicker and surer means of communication than is afforded by the Cape of Good Hope; for the Pacific Ocean is preëminently the sea of steamers, and where steam navigation, in respect of speed at least, is destined to achieve its most brilliant success. So far as the United States is concerned, the advantages of such a work would naturally be greater than to Europe.

Assuming a canal to be built across the Isthmus of Nicaragua, the following table will illustrate the relations of Liverpool and New York with the principal ports of the east, in respect of distance:

Via Cape of Via Proposed Net Net Good Hope. Canal. Loss. Gain. From Liverpool— To Canton 12,900 13,800 900 Calcutta 11,440 15,480 4,040 Singapore 11,880 15,120 4,240 Sydney 14,980 12,550 2,320 From New York— To Canton 14,100 11,820 3,280 Calcutta 12,360 13,680 1,320 Singapore 12,700 11,420 280 Sydney 15,720 9,480 5,240

[The distances to Sydney are calculated via Torres Straits.]

[Sidenote: THE COURSE OF TRAFFIC.]

The following table will illustrate the relations of Liverpool and New York in respect to the principal western ports of America:

Via Via Gain. Cape Horn. Proposed Canal. From Liverpool— To Valparaiso 8,700 7,500 1,200 Callao 10,020 6,800 3,220 Sandwich Islands 13,500 8,640 4,860

From New York— To Valparaiso 8,580 4,860 3,720 Callao 9,900 3,540 5,360 Sandwich Islands 13,200 6,300 6,900

But it is not to be assumed that all the trade, much less all the travel, treasure, and mails to the points which I have indicated, will, under any circumstances, pass through a canal. The passengers between New York and San Francisco, amounting annually to nearly 100,000, would never consent to make a voyage of from 1,000 to 2,000 miles out of their way, to Nicaragua, Panamá, Darien, or Atrato, for the sake of passing through a canal, however grand, when by a simple transshipment at Honduras, for instance, and a transit of 209 miles by railway, they would be able to avoid this long detour, and effect a saving of from 5 to 8 days of time; for even if steamers were to run to any canal which might be opened, and supposing no detention on account of locks or other causes (calculated by Colonel Childs at 2 days), even then it would be necessary for them to stop, for coals and other supplies, more than quadruple the time that would be occupied by the passengers over the railway in effecting their reëmbarkation. And what is true of passengers is equally true of treasure, the mails, and light freight of small bulk and large value.

I do not wish to be understood as arguing against a canal; what I mean to illustrate is this: that, open a canal wherever we may, it will always stand in the same relation to a railway as does the baggage-train to the express. A canal would be chiefly, if not wholly, used by ships and vessels carrying heavy and bulky freights; but as most articles of this kind are kept in stock in all the principal ports of the world, it is not of so much consequence to have rapidity as constancy of supply, and hence, unless the canal shall be constructed so economically as to admit of a moderate tonnage rate, it is not improbable that ships of this kind would find it more economical to follow the routes now open. Squier's States of Cent. America.

* * * * *

In tracing, or attempting to trace, the routes of recent travellers in Darien, there is extraordinary difficulty, although the locality in question does not exceed a space of 40 miles by 30. Strange to say, the routes of the old buccaneers, of Dampier, Ringrose, Sharp, Wafer, and Davis, the inland journey of that remarkable man Paterson, and of the Spanish officer Don Manuel Milla de Santa Ella,[XXXIV-54] can be followed on the old Spanish maps, but not in our modern ones, even the best; while there are no data hitherto published that afford more than a guess at the tracks of modern explorers after leaving the sea-coast. Mr Gisborne has compiled, or rather copied, the principal part of the map, on which he has shown, in red, those portions which he himself saw and was enabled to lay down. No surveyor who reads his Journal and Report can doubt that he has given eye-sketches, aided by compass bearings and estimated distances; but the estimation of a practised eye is not to be undervalued. Dr Cullen can be traced up the Tuyra to Yavisa, and up the Paya; also up the Savana, but no farther inland.

The state of our geographical knowledge of that exceedingly interesting region is the following:

All examinations, all surveys, of the Great Isthmus were made by Spain alone, while she held the country (till the years 1821-31). Very good maps of much of the Spanish territory existed at that time; but they have been copied and recopied by all manner of hands; scales and bearings have been altered, not intentionally, but by mistake; names omitted or misspelled; and absolute longitudes applied erroneously. Thus good original work came to be so deteriorated by its transmutations as to be almost useless.

No surveys need be better than some of the Spanish works undertaken toward the end of the last and during the beginning of this century. Methods and instruments were used by Tofiño, Malaspina, Espinosa, Bauza, Córdova, and others, that were not adopted, if known, by French or English surveyors until afterward. Triangulation without the compass, bases obtained by angular measurements of known objects,[XXXIV-55] and the most perfect style of plan-drawing on true principles, were practised by Spaniards before this century commenced.

The south coast of the Great Isthmus and the interior of Darien were not explored and mapped sufficiently, because of the hostile Indians, and political reasons connected with the gold mines in that district. There was also another source of error in that particular vicinity which has only recently been eliminated; namely, the great difference of longitudes, according to the maps, between places on opposite sides of the Isthmus which are really in the same meridian. This amounted to more than 30 miles along all the coast from Chiriquí to Darien with respect to the corresponding southern coast-line.

Thanks to the far-seeing and indefatigable hydrographer to the admiralty, Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, the British surveys have included much of the coasts of Central America, and they are now placed in relatively correct positions on our latest maps. Having therefore exact coast-lines, or boundaries, we can avail ourselves more readily of much Spanish interior detail; but it is exceedingly difficult to get at the original works.

A very neatly engraved and apparently complete map of the Isthmus has been lately published at New Orleans by Dr Autenreith, but in reality it is only a copy of Spanish documents and recent surveys made by England; it is not an original work. There are in this country at present more materials for a map of Darien than exist elsewhere. Bauza brought copies of all the Spanish-American documents to this country, with many original maps; but there is still a great extent, nearly all the interior of the Isthmus of Darien, unexamined by the eye of a surveyor.

In the last century (1780), a Spanish party of five engineers and surveyors, under Donoso, escorted by a large body of troops,[XXXIV-56] was stopped by the Indians in the Chucunaque River, and obliged to return without executing their orders to survey the region near Caledonian harbor; and this was the last attempt by Spain, or by any one, to make a regular survey of the interior of that part of the Isthmus.

In the valuable collection of Mr Arrowsmith are many Spanish documents, among which one plan, dated 1774, shows all the Spanish establishments, military and religious, as well as mining, at that date, in Darien. Others show details of a previous century, and a few give the earliest settlements of the 16th century.

[Sidenote: INJURY TO TRUTHFUL GEOGRAPHY.]

And here allow one word to be said of the injury to truthful geography, caused by copying all materials without acknowledgment, or by adding imaginary topography without explanation. The map by Dr Autenreith has much the appearance of an exact survey; there is no distinction made between those parts for which there is authority and those which are partly the results of imagination (the interior hill-work).

The public in general being unaware of the authorities for a map, the mere copyist is often supposed to be the author of the work. Maps or charts that are not original ought always to show from what data they have been compiled.

In order to assist in now forming a correct opinion of Darien, a retrospective historical glance at a few points is necessary.

The first settlement in all America was founded in 1509 at the mouth of the Atrato. It was called Santa Maria de la Antigua. The next settlement on the Isthmus was at Acla, or Agla, in 1514, a few miles inland[XXXIV-57] from that port or bay now famed in history and romance, called by Paterson Caledonian Harbor. It was from Agla that Balboa crossed to the South Sea, and that the earliest expeditions to Peru were despatched.

In 1532 these two settlements were abandoned, and their population transferred to Nombre de Dios and Panamá. This is said to have been done on account of the unhealthy site of Santa Maria de la Antigua, surrounded by marshes and mangrove jungles; but why Agla was abandoned does not appear, except by Paterson's narrative, whence it may be inferred that the settlers there were harassed by the Indians, and were too far from the sea-shore. Besides which, as intercourse increased with places on the Pacific coasts it became, no doubt, more convenient to have a principal rendezvous on the southern shore more accessible from the Pacific.

In those early days so famed was Darien for gold, that the province was called 'Golden Castile'[XXXIV-58] (Castilla del Oro). It was the principal portion of that 'tierra firme,' so famed afterward as the 'Spanish Main,' the real 'El Dorado' to which Sir Walter Raleigh went in 1517-18, Sir Francis Drake in 1557, troops of buccaneers in the 17th century, and the Scotch colony in 1698.

Repeated aggressions on this auriferous district, where abundance of gold was procured by black slave labor, after the aborigines had been diminished in numbers by oppressive cruelties, induced Spain to close and abandon the mines for a time (early in the 18th century)—even those famous ones in the mountains of Espíritu Santo near Cana, from which alone more gold went through Panamá in a year than from all the other mines of America taken together. These Cana mines were sacked in 1702 and 1712 by English, in 1724 by French, and by the Indians in 1727. Nevertheless, in 1774 the mining operations were again going on, having been reëstablished a few years previously.

When Cana was taken by the expedition (as narrated by Davis) sent from Jamaica by Colonel Beckford in 1702, there were about '900 houses' (probably most of them mere huts); therefore, the population could hardly have been less than 3,000 at that time. From 1719 to 1727 there was a great and general resistance of the Indians, who attacked the Spaniards in all directions, and drove them out of all the detached settlements. Some years afterward peace was made (in 1740), missions of the Jesuits advanced among the natives, and by their aid not only much topographical knowledge was acquired, but Spanish settlements in the interior were renewed and mines worked. But the Indians again rebelled; therefore, small forts were reëstablished at Yavisa, Molineca, and Santa Maria Real, with a new post (in 1780) at El Príncipe, or Ocubti, from which a road was cut by Arisa, leading toward Caledonian Harbor. The fort El Príncipe does not appear in the Spanish MS. map of 1774; it was built about 1785, when the Spaniards had again advanced into the interior Indian territory.

In 1788 Milla de Santa Ella, an officer of Spain, went from Caledonian Harbor to El Príncipe direct by the road then recently opened by the Spaniards; but as he did not think it advisable to return the same way, he went down the Savana, and up the Chucunaque to the Tubuganti and Chueti rivers, whence he crossed to his station at Caledonian Harbor by the same route, undoubtedly, that Paterson traversed on his visit to the Indian great chief at Ponca in 1698.

The examination of no traveller, except Humboldt, previous to 1850, induced a belief that a canal might be cut directly through Darien. Dr Cullen's personal inspection of Caledonian Harbor, and of the Savana River, with their neighborhood, added to the information he obtained orally and by reading, led him to the conclusion that the lowest summit level between those places did not exceed 300 or 400 feet, while it might be very much less. Feeling so confident that a lower level existed, he went there again to explore; but while collecting further information and arranging preliminaries, at Bogotá, the seat of government in New Granada, Mr Gisborne (an engineer employed by Messrs Fox and Henderson) made short excursions from each side of the Isthmus, which satisfied him that the lowest summit level does not exceed 160 feet above the sea.

According to the most authentic map of this district, Mr Arrowsmith's last printed, not yet published, the distance across in a direct line—between deep water on each side—is about 33 miles. The windings of a canal may require nearly a third more, and if so, the whole distance to be canalized is about 40 miles—a shorter distance than can be found elsewhere.

Mr Gisborne's examination of the principal features of this line across Darien, however incomplete, is a material advance toward certainty. We have his two bases of operations, at Caledonian Harbor and San Miguel (entrance), nearly determined by recent government surveys, and we have his character as a guaranty for the value of those details which he has given in his Report. There may be a few miles of distance to settle, and there may be doubts whether the river near his watershed, or summit level, called by him Caledonia, may not be another river, perhaps the Chucunaque, or one of its tributaries; and moreover, that the range of heights supposed by him to separate those rivers is not truly placed, while his river Caledonia (otherwise the Golden River, or Aglatomate) winds through a more northerly area. But these are trifles compared with his barometric measurement of the summit level, and his own overlapping eye-views of the country which he did not traverse.

If indeed the mouth of the Savana be not accurately laid down, or assumed by him, if it be much farther west than he supposed, his surveys may not have overlapped; and he may have looked across two different plains; in which case there may be yet another ridge or watershed beneath the rivers which he actually touched. The expedition employed by our government to survey this coast did not examine the mouths of rivers running into San Miguel. Only the western part of that gulf was examined in continuing the coast line. Hence the position of the Savana may be less accurately known than is generally supposed.

[Sidenote: A HASTY SCRAMBLE.]

It is hardly necessary to remark here that to make independent observations for latitude, longitude, distance, and accurate triangulation requires more time and instruments than can be carried in a hasty scramble through a wild country.

Mr Gisborne's examination of the geology and mineralogy is valuable. Far from discovering any remarkable impediments to cutting a canal, he states that there are no particular engineering difficulties with respect to the ground; that there is much stratified shale-rock, easy to quarry, and fit to line a canal. There is abundance of fine timber. Mangrove forests, rather than jungles, surround the waters of the gulf. Densely matted underwood follows on drier ground; and then, on the elevated country, there are magnificent timber-trees very little encumbered by underwood.

Having thus endeavored to take a general view of this question, we may perhaps ask ourselves what are the greatest impediments to the excavation of a canal—impediments exceeding those that would attend any corresponding work in Europe.

Supposing that political arrangements are satisfactorily completed, the claims of other parties compromised or barred, and adequate funds disposable, the only peculiar and important impediments will be two—the natives and the climate. The native or Indian question, as connected with the independence and rights of the aborigines, should be considered deliberately. That the Indians may be overawed and conciliated by proper management, there is no doubt; but their reasonable claims must be satisfied, irrespective of all jurisdiction assumed over them by New Granada—a jurisdiction which the natives of Darien repudiate. Fair dealing, while an overpowering force is in sight, will prevent any attempt to have recourse to arms, or to molest the parties employed about a canal, and would therefore obviate any irritating and probably prolonged guerrilla hostilities.

It is estimated that there are about 5,000 independent Indians on the Isthmus east of Costa Rica. Of these, it may be presumed that there are not 2,000 capable of bearing arms; a small number when dispersed in the highlands between Costa Rica and Chocó, but quite enough to molest small parties of workmen very seriously.

For defensive purposes, as well as for the general order and discipline of very large bodies of laborers, in a wild country, some degree of military organization and an acquiescence in military discipline would seem to be indispensable.

Whether convicts might be employed advantageously may be a subject for grave consideration. In clearing the wood of a tropical forest, and exposing ground to the sun's rays for the first time, much pestilential sickness may be caused, as has been repeatedly proved (at Pulo Penang, Fernando Po, and many other places). It cannot be doubted that convicts would be peculiarly liable to the influence of such diseases, and therefore it might be unwise to make such an experiment. Natives of tropical climates, or Chinese, would probably be able to stand the malaria of newly cleared ground far better than Europeans.

The most formidable, because permanent and irremediable, obstacle is unquestionably the climate. There is no doubt that rain prevails about two thirds of the year, even on the higher grounds of Darien; while it is no less certain that in the gulf of San Miguel (where mangrove jungles bound low, muddy shores, and the great fall of tide exposes extensive mud-banks) there is a continued succession of rains, more or less heavy, except during short intervals. Examine any travellers' accounts, read their narratives—they themselves bear witness to the undeniable fact, although in general terms they may say there is not so much rain, and it is not so unhealthy, as has been supposed.

Many Europeans state they did not suffer, although much and continuously exposed to the rains and heat. Active and temperate men have not found the climate very detrimental. Persons who have had many years' experience there assert that care and regularity will ward off such attacks of fever or dysentery as are common among thoughtless Europeans unaccustomed to tropical regions.

It is possible that the great rise of tide on the south side of the Isthmus may tend to purify the air on its shores, and this effect, in such a place as San Miguel Gulf, may be very beneficial.

On the Atrato, at Chagres, at Portobello, and other notoriously unhealthy places, there is little or no rise of tide; and the air among the mangrove jungles becomes at times pestilential. Seemann, in his Voyage of the Herald, recently published, gives so correct a description of such places that it deserves attention. He says (vol. i. p. 249): 'The sea-coast, and those parts influenced by the tides and the immediate evaporation of the sea, produce a quite peculiar vegetation, which is generally characterized by a leathery, glossy foliage, and leaves with entire margins. In all muddy places, down to the verge of the ocean, are impenetrable thickets formed of mangroves, which exhale putrid miasmata, and spread sickness over the adjacent districts. Occasionally, extensive tracts are covered with the "Guagara de puerco," its fronds being as much as 10 feet high. Myriads of mosquitoes and sand-flies fill the air. Huge alligators sun themselves on the slimy banks, lying motionless, blinking with their great eyes, and jumping into the water directly any one approaches. To destroy these dreaded swamps is almost impossible.'

Again (pp. 251, 252), he says: 'Forests cover at least two thirds of the whole territory. The high trees, the dense foliage, and the numerous climbing plants, almost shut out the rays of the sun, causing a gloom which is the more insupportable as all other objects are hidden from view. Rain is so frequent, and the moisture so great, that the burning of these forests is impossible.' 'From reading the highly colored accounts with which many travellers have endeavored to embellish their narratives, the European has drawn, in imagination, a picture of equinoctial countries which a comparison with nature at once demolishes.'

Speaking of the 'vegetable ivory,' and referring to the climate, Mr. Seemann says (p. 222): 'It grows in low, damp localities, and is diffused over the southern parts of Darien and the vicinity of Portobello, districts which are almost throughout the year deluged by torrents of rain, or enveloped in the thick vapor that constantly arises from the humidity of the soil and the rankness of the vegetation.'

Describing the appearance of one of these mangrove forests, as they may be called, the same author observes (p. 73): 'The trees were actually in the water. The tall mangroves, with roots exposed for 12 or 14 feet, formed a huge tangled trellis-work, from which the tall stems rose to a height of 60 or 70 feet.' Fitzroy's Further Considerations on the Great Isthmus of Cent. Am. March 1853, in Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc., xxiii. 176-87.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: THE LONG-SOUGHT WAY.]

The project of uniting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by a canal large enough to permit the passage of sea vessels has attracted the attention and enlisted the earnest sympathies and efforts of the Old and New World, from the discovery of the Isthmus of Panamá down to the present time. The great historian Prescott says: 'The discovery of a strait into the Indian Ocean was the burden of every order from the government. The discovery of an Indian passage is the true key to the maritime movements of the fifteenth and the first half of the sixteenth centuries.' The desire to discover this passage, which was confidently believed to exist, and thus give to Spain the dominion of the seas, and pour into her treasury all the wealth of that marvellous land of exaggeration, the Spice Islands, sent Columbus, Pizarro, Cortés, Balboa, Gil Gonzalez, and the other Spanish mariners and adventurers, upon their long, arduous, and eventful voyages, and resulted in the discovery, conquest, and settlement of the American continent.

However long the voyage; however great the discovery; however boundless and rich the new countries that were subjected to the Spanish crown; however brilliant the prowess of a chivalrous soldiery—the emperor always asked, 'Have you discovered the way to the Spice Islands?' If not, he was unsatisfied, and the discovery and conquest were robbed of half their value. He was constantly reminding his brave and adventurous mariners that he desired above all things to discover the way to the Spice Islands, and promised great honors and rewards to the fortunate adventurer who should make the discovery. In 1523 the Emperor Charles the Fifth wrote to Cortés, earnestly urging him to search for a shorter way to the 'Indian Land of Spice,' and for a shorter and more direct passage between the eastern and western coasts of Central America. In answer to the emperor, Cortés wrote: 'It would render the king of Spain master of so many kingdoms that he might consider himself lord of the world.' In 1524, in obedience to the emperor's wishes, he fitted out an expedition to discover it. Columbus wrote to the emperor: 'Your Majesty may be assured that as I know how much you have at heart the discovery of the great secret of a strait, I shall postpone all interests and projects of my own for the fulfilment of this great object.' It was for the purpose of making this discovery that Gil Gonzalez fitted out the expedition that resulted in the discovery of Nicaragua.

The interest in the interoceanic communication was not confined to the Spanish emperor, or his adventurous mariners. It extended to the learned men of Spain, and seriously engaged their attention. Francisco Lopez de Gomara, one of the earliest writers on America, in his chapter on 'the possibility of a shorter passage to the Moluccas,' in his work on the Two Indies, published in 1551, says: 'The passage would have to be opened across the mainland from one sea to the other, by whichever might prove the most profitable of these four lines; viz., either by the river Lagartos (Chagres), which, rising in Chagres, at a distance of four leagues from Panamá, over which space of territory they proceed in carts, flows to the sea-coast of Nombre de Dios; or by the channel through which the lake of Nicaragua empties into the sea; up and down which (the Rio San Juan) large vessels sail; and the lake is distant only three or four leagues from the sea; by either of these two rivers the passage is already traced and half made. There is likewise another river which flows from Vera Cruz to Tecoantepec, along which the inhabitants of New Spain (Mexico) tow and drag barks from one sea to the other. The distance from Nombre de Dios to Panamá is seventeen leagues, and from the gulf of Urabá to the gulf of San Miguel twenty-five, which are the two most difficult lines.' Cortés was in favor of the first of these routes, Gil Gonzalez of the second, and Pizarro of the third. Herrera, royal historiographer of Spain, writing of the events of 1527, refers to the routes via Nicaragua and Panamá, and the possibility of other connections between the two oceans. Martin Behaim, a geographer of Nuremberg, Germany, was probably the first who suggested the possibility of a natural communication between the Atlantic and Pacific. So Magellan stated in his memorial of November 28, 1520, to the court of Valladolid, asking permission to search for such a channel. It was granted, an expedition was fitted out, and he discovered the Straits of Magellan, bearing his name.

Soon after the discovery of Nicaragua by Gil Gonzalez, it was declared and believed by many that there existed a navigable channel, connecting Lake Nicaragua with the Pacific, and that vessels would be enabled to pass from one ocean to the other. But no systematic attempt was made to ascertain the truth of this conjecture until 1529, when Pedrarias de Ávila, then governor of Nicaragua, sent an expedition of soldiers and Indians, under Martin Este, to explore lakes Nicaragua and Managua; when they had penetrated into a province called Voto, a little north of Lake Managua, they were attacked by a large body of Indians, and compelled to return. They reported that they saw from a mountain top a large body of water (doubtless the gulf of Fonseca), which they supposed to be another lake. Don Diego Machuca soon afterward fitted out another expedition in the same year, which he accompanied and commanded. It resulted in the discovery of the river San Juan as the true outlet of the lakes. He sailed down that river to the Atlantic. Machuca Rapids take their name from him.

[Sidenote: OVIEDO'S ACCOUNT.]

Oviedo says that in 1540, at St Domingo, he met Pedro Cora, a pilot who had been attached to the expedition of Martin Este, and subsequently to that of Captain Diego Machuca. He gives a long and interesting account of the second expedition, as narrated to him by Cora. Cora said that at the port of Nombre de Dios he met with some old friends who had built a felucca and brigantine on the shores of Lake Nicaragua at an expense of several thousand dollars. Among them was Diego Machuca, who had been commandant of the country of the Tenderí, and of the district about Lake Masaya. They embarked on these vessels on Lake Nicaragua for the purpose of exploring it. Captain Machuca, with two hundred men, advanced along the shore, keeping in sight of the boats, which were accompanied by several canoes. After some days they entered the San Juan River, and passed down to where its waters appeared to flow into the sea. Being ignorant of their locality, they followed the sea-coast in an easterly direction, and finally arrived at Nombre de Dios, where the pilot Cora met them. They were arrested at this place by Doctor Robles, who desired to found a colony at the mouth of the San Juan River, and thus reap the benefit of their labor and discoveries, 'as is the custom,' says Oviedo, 'with these men of letters; for the use they do make of their wisdom is rather to rob than to render justice.' For this outrage he was deprived of his office. The pilot, though strongly importuned, refused to tell Oviedo where the river emptied into the ocean.

Oviedo says: 'I do not regard the lakes as separate, because they connect, the one with the other. They are separated from the South Sea by a very narrow strip of land.... This lake (Nicaragua) is filled with excellent fish. But what proves that they are both one lake is the fact that they equally abound in sea fish and turtles. Another proof is, that in 1529 there was found in the province of Nicaragua, on the banks of this lake, a fish never seen except in the sea, and called the sword-fish. I have seen some of these fish of so great size that two oxen attached to a cart could hardly draw them.... The one found on the shores of this lake was small, being only about twelve feet in length.... The water of the lake is very good and healthful, and a large number of small rivers and brooks empty into it. In some places the great lake is fifteen or twenty fathoms deep, and in other places it is scarce a foot in depth; so that it is not navigable in all parts, but only in the middle, and with barks specially constructed for that purpose.... It has a large number of islands of some extent, covered with flocks and precious woods. The largest is eight leagues in circumference, and is inhabited by Indians. It is very fertile, filled with deer and rabbits, and named Ometepec, which signifies two mountains. It formerly contained a population much more numerous than now, divided into eight or ten villages. The mountain in this island toward the east (Madeira) is lowest; the other (Ometepec) is so high that its summit is seldom seen. I passed a night at a farm belonging to a gentleman called Diego Mora, situated on the mainland'—probably near the site of Virgin Bay. 'The keeper told me that during the two years he had been in that place he had seen the summit but once, because it was covered with clouds.'[XXXIV-59] There are many evidences that the channel of the San Juan River was once much deeper and freer from rapids and obstructions than it is at present. At one time, sea vessels passed regularly up and down the river. It would be impossible for them to do so now. The river is too shallow, and the rapids are too many and difficult. In 1648 a Spanish brig from Carthagena (de la Indias) arrived at Granada, and discharged her cargo, reloaded, and started on her return. On her voyage back, the river was found unnavigable at one point, and the vessel returned to Granada; the cargo was taken out, and the ship laid up, and finally broken to pieces. Thomas Gage, an English monk, who visited Nicaragua in 1665, says that vessels often arrived at Granada, from South America, Spain, and Cuba, and reloaded and returned to those countries by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua.

In 1781 Manuel Galisteo, by order of the Spanish government, examined the country, and carefully surveyed a route for a canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific. He estimated the level of the lake above the Pacific to be one hundred and thirty-four feet. The route selected by him was from the mouth of the Rio Lajas in the lake to San Juan del Sur. Early in the present century, a survey was made by an engineer name Thompson, of which we have no details, further than that he adopted the report made by Galisteo.

In 1837 Mr Baily was employed by the federal government of Central America, and made a careful survey of a route for the canal. He spent much time and a considerable sum of money in making the surveys, but was never paid for his services. Dr Andreas Örsted, of Copenhagen, made a survey in 1848, and published a map of the country. He selected the bay of Bolaños, thirteen and a half miles from Lake Nicaragua, as the Pacific terminus of the canal. In 1851 Colonel Childs, an Englishman, made a thorough survey and estimate of the whole work. He selected Brito as the Pacific terminus. According to his estimates, the actual length of water navigation, including the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, would be one hundred and ninety-four and one half miles. He submitted his plan and surveys to the British government, by which it was referred to James Walker and Edward Aldrich, royal engineers, who reported unfavorably. The plan and reports were then laid before a committee of English capitalists, with the purpose of raising the necessary capital for the work. But after a careful investigation, the committee declined to recommend the enterprise, believing it would be unprofitable, and more for the benefit of the United States than of Great Britain. This survey, and the action of the British government upon it, furnish strong confirmation of the general opinion, as to the purpose of that government, in seizing Greytown and the bay of Fonseca. A survey was made in 1850 by the Central American Transit Company.

After the independence of the Central American states had been established, Manuel Antonio de la Cerda, afterward governor of Nicaragua, represented to the federal congress, in July 1823, the urgent necessity for opening the canal without delay. But no action was then taken in the matter. During the next year several propositions relative to the construction of the canal were made to the federal government by parties in Europe. Barclay & Co., of London, made a proposition, on the 18th of September, 1824, to open a canal, between the Atlantic and Pacific, by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, at their own cost, if the government would assist them in certain particulars. On the 2d of February, 1825, Charles Bourke and Matthew Llanos addressed a communication to the government, stating that in the preceding December they had sent an armed brig with a party of engineers to Greytown, to survey the route, and praying that they might be granted: 1. An exclusive proprietorship and control of the canal; 2. An exclusive right to navigate the lakes and dependent waters by steam; 3. Free permission to use all natural products of the country necessary for the work; 4. Exemption from duty for the goods and materials introduced by the company during the pendency of the work. They offered to pay the government twenty per cent on the tolls received, and to surrender the work at the end of a certain number of years.

[Sidenote: MR. CLAY'S ASSURANCE.]

On the 8th of February, 1825, Don Antonio José Cañas, then minister from the federal government to the United States, addressed a communication to Henry Clay, then secretary of state, upon the subject of the canal, soliciting the coöperation of our government in the work, upon the ground that 'its noble example had been a model and protection to all the Americas,' and entitled it to a preference over any other nation in the 'merits and advantages of the proposed undertaking.' He proposed by means of a treaty to effectually secure its advantages to the two nations. Mr Clay instructed Colonel John Williams, U. S. chargé d'affaires in Central America, to assure that government of the great interest taken by the United States in an undertaking 'so highly calculated to diffuse a favorable influence on the affairs of mankind,' and to carefully investigate the facilities afforded by the route, and transmit the intelligence acquired to our government. Colonel Williams never made any report of his action under these instructions.

During the year 1825, many other propositions for the construction of the canal were received by the federal government from Europe. The attention of the government was thus strongly attracted to the importance and value of the proposed canal, both as affording a considerable revenue to the government, and aiding in the settlement of the country, and development of its resources. In June 1825, the federal congress passed a decree defining the terms and conditions upon which the canal might be constructed. Another decree, published at the same time, fixed the period of six months for receiving proposals for the work. The time was much too short, and but few offers were received. Among them was one from Mr Baily, the surveyor, as agent for the English house of Barclay, Herring, Richardson, & Co., which was conditional, and one from Charles Beninske for Aaron H. Palmer, of New York, which was accepted. The contractors, under the name of 'The Central American and United States Atlantic and Pacific Canal Company,' agreed to open a canal through Nicaragua, which should be navigable for large ships, and to deposit two hundred thousand dollars in the city of Granada, within six months, for the preliminary expenses of the work; to erect fortifications for its protection; and to commence work within one year. The contractors were to receive two thirds of the tolls from the canal until they had been reimbursed for the full cost of the work, with ten per cent interest; afterwards to have one half of the proceeds for seven years, with the right to introduce steam-vessels. The government agreed to place at their disposal all the documents in its possession relating to the canal; to furnish laborers at certain wages; and to permit the cutting and use of the timber in the country. If the canal was not completed, all the work done was to be forfeited to the government. This contract was dated June 14, 1826. The contractors had not sufficient capital for the construction of the canal, and failing to obtain it in New York, addressed a memorial to the United States congress, praying the assistance of the government in their work, which they represented to be of national importance. The memorial was referred to a committee, but never reported on. The enterprise excited considerable attention in New York, and the grant obtained from the federal government of Central America was believed to be valuable. Mr Palmer executed a deed of trust to De Witt Clinton, Stephen Van Renssalaer, C. D. Clinton, Phillip Hone, and Lynde Catlin, constituting them directors of the company which was being organized for the construction of the canal. Mr Palmer went to England in 1827, and endeavored, but without success, to obtain the coöperation of English capitalists. All his efforts were ineffectual, the necessary capital could not be raised, and the enterprise was abandoned. Mr Clay, then secretary of state, earnestly advocated the construction of the canal, believing it would be of great advantage to this country.

In 1828 an association of capitalists in the Netherlands, under the patronage of the king of Holland, undertook the construction of the canal. In 1829 the king sent General Verveer, as plenipotentiary to Guatemala, with special instructions relative to the canal. In October of the same year, commissioners were appointed by the federal government to confer with General Verveer, and on the 24th of July, 1830, they agreed upon a plan, which was to be laid before the federal congress for its approval. The conditions were much the same as in the contract with Mr Palmer. The revolution in Belgium, and the separation of Holland, terminated this enterprise. The federal congress had been stimulated to greater anxiety for the construction of the canal by these various proposals and contracts, and believing that there was more likelihood of its being made by the Dutch company than any other, in 1832 made ineffectual efforts to renew negotiations with Holland for reviving that company, and enabling it to complete its contract.

In the mean time, the efforts and representations of Mr Clay, De Witt Clinton, and other distinguished men had awakened public interest in the people and government of the United States in the proposed canal, and convinced them that it was important that our government should, if possible, control the work, and reap the benefits and advantages which it was believed would result to our commerce from it. On the 3d of March, 1835, the United States senate adopted a resolution, requesting the president to consider the expediency of opening negotiations with the Central American states and New Granada for protecting by treaty stipulations companies undertaking to open a canal across the Isthmus, connecting the two oceans, and of securing its free and equal navigation to all nations. By virtue of this resolution, President Jackson appointed Charles Biddle, and directed him to go to San Juan del Norte, and thence across the Isthmus to the Pacific, by the proposed route; to proceed to Guatemala, the capital, and with the aid of Mr De Witt Clinton, U. S. chargé d'affaires, obtain all public papers, and copies of the laws passed, and all papers and information relating to the canal. He was also to go to Panamá, and ascertain all about that route. Mr Biddle did not go to Nicaragua, and died soon after his return to the United States. His mission was a failure.

[Sidenote: ACTION OF THE GOVERNMENT.]

The government of Central America now determined to survey the route for the canal, and thus demonstrate to the world its practicability. In 1837 President Morazan employed Mr John Baily to survey the route, which he did, as already stated. In 1838 a convention between Nicaragua and Honduras authorized Peter Bouchard to make an agreement in France for the organization of a company to construct the canal. He did not succeed in accomplishing anything. Don Jorge Viteri, bishop of San Salvador, was sent as ambassador to Rome, and make like efforts, but without success. In the same year, a company of Americans in New York and New Orleans sent Mr George Holdship to Central America. He made a contract with Nicaragua, which had seceded from the federal republic, for the construction of a canal, the establishment of a bank, and the introduction of colonists. This scheme was extensive, but amounted to nothing, as the enterprise was soon abandoned.

In 1838, Aaron Clark, Herman Leroy, William A. Duer, Matthew Carey, and William Radcliff, citizens of New York and Philadelphia, addressed a memorial to congress, representing the necessity for the opening of the interoceanic canal. It was referred to a committee, of which Hon. Charles F. Mercer was chairman, who, upon the 2d of March, 1839, reported upon it, recommending the following resolution, which was adopted:

'Resolved, That the president of the United States be requested to consider the expediency of opening or continuing negotiations with the governments of other nations; and particularly with those the territorial jurisdiction of which comprehends the Isthmus of Panamá, and to which the United States have accredited ministers or agents, for the purpose of ascertaining or effecting a communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, by the construction of a ship-canal; and of securing forever, by suitable treaty stipulations, the free and equal rights of navigating such canal to all nations, on the payment of reasonable tolls.' The president and senate, acting under this resolution, negotiated and made a treaty between the United States and New Granada, by which our government guaranteed the neutrality of the Isthmus, and New Granada conceded a free transit across it. The Panamá Railroad Company was organized by virtue of this treaty; and, as we all know, the existing railroad across the Isthmus was built by them; with what labor, and cost in money and human life, it is foreign to our purpose to inquire.

Between the years 1838 and 1844, Central America was distracted by civil wars, and all action relative to the canal was suspended. In 1844, Don Francisco Castellon, minister from the republic of Nicaragua to France, made a contract with a Belgian company, acting under the patronage of the king of Belgium, for the construction of the canal. But this contract was as unsuccessful as its predecessors. In 1846, Mr Marcoleta, Nicaraguan chargé d'affaires to Belgium, made a contract with Louis Napoleon (the present French emperor), then a prisoner at Ham, for its construction. With his characteristic vanity, he stipulated that it should be called 'Canal Napoleon de Nicaragua.' Napoleon wrote and published a pamphlet in London, upon the subject, and made a feeble attempt to awaken the attention of capitalists, but without success. His pamphlet had only a limited circulation, but was afterward republished by M. Belly. On the 16th of February, 1849, William Wheelright made a proposition in behalf of an English company for the construction of the canal, but it was not acted upon.

On the 14th of March, 1849, Mr D. T. Brown, in behalf of certain citizens of New York, and General Muñoz, commissioner for Nicaragua, entered into a contract for the construction of a canal, but it was neither ratified by the executive of that republic nor by the company in New York, within the stipulated time. The seizure of Greytown by the English, in 1848, and the pretext of a Mosquito protectorate, were rightly regarded by the Nicaraguan government and our own, as directed to obtaining command and permanent control and dominion over the only possible route for an interoceanic canal.

On the 21st of June, 1849, Mr Hise, U. S. chargé d'affaires to Nicaragua, concluded a convention with commissioners appointed by that republic, giving the United States a perpetual right of way through that republic, of erecting forts, and protecting the transit. This convention was not approved by our own government, or by that of Nicaragua. On the 4th of March, 1850, General Taylor was inaugurated president of the United States, and soon after sent Mr E. G. Squier to Central America to supersede Mr Hise, as chargé d'affaires to Guatemala, with special commissions to the other states of Central America, "with full power to treat with them separately on all matters affecting their relations with this republic." Upon his arrival in Nicaragua, Mr Squier found an agent of Cornelius Vanderbilt, and others of New York, who was endeavoring to obtain a grant from that government for the construction of a canal. The government was at first indisposed to listen to his overtures, until assured by Mr Squier that the United States government would guarantee any charter, not inconsistent with our public policy, that might be granted by Nicaragua.

On the 27th of August, 1850, a contract was signed between the government of Nicaragua and the agent of the New York company, and afterward ratified on the 23d of September following, containing the following provisions, viz.:

1. That the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company may construct a ship-canal, at its own expense, from San Juan to Realejo, or any other point within the territory of Nicaragua, on the Pacific, and make use of all lands, waters, or natural materials of the country for the enterprise.

2. The canal shall be large enough to admit vessels of all sizes.

3. The grant is for eighty-five years from the completion of the work; the surveys to be commenced within twelve months; the work to be completed within twelve years, unless interrupted by unforeseen events. If not completed within the stipulated time, the charter will be forfeited, and all work done shall revert to the state. At the end of eighty-five years the canal shall revert to the state; the company, nevertheless, shall receive fifteen per cent annually of the net profits for ten years thereafter, if the entire cost of the canal does not exceed twenty million dollars; but if it does, then it shall receive the same percentage for twenty years thereafter.

4. The company to pay the state ten thousand dollars per annum, during the progress of the work, and to give it two hundred thousand dollars of the capital stock, and to pay twenty per cent of the net profits for twenty years, and twenty-five per cent thereafter.

[Sidenote: FURTHER CONTRACT PROVISIONS.]

5. The company to have the exclusive right to navigate the interior waters of Nicaragua by steam, and within twelve years to open any land or other route, by means of transit or conveyance across the state, and pay ten per cent of the net profits of such transit to the state, and transport on such transit, and the canal, when finished, the officers and employés of the republic free of charge.

6. The canal to be open to the vessels of all nations.

7. The contract and the rights and privileges conceded by it to be held inalienably by the individuals composing the company.

8. All disputes shall be settled by commissioners appointed in a specified manner.

9. All machinery and other articles introduced by the company into the state, for its own use, to enter free of duty; and all persons in its employ to enjoy all the privileges of citizenship, without being subject to taxation or military service.

10. The state concedes to the company, for purposes of colonization, eight sections of land, on the line of the canal, in the valley of the river San Juan, each six miles square, and at least three miles apart, with the right of alienating the same under certain reservations. All settlers on these lands to be subject to the laws of the republic, being, however, for ten years exempt from all taxes and from all public service so soon as each colony shall contain fifty settlers.

On the same day Mr Squier negotiated a treaty with Nicaragua, which provided that citizens, vessels, and merchandise of the United States should be exempt from duty in the ports of Nicaragua; and that citizens of the United States should have a right of way through the republic. The government of the United States agreed to protect the company in the full enjoyment of its rights from the inception to the termination of its grant. The rights, privileges, and immunities granted to the government and citizens of the United States shall not accrue to any other government, unless it first enter into the same treaty stipulations with Nicaragua as the United States has done. This treaty was ratified by the Nicaraguan legislative chambers on the 23d of September following, but was not acted upon by the United States senate, to which it was sent by President Taylor. This treaty was opposed by the British minister at Washington, who energetically exerted himself to secure its defeat.

The Clayton-Bulwer treaty between the United States and England guaranteed the neutrality of the canal, and both governments agreed to protect any company undertaking the work. The object of our government in this convention was to put an end to the Mosquito protectorate.

In August 1850 the company sent a party of engineers from New York to Nicaragua to survey a route from Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific, near the line taken by Galisteo and Baily. Soon afterwards the steamer Director was sent from New York to Lake Nicaragua, and smaller boats were sent to the San Juan River. A new road was opened to the Pacific from Virgin Bay on the lake to San Juan del Sur. A line of steamers was established from New York to Greytown, and from San Juan del Sur to San Francisco.

The new contract made with United States citizens, and ratified and enforced by treaty with our own government, was not consistent with the wishes or policy of Great Britain, but the generosity of our government in throwing open the proposed canal to all nations disarmed hostile criticism, and deprived Europe of any pretext for opposition or protest. It quickened England into new energy, in the assertion of her claims under the Mosquito protectorate. On the 15th of August, 1850, the British consular representative in Central America addressed a note to the Nicaraguan government, in which he stated the boundary claimed by his government as follows: 'The undersigned, her Britannic Majesty's chargé d'affaires in Central America, with this view, has the honor to declare to the minister of foreign relations of the supreme government of Nicaragua, that the general boundary line of the Mosquito territory begins at the northern extremity of the boundary line between the district of Tegucigalpa in Honduras, and the jurisdiction of New Segovia; and after following the northern frontiers of New Segovia it runs along the south-eastern limits of the district of Matagalpa and Chontales, and thence in an easterly course, until it reaches the Machuca Rapids, to the river San Juan.' If this boundary line had been allowed, as claimed, it would have placed the only possible route for the proposed canal in the occupation and control of Great Britain. Daniel Cleveland's Across the Nicaragua Transit, MS., 118-42.

INDEX.

A

Aa, P. V., works of, ii. 745-6.

Abibeiba, Cacique, domain of, invaded, 1512, i. 352.

Ábrego, F., bishop of Pan., 1569-74, ii. 474-5.

Acajutla, battle of, 1524, i. 670-3.

Acala, province, Dominicans in, 1550-5, ii. 360; invasion of, ii. 365.

'Accessory Transit Company,' mention of, iii. 341-2; iii. 667-8.

Acla, name, i. 418; founding of, 1515, i. 418; massacre at, 1516, i. 441; town of, laid out, i. 441; abandoned, ii. 396.

Acosta, J., 'Compendio,' ii. 62.

Agriculture, in Cent. Amer., iii. 650-5.

Aguado, J., commissioner of inquiry, 1494, i. 176.

Aguilar, E., president of Salv., 1846, iii. 291-2.

Aguilar, Friar G. de, shipwreck, etc., of, 1512, i. 350; rescue, 1519, i. 350.

Aguilar, G. de, bravery of, i. 688-9.

Aguilar, M., revolt of, 1811, iii. 12-13; mission of, 1828, iii. 180; jefe of C. R., 1837-8, iii. 183.

Aguilar, V., revolt of, 1811, iii. 12-13; vice-president of C. R., 1859, iii. 373.

Ahuachapan, siege of, 1876, iii. 403-5.

Ahzumanche, Prince, death of, i. 637.

Aillon, L. V. de, exped. of, 1520, i. 138; 1523, i. 142-3.

Alarcon, H. de, exped. of, 1540, i. 153.

Albites, D. de, mission to Nicuesa, 1510, i. 331-3; exped. of, 1515, i. 404-5; battle with Darien Indians, 1516, i. 425; further expeditions, i. 429-30, 471; founds Nombre de Dios, i. 471; in command at Natá, i. 508; gov. of Hond., 1532, ii. 155; death, ii. 155.

Albuquerque, A. de, voyage of, 1503, i. 121.

Alcaine, M., intercession of, 1855, iii. 261.

Alcalde, office of, i. 297-8.

Alcántara, M. de, death of, ii. 41.

Alcazaba, S. de, exped. of, 1534, i. 150.

Alcedo y Herrera, D. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 584.

Alderete, ——, gov. of Pan., 1725-30, ii. 583.

Alfaro, F., revolt of, 1842, iii. 219.

Alfaro, J. M., jefe of C. R., 1842, iii. 224, 226; 1846, iii. 227-8.

Almagro, D. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 391; character, etc., of, ii. 3-4; Pizarro's exped. to Peru, ii. 4-8, 19, 35-40; death, ii. 40.

Almagro, D. de jun., assassination of Pizarro, ii. 40-1; execution of, ii. 42.

Almansa, F., mention of, iii. 38.

Altamirano, Friar D., advice to Cortés, i. 580-1.

Altamirano, J. C., bishop of Guat., 1611-15, ii. 664.

Alvarado, D. de, exped. of, 1530, ii. 121.

Alvarado, G. de, battle of Tacuxcalco, 1524, i. 673; capture of Mixco, 1525, i. 687; conquest of the Mames, 1525, i. 695-702; revolt caused by, ii. 79-80.

Alvarado, J. de, gov. of Guat., 1527, ii. 95, 104-5; executor of P. de Alvarado, ii. 207-8.

Alvarado, P. de, conquest of Guat., 1522-4, i. 617-62; of Itzcuintlan, 1524, i. 663-5; invasion of Salv., i. 669-76; the Cackchiquel revolts, 1525-6, i. 681-92; ii. 74-85; conquest of the Mames, i. 695-702; exped. to Peru, ii. 38-9, 122-30; return to Mex., ii. 85-6; trial of, ii. 100-4; marriage, ii. 102; return to Guat., 1530, ii. 116-17; residencia, etc., of, ii. 131-2; exped. to Hond., 1535-6, ii. 160-5; 1539, ii. 296-9; departs for Spain, ii. 165; crown grant to, 1538, ii. 203; exped. of, 1539-41, ii. 203-7; death, ii. 207; will, ii. 207-9; character, ii. 209-11; offspring, ii. 211-12.

Álvarez, Gen. M., capture, etc., of Walker, 1860, iii. 364.

Alzayaga, J. de, exped. of, 1696, ii. 685-6.

Alzuru, Col, revolt, etc., of, 1831, iii. 514.

Amar y Borbon, A., viceroy of New Gran., 1803, iii. 491.

Amatique Bay, discovery of, ii. 650.

Amedzaga, J. H. de, gov. of Pan., 1711-16, ii. 583.

America, aborigines of, i. 59-68; sighted by Biarne, 986, i. 76; discovery of claimed by Arabs, 1147, i. 78; name of, i. 291-2.

'American Coast Pilot', ii. 758.

Amézqueta, B. de, exped. of, 1696, ii. 686-7.

Anacaona, Queen, execution of, i. 259-60.

Añaquito, battle of, 1546, ii. 254.

Andagoya, P. de, exped. to Birú, 1522, i. 139, 502-3; joins Pedrarias, i. 391; works, etc., of, i. 503-4; ii. 247.

Andrés, Cacique, guide to Sharp's exped., 1680, ii. 520-3.

Angel, Doña M., imposture, etc., of, 1712, ii. 697-701.

Angulo, Father, bishop of Vera Paz, 1559, ii. 374.

Añino, U., gov. of Pan., 1854, iii. 518; protest of, iii. 518-19.

Aniñon, F. de, memorial of, ii. 398-9.

Anson, Capt. G., exped. of, 1739-44, ii. 592-3.

Antigua, founded by Enciso, 1510, i. 327-8; Balboa in command at, i. 328-30, 338-57; Nicuesa at, i. 334-5; factions in, i. 338-40; growth of, i. 341; prosperity of, i. 385; ranked as a city, 1514, i. 391; scarcity at, i. 396; Indian outbreaks near, 1522, i. 476; abandoned, 1521-4, i. 499.

Antonelli, Surveyor J. G., rept of, ii. 399.

Apaneca, battle of, 1876, iii. 403-4.

Apochpalon, Cacique, meeting with Cortés, etc., 1524, i. 547-50, 557.

'Appendix to Sharp's South Sea Waggoner,' MS., ii. 758.

Aquino, A., revolt of, 1833, iii. 168.

Arada, battle of, 1850, iii. 279-80.

Arana, Licentiate T. I. de, rept of, ii. 707.

Aransivia y Sasi, S. de, gov. of Nic., 1721, ii. 607.

Arbolancha, P. de, Balboa's envoy to Spain, 1514, i. 384-5; delay of, i. 392; reception, i. 393.

Arce, M. J., imprisonment of, iii. 20; defeats Padilla, iii. 58; president of Nic., 1825, iii. 80; rule, iii. 82-94; 'Memoria,' iii. 107; defeat of, 1832, iii. 113; pacification of Nic., 1825, iii. 172; invasion of Salv., 1844, iii. 190-1.

'Archives of the Indies,' i. 195-6.

Arellano, J. R. de, bishop of Guat., 1601, ii. 663-4.

Argüello, F. de, aids Balboa, i. 441, 450; execution of, 1517, i. 457-9.

Argüello, J., vice-jefe of Nic., 1825, iii. 173; contest with Cerda, iii. 174.

Aguilar, V., execution of Mora, 1860, iii. 376; death of, iii. 376.

Arias, C., provis. president of Hond., 1872-4, iii. 457-60.

Arias, G., exped. of, 1529, ii. 109.

Aristocrats, attitude, etc., of, in Guat., 1848, iii. 274-6, 281.

Ariza, Don A. de, 'Comentas,' ii. 481; gov. of Pan., 1774, ii. 582.

Ariza y Torres, Capt. R., revolt of, 1823, iii. 72-3.

Aizpuru, Gen. R., revolt of, 1873, iii. 538; revolution of, 1875, iii. 541-2; 1878, iii. 543; president of Pan., iii. 542; occupation of Pan., 1885, iii. 554; arrest, etc., of, iii. 554-5.

Armies, of Cent. Amer., iii. 645-9.

Arosemena, M., works, etc., of, iii. 489.

Arrazola, affair at, 1827, iii. 91.

Arteaga, B. de, storming of Mixco, 1525, i. 691.

Arteaga y Avendaño, J. de, bishop of Chiap., etc., 1538, ii. 330; death, ii. 330.

Arzú, Brigadier M., exped. of, 1822, iii. 60-1; operations of, 1828, iii. 94.

Asamblea Nacional Constituyente, see Congress, Central American.

Aspinwall, see Colon.

Astaburuaga, F. S., 'Repúblicas de Centro-América,' iii. 361.

Atahualpa, Inca, Pizarro's invasion, ii. 19-20; capture, etc., of, ii. 21-32; ransom, ii. 32-6; execution, ii. 36-8.

Atiquipac, Alvarado at, 1524, i. 666.

Atitlan, enslavement of natives in, ii. 234-5.

Atlacatl, King, submission of, 1524, i. 674.

Audiencias, description of, i. 270-3.

Audiencia of the Confines, establd. 1543, ii. 241; jurisd. ii. 241; personnel, ii. 301; seat of the, ii. 301, 310, 370, 400; iii. 326; dispute with Las Casas, etc., ii. 303-7; dissensions, 1696-1702, ii. 661-3.

Audiencia of Los Reyes, establd. 1543, ii. 241; jurisd. ii. 241.

Audiencia of Panamá, establd. 1533, ii. 57; jurisd., etc., ii. 57-8, 585; abolished, 1533, ii. 241; reëstabld. ii. 464.

Audiencia of Santo Domingo, establd. 1526, i. 269; personnel, i. 269-70; jurisd. i. 270.

Aury, Commodore, capture of Trujillo, 1820, iii. 24-5.

Ávalos, J. de, exped. of, 1525, i. 571-2.

Avendaño, Father A. de, mission to the Itzas, 1695, ii. 689-90.

Avendaño, D. de, president of Guat., 1642-9, ii. 653.

Aycinena, M., jefe of Guat., 1827, iii. 150-2.

Aycinena, P., acting president of Guat., 1865, iii. 413.

Ayora, J. de., exped. of, 1514, i. 396-402; outrages of, i. 399-402; escape, i. 402.

Ayuntamientos, functions, etc., of, iii. 8-10; votes of on union with Mex., 1821, iii. 53-4.

Ayza, J. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 608.

Azmitia, J. A., cabinet minister, 1845, iii. 268-9, 272.

B

Bacalar, fort built at, ii. 625.

Bachicao, H., exped. to Pan., ii. 254-5.

Bachiller, definition, etc., of word, i. 297.

Badajoz, Capt. G. de, joins Pedrarias' exped. 1514, i. 390; exped. of, 1515, i. 412-17; defeat, i. 415-17; meeting with Espinosa, i. 420-1.

Badillo, J. de, exped., etc., of, 1537, ii. 54-7.

Balboa, V. N. de, character, i. 324, 454-5; early career, i. 324-5; gov. of Antigua, i. 329-30, 338-56; diplomacy, etc., of, i. 338-40; exped. against Careta, i. 354-6; visit to Comagre, i. 347-9; Panciaco's story, i. 347-8; exped. to Dabaiba, 1512, i. 351-2; defeats confederated tribes, i. 353; charges against, i. 356-7; crosses the Isthmus of Darien, i. 358-74; defeats Porque, i. 363-4; discovers the South Sea, etc., 1513, i. 129, 364-73; encounter with Chiapes, i. 369; canoe voyage of, i. 374-5; Tumaco's story, etc., i. 375-7; return to Antigua, i. 378-84; pacifies Teoca, i. 378; cruelty to Poncra, i. 379-80; Pocorosa's statement, i. 381; captures Tubanamá, i. 381-3; sickness at Comagre, i. 383; spoils of exped., i. 384-5; superseded by Pedrarias, 1514, i. 393-4; trial of, i. 395; exped., 1515, i. 406-7; feud with Dávila, i. 432-3, 437; capt.-gen. of Coiba and Pan., i. 435; betrothal, i. 439; reëstablishes Acla, 1516, i. 441; ship-building on the Balsas, 1517, i. 441-5; at the Pearl Islands, i. 445-52; fate of, forecast, i. 447-8; arrest of, i. 452-3; trial, i. 456-7; execution, 1517, i. 457-9.

Balsas, Rio de las, ship-building on the, 1517, i. 442-5.

Barahona, Admiral J. de, naval combat off Pan., 1680, ii. 535-7.

Barbacoas, Morgan at, 1671, ii. 499.

Barillas, M. L., president of Guat., 1886, iii. 451-2; cabinet, iii. 452.

Barker, A., exped. to Hond., 1576, ii. 637-8.

Barranco, ——, bishop of Hond., 1811-19, iii. 631.

Barrientos, Vicar P. de, mention of, 1576, ii. 374.

Barriere, P., proceedings of, iii. 45.

Barrionuevo, Capt. F. de, gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 46, 51.

Barrios, Gen. G., defence of Leon, 1844, iii. 199; at San Miguel, iii. 201; operations of, 1857, iii. 300; pronunciamiento, etc., of, iii. 301; coup d'état, iii. 302; president of Salv., iii. 302; operations, 1863, iii. 304-6; besieged at San Salv., iii. 306; capture and execution, 1865, iii. 307.

Barrios, J. R., revolution of, 1871, iii. 419-24; president of Guat., 1873-85, iii. 429-49; invasion of Salv., 1876, iii. 402-5; 1885, iii. 409-10; efforts for confed. of Cent. Amer., 1883-5, iii. 442-9; quarrel with Soto, 1883, iii. 467-8; character, iii. 431-2; attempted assassination of, iii. 443-4; death, 1885, iii. 410, 449.

Barrios y Leal, president of Guat., 1688-95, ii. 659-61; exped. of, 1695, ii. 682-4; death, ii. 685.

Barroeta, R., vice-president of C. R., 1872, iii. 381-2.

Barrundia, J. F., imprisonment, etc., of, iii. 18-19; revolutionary measures, iii. 33, 86-7; jefe of Guat., 1824, iii. 146; rule, iii. 146-8; president, 1829, iii. 102; rule, iii. 102-12; negotiations with Carrera, iii. 129-30.

Baskerville, Sir T., defeat of, 1595, ii. 422.

Bastidas, R. de, exped., etc., of, 1500-2, i. 114, 183-94; biog., i. 195.

Battles, Tonalá, 1524, i. 628; Xelahuh, 1524, i. 639-41; Acajutla, 1524, i. 670-3; Tacuxcalco, 1524, i. 673-4; Iztapa, 1524, ii. 216-17; Canales, 1526, ii. 83; Patinamit, 1526, ii. 84; Panamá, 1671, ii. 504-6; Villanueva, 1838, iii. 135-6; Arada, 1850, iii. 279-80; Santa Ana, 1871, iii. 395-6; Apaneca, 1876, iii. 403-4; Pasaquina, 1876, iii. 404; Naranjo, 1876, iii. 462.

Bay Islands, colony of, establd. 1850, iii. 319.

Bayano, ——, campaign of, ii. 387-8.

Bazan, J. de V., gov. of Pan., ii. 479; rule, ii. 479-80.

Beatriz, Doña, grief of, ii. 311-12; gov. of Guat., 1541, ii. 312-13; death, ii. 317.

Becerra, F., exped. of, destroyed, 1515, i. 403.

Behaim, M., map of globe, 1492, i. 93.

Belen River, Columbus at, 1503, i. 218-19.

Belen, village, Nicuesa's exped. at, 1510, i. 305-6.

Belgium, colonization scheme in Guat., iii. 589-90.

Belize, origin of name, ii. 624; woodcutters in, ii. 624-35; Figueroa's exped. to, ii. 624-8; map, ii. 627; English claims, ii. 629-31; treaties concerning, ii. 632-4; O'Neill's exped. to, 1798, ii. 635; iii. 314; rights of settlers in, iii. 313-14; commerce, etc., of, iii. 317.

Belly, F., works of, iii. 263.

Benalcazar, Capt. S. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 391; conquest of Peru, ii. 15, 26, 38-9.

Bienvenida, Friar L. de, mission to C. R., 1540, ii. 185.

Benzoni, G., exped. to C. R., 1545, ii. 192-9; works, etc., of, ii. 232-3.

Berenger, 'Collection,' ii. 751-2.

Berlanga, Friar T. de, alleged miracle, etc., of, 1537, ii. 59.

Bermejo, J., the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 274-86; defeat at Pan., ii. 284-6; death, ii. 286.

Berrospe, G. S. de, president of Guat., 1696-1701, ii. 661-2.

Betanzos, D. de, convent founded by, 1529, ii. 135-6.

Betanzos, Father P. A. de, labors of, 1555-70, ii. 432-3.

Bethlehemites, in Guat., ii. 666-7.

Biamonte y Navarra, J. B. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 480.

Birú, Andagoya's exped. to, 1522, i. 502-3.

Birues, de, exped. of, 1515, i. 407.

Blanco, M., pronunciamiento of, 1868, iii. 378.

Blewfields, population, etc., of, 1847, iii. 249.

Bobadilla, Commissioner F. de, proceedings of, at Española, 1500-2, i. 180-1, 248-9; enslavement of natives, i. 266.

Bobadilla, Friar F. de, labors of, in Nic., ii. 184-5.

Bobadilla, J. F., gov. of C. R., 1780, ii. 622.

Bogran, Gen. L., president of Hond., 1883, iii. 468.

Bolivar, S., congress at Pan., 1826, iii. 511-12; at Angostura, iii. 513.

Bonnycastle, R. H., 'Spanish America,' iii. 248.

Bordone, B., map of, 1528, i. 144.

Borland, S., U. S. minister, interference of, iii. 255.

Bosch, L. van der, writings of, ii. 745.

Botello, L., execution of, 1517, i. 457-9.

Boucher, G., 'Bibliothèque Universelle,' ii. 760.

Bourbourg, B. de, 'Histoire des Nations Civilisées du Mexique,' i. 201.

Bradley, Capt., foray on the Hacha, 1670, ii. 491; captures San Lorenzo, ii. 494-6.

Brigantine, picture of, i. 189.

Briones, Capt., exped. to Hond., 1524, i. 525; treachery of, i. 526; Olid's assassination, i. 531-3; execution of, i. 534.

Briones, J. A. L. de, gov. of Nic., 1744, ii. 607.

Buccaneering, origin of, ii. 451-3.

Buccaneers, name, ii. 452; mode of life, ii. 454-6; excesses, etc., of, ii. 489-90.

Buena Esperanza, founding of, 1535, ii. 157; abandoned, 1536, ii. 161-2.

Buitrago, P., director of Nic., 1841-3, iii. 238-9.

Bure, G. F. de, 'Bibliographique Instructive,' ii. 760.

Burnaby, Sir W., mission to Belize, ii. 630.

Burney, J., works of, ii. 753.

Bustamante y Guerra, Gen. J., capt.-gen. of Guat., 1811, iii. 6; biog., iii. 6-7; rule, iii. 6-21.

C

Caballon, Licentiate J. de, defeats Gaitan, 1554, ii. 425; exped. of, 1560-2, ii. 425-6.

Caballos, Puerto de, name, i. 519; L'Olonnois' raid on, ii. 458.

Cabañas, T., siege of Leon, 1844, iii. 199; at San Miguel, iii. 201; defeat at Quelepa, iii. 202; president of Hond., 1852-5, iii. 321-2; character, etc., iii. 321.

Cabello, D., gov. of Nic., 1766, ii. 608.

Cabezas Islands, Drake at, ii. 407-8, 414, 416.

Cabezas, R., jefe of Guat., 1830, iii. 153; biog., iii. 153-4.

Cabot, J., voyage of, i. 98-9.

Cabot, S., voyages of, i. 98-9, 108-9, 143.

Cabral, P. A., voyage of, 1500, i. 113-14.

Cabrera, P., surprised by Verdugo, ii. 263.

Cáceres, Capt., captures Lempiras's stronghold, 1537, ii. 291-2; treachery of, ii. 291-2.

Cackchiquel, map of, i. 629.

Cakchiquels, power, etc., of the, i. 621; subjugation, 1524, i. 652-7; revolt of the, 1524-5, i. 681-92; 1526, ii. 79-85; 1534, ii. 130.

Cacos, party, iii. 26-7; revolutionary movements, iii. 33; policy, iii. 42-3.

Caibil Balam, Cacique, submission of, 1525, i. 702.

Caicedo, J. de, mention of, i. 333.

Calancha, J. L., president of Pan., 1864-5, iii. 533.

Cáldas, S. A. A. R. de, president of Guat., 1667-70, ii. 658-9.

Cáldas, President, 'Copia de Carta,' ii. 761-2.

Calderon, A., bishop of Pan., ii. 475.

Calimaya, Conde S. de, president of Guat., 1654, ii. 657.

Calvo, B., gov. of Pan., 1856, iii. 527-8.

Camachire, Cacique, torture, etc., of, ii. 194-5.

Cámara y Raya, bishop of Pan., 1614, ii. 477-8.

Camargo, A. de, exped. of, 1539, i. 151.

Camargo, M. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607.

Cambranes, F., bishop of Guat., ii. 378.

Campbell, Capt., the Scots' colony, ii. 578-9.

Campo, R., president of Salv., 1856, iii. 300-2.

Campoy, F. de P., bishop of Hond., 1841, iii. 631.

Camus, A. G., works of, ii. 760.

Can, M. F., embassy of, 1695, ii. 689.

Cana, sack of, ii. 586.

Canales, battle of, 1526, ii. 83.

Cañas, A. J., minister to U. S., 1825, iii. 81.

Cañas, J., ruler of Salv., 1840, iii. 143.

Cañas, Gen. J. M., mention of, iii. 345-6; execution of, iii. 376.

Cancer, Friar L., labors in Vera Paz, etc., ii. 353-5; exped. to Flor., ii. 355-6; martyrdom, 1549, ii. 356; biog., ii. 357.

Cancuc, revolt at, 1712, ii. 697-704.

Candia, P. de, conquest of Peru, ii. 11, 13.

Cano, Friar A., mission of, 1685, ii. 680.

Capac, M., inca of Peru, ii. 38; revolt of, ii. 39; defeat of, ii. 40.

Carabajal, D. de, naval combat off Pan., 1680, ii. 535-7.

Caravel, picture of, i. 187.

Carbajal, Friar A. de, bishop of Pan., 1605-11, i. 476-7.

Carbajal, R. de, mission to Pan., ii. 256-7; gov. of Pan., 1779, ii. 584.

Cárcamo y Rodriguez, bishop of Salv., iii. 632.

Cárdenas, A., president of Nic., 1883, iii. 485.

Cárdenas, Father T. de, bishop of Vera Paz, 1565, ii. 374-5.

Cardona, J. de L., founds Quezaltenango, 1524, i. 638.

Careta, Cacique, capture, etc., of, 1511, i. 343-6; friendship for Balboa, i. 359, 399; cruel treatment of, i. 399-400.

Caribs, of Hond., iii. 609-10.

Carrillo, B., revolt at Leon, 1812, iii. 14.

Carrillo, Capt. L., Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 390; Balboa's exped., 1515, i. 406; death, i. 407.

Carranza, B., provis. president of C. R., 1870, iii. 379-80.

Carrasco, Licentiate, bishop-elect of Nic., ii. 434-5.

Carrascosa, A., mention of, ii. 15.

Carreño, J. M., intendente of Panamá, 1822, iii. 508-9.

Carrera, R., insurrection of, 1837, iii. 124-8; biog., iii. 125; negotiations with, iii. 129-30; captures Guat., iii. 131-2; defeat at Villanueva, iii. 135-6; capitulation, iii. 137-8; pronunciamiento of, 1839, iii. 140; defeats Morazan, iii. 141-2; negotiations with Guzman, iii. 203; manifesto of, iii. 207-8; despotism of, iii. 264-7; president of Guat., 1844, iii. 267; plot against, iii. 268; attempted assassination of, iii. 269; revolution against, 1847-8, iii. 271-3; resignation, 1848, iii. 274; return to Guat., 1849, iii. 277-8; commander-in-chief, iii. 278; proscription, iii. 279; operations, 1850, iii. 280; president for life, 1854, iii. 282; rule, iii. 283; campaigns of, 1863, iii. 304-7; death, iii. 283-4.

Carrillo, B., jefe of Costa Rica, 1835, iii. 181; 1838, iii. 183; rule, iii. 182-4, 215-17.

Carrillo, Capt. L., defence of Granada, 1550, ii. 277.

Carrion, Oidor J., mention of, iii. 494.

Cartagena, Ojeda's defeat at, 1509, i. 298-9; Enciso at, 1510, i. 322-3; Heredia at, 1532, ii. 47-8; Drake at, 1572, ii. 407-9; captured by Drake, 1586, ii. 420; description of, ii. 579-80; captured by filibusters, 1697, ii. 580; bombarded by Vernon, 1740, ii. 591; revolt at, 1810, iii. 493; 1812, iii. 494-5.

Cartago, description of, ii. 445; Mansvelt's raid on, ii. 461-2; conspiracy at, 1823, iii. 66; revolt at, 1835, iii. 182; 1875, iii. 385.

Casa de Contratacion de las Indias, origin of, 1493, i. 168; description of, i. 282-3.

Casas, F. de las, exped. against Olid, 1524, i. 528-34; Olid's assassination, i. 531-3; departure for Mex., i. 533.

Casas, B. de las, see Las Casas, B. de.

Casaos, P. de, capt.-gen. of Pan., 1545, ii. 258-9.

Casaus y Torres, R., archbishop of Guat., iii. 29-30; biog., iii. 30.

Cascaras, Brigadier F., campaign of, 1827, iii. 92-3.

Casillas, Friar T., mention of, ii. 345.

Casillas, Father P., bishop of Chiap., 1550, ii. 373.

Casorla, J. R., president of Pan., 1878, iii. 543.

Castañeda, D. de, exped. of, 1548, ii. 186.

Castañeda, F. de, gov. of Nic., 1531, ii. 166-7; misrule, ii. 167-9; flight, etc., ii. 169.

Castañeda, Col V., vice-president of Guat., 1886, iii. 451.

Castañon, C., gov. of Chiap., iii. 38.

Castellanos, F. de, campaign of, 1530, ii. 111-13.

Castellanos, J. de, works of, ii. 60-1.

Castellanos, V., president of Hond., 1862, iii. 324-5.

Castellon, F., revolt of, 1854-5, iii. 259-61.

Castile, kingdom of, i. 10.

Castilla, Dr A. C. de, president of Guat., 1598-1609, ii. 649-51.

Castilla del Oro, (see also Panamá), name, i. 294-5; Nicuesa's exped. to, 1509-10, i. 294-308; maps of, i. 323; ii. 49.

Castillo, Friar B. del, adventures, etc., of, ii. 172-5.

Castillo, M. S. del, president of Salv., iii. 302.

Castillo, N. del, president of Nic., 1856, iii. 351-2.

Castro, J. A., mediation of, iii. 219-20; minister-gen. of C. R., 1843, iii. 224.

Castro, J. M., president of C. R., 1847, iii. 228-30; 1866, iii. 377; resignation, iii. 236.

Castro, V. de, mission to Peru, ii. 250-1.

Caxamalca, Pizarro at, ii. 21-38.

Cebaco, Cacique, dealings with Hurtado, 1516, i. 427.

Célis, D. G. de, mission to Alvarado, 1835-6, ii. 161-2; complaints against, ii. 163-4.

Cemaco, Cacique, defeated by Enciso, 1510, i. 326-7; by Pizarro, 1511, i. 344; victory of, i. 352-3.

Central America, enslavement, etc., of natives in, ii. 232-9; the new laws, 1543, ii. 240-4; historical review of, ii. 733-5; revolution in, 1818-21, iii. 23-41; union with Mex., 1821-2, iii. 42-59; confederation, iii. 60-78; seal of, iii. 71; constitution, iii. 75-7; treaty with Colombia, 1825, iii. 81; with U. S., iii. 81; designs of Fernando VII., iii. 105-6; Spaniards excluded from, iii. 106; republic of, dissolved, 1837-40, iii. 127-44; attempted unification of, 1883-5, iii. 442-9; physical features, etc., iii. 560-5; population, 1883-5, iii. 587-8; colonization in, iii. 588-94; castes, iii. 594-6; diseases, etc., in, iii. 619-20; education in, iii. 621-7; church and clergy, iii. 627-37; administr. of justice, iii. 638-45; military affairs, iii. 645-9; agric., iii. 650-5; mining, iii. 655-60; manufact., iii. 660-2; commerce, iii. 663-7, 675; navigation, iii. 667-8; roads, iii. 669; currency, iii. 669-70, 675-6; mails, iii. 671-2; finances, iii. 677-87; debt, iii. 677-87; railroads, iii. 700-2, 706-8; telegraphs, iii. 708-9.

Cenú, treasure found at, ii. 48.

Cerda, C. de la, capitulation, etc., of, iii. 86.

Cerda, M. A. de la, jefe of Nic., 1825, iii. 173; contest with Argüello, iii. 174; execution, iii. 174.

Cereceda, A. de, gov. of Hond., ii. 146-7, 155-64; imprisonment, etc., of, 1531, ii. 151-3; counter-revolution of, ii. 154; exped. to Naco, ii. 156-7; dispute with Cueva, ii. 158-9; appeal to Alvarado, ii. 160-1; complaints of, ii. 163.

Cerna, V., president of Guat., 1865-71, iii. 413-23.

Cerrato, A. L. de, juez de residencia, ii. 183-4, 308-9; president of the audiencia of the Confines, ii. 308-10; administr., ii. 326-7.

Cervera, D., president of Pan., 1880-4, iii. 544-9.

Cesar, F., mention of, ii. 50-1; exped., 1536, ii. 52; 1537-8, ii. 53-5; death, ii. 56.

Chacon, J. M., president of Guat. constituent congress, 1824, iii. 145.

Chacujal, Cortés at, 1525, i. 569-70.

Chagre River, Cueto at, 1510, i. 305.

Chahúl, capture of, 1530, ii. 112.

Chalchuapa, assault on, 1885, iii. 410.

Chamorro, F., suprema delegado, 1844, iii. 189, 194, 196.

Chamorro, F., director of Nic., 1853, iii. 256; provis. president, 1854, iii. 258; revolt against, iii. 259; death, iii. 259-60.

Chamorro, P. J., president of Nic., 1875-9, iii. 481-2.

Chamula, capture of, 1524, ii. 221-5.

Charles V., the rebellion in Peru, ii. 265.

Chatfield, Consul, F., mediation of, requested, 1839-40, iii. 186-7; the Mosquito, difficulty, iii. 251; demands on Salv., iii. 297-8; negotiations, etc., of, iii. 318-19.

Chaves, F. de, death of, ii. 41.

Chaves, H. de, battle of Xelahuh, 1524, i. 139; exped. to Zacatepec, 1527, ii. 89; capture of Copan, 1530, ii. 113-15.

Chaves, Capt. J. de, exped. of, 1836, ii. 164-5.

Chiapas, ancient inhabitants of, ii. 214; conquest of, 1524-6, ii. 215-27; settlement, etc., of, ii. 228-31; church affairs in, ii. 229-30, 328-39, 373-5, 712-13; maps of, ii. 331; iii. 39; the new laws, ii. 332-3, 338; prosperity of, ii. 669; character of population, ii. 669-70; govt, etc., of, ii. 670-1; the Tzendal revolt, 1712-13, ii. 696-705; population, 1813, iii. 36; education, iii. 37; industries, iii. 38; revolution in, iii. 38-41.

Chiapas, city, coat of arms, ii. 330.

Chiapas de los Indios, founding of, 1526, iii. 227.

Chiapas, stronghold, capture of, 1524, ii. 217-20; 1526, ii. 226-7.

Chiapes, Cacique, encounter with Balboa, 1513, i. 369.

Chepo, Cacique, execution of, 1515, i. 404.

Cherino, D. de A., gov. of C. R., etc., 1573, ii. 430; exped. of, 1575, ii. 430-1.

Chignautecs, defeat of the, 1525, i. 688-9; submission, i. 690.

Chilapan, Cortés at, 1524, i. 542.

Chilun, captured by Tzendales, 1712, ii. 698.

Chinameca, treaty of, 1845, iii. 203-4.

Chinandega, pacto de, iii. 187-90; convention of, iii. 187-8; capture, etc., of, 1845, iii. 241-2.

Chiracona, Cacique, torture, etc., of, 1516, i. 429-30.

Chiriquí, revolt in, 1526, i. 509; province of, organized, 1849, iii. 516-17.

Chiriquita, captured by freebooters, 1686, ii. 556.

Chirú, Cacique, capture of, i. 423.

Choles, attempted conversion of, 1675-88, ii. 679-80.

Choluteca, affair at, 1844, iii. 194.

Chroniclers, early, credibility of, discussed, i. 317-20.

Church, tithes, ii. 139-40; affairs of in Hond., ii. 299-301, 641-2, 712-13; in Chiap. ii. 328-39, 373, 712-13; in Guat., ii. 341-8, 663-9, 710-12, 728-33; in Vera Paz, ii. 353-4, 374-5; in Soconusco, ii. 372; in Nic., ii. 612-17; religious orders suppressed, 1870-4, iii. 425-7; history of the, iii. 627-37.

Cihuatlan, Cortés in, 1524, i. 542-3.

Cimarrones, depredations, etc., of, ii. 366-9; Drake's exped., ii. 407-17; Oxenham's exped., ii. 418.

Ciudad Real, founding, etc., of, 1528, ii. 229-30; a cathedral city, 1538, ii. 329; revolt, etc., at, 1712-13, ii. 705; flood at, 1785, ii. 706; revolution at, iii. 39-40.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 1850, iii. 252.

Clergy, expatriation of, 1829, iii. 103-4; immorality of, iii. 472-3; privileges, etc., of, iii. 627-9, 636-7.

Climate of Cent. Amer., iii. 561-2.

Coatepeque, Carrera's repulse at, 1863, iii. 304.

Coats of arms, Chiap., ii. 330; Guat., iii. 147; C. R., iii. 229.

Coco, affair at, 1885, iii. 410.

Cocori, Cacique, seizure, etc., of, ii. 194-5, 197.

Code, organic, iii. 8-10.

Codro, M., forecasts Balboa's fate, i. 447-8.

Coiba, reported wealth of, i. 343-5.

Cole, B., mention of, iii. 328.

'Coleccion de Documentos Inéditos,' i. 200.

Colindres, M., mention of, iii. 339.

'Collection of Voyages and Travels,' ii. 746.

Colmenares, R. E. de, exped. to Veragua, 1510, i. 331; relieves Nicuesa, i. 331-2; exped. to Dabaiba, 1512, i. 351-2; mission to Spain, 1514, i. 388.

Colombia, insurrection in, 1820, iii. 24-5; treaty with, 1825, iii. 81; C. R. boundary question, iii. 233-5; Pan. annexed to, 1821, iii. 506-8; republic of, organized, 1819, iii. 513; severed, iii. 519.

Colon, disturbances at, 1885, iii. 551-3; destruction of, iii. 553.

Colon, D. de, mention of, i. 174-5; gov. of Española, 1509, i. 268; rule, etc., i. 268-9, 273; death, 1526, i. 274.

Colon, L., suit, etc., of, 1538-40, ii. 64.

Columbus, B., adelantado, 1494, i. 173; character, i. 175-6.

Columbus, C., voyages of, i. 86-97, 109-11, 119-20; theory of, i. 92-3; biog., etc., i. 155-7; character, i. 156-7, 171-2, 181, 232-8; agreement with the crown, i. 157-8; exped. of, 1492-3, i. 158-64; 1493-5, i. 168-76; 1498-1500, i. 177-82; 1502-4, i. 202-31; charges against, i. 176; arrest, etc., of, i. 181-2; enslavement of natives, i. 253-5, 262, 265-6; death, 1506, i. 231.

Columbus, F., biog., i. 203-4; 'La Historia,' i. 204.

Colunje, J., president of Pan., 1865-6, iii. 533-4.

Comagre, Cacique, Balboa's visit to, 1512, i. 347-9.

Comayagua, founding of, 1539, ii. 293-4; capture of, 1827, iii. 162; description of, iii. 570-1.

Commerce, of Guat., ii. 383-4; of Pan., ii. 390-3, 587, 594; Asiatic, ii. 391-2; of Nic., ii. 438; contraband, ii. 473-4; of Cent. Amer., iii. 663-7.

Compañon, F., mention of, ii. 442-5; at the Pearl Islands, 1517, i. 452, 467; gov. of Natá, i. 508-9; dispute with Córdoba, i. 586.

'Compendium of Authentic and Entertaining Voyages,' ii. 750.

Concepcion, founding, etc., of, ii. 67, 70.

Concepcion, convent, founded at Granada, 1528, ii. 184.

Concepcion, R. de la, conspiracy of, iii. 18.

'Confederacion Centro Americana,' established 1844, iii. 188-9.

Congress, Central American, installed, 1823, iii. 67-8; measures, iii. 68-78; parties, iii. 69-70.

Congress, federal, measures, iii. 79-85, 118-19; dissolved, iii. 88; reassembled, iii. 102; last session, 1838, iii. 134.

Contreras, H. de, revolt of, 1550, ii. 274-88; death of, ii. 287-8.

Contreras, Brigadier J. T. de, defection of, 1821, iii. 46; revolution against, iii. 46.

Contreras, P. de, revolt of, 1550, ii. 274-88.

Contreras, R. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 169-71; exped. to El Desaguadero, ii. 170-1, 175-6; arrest, etc., of, ii. 177; residencia of, ii. 178-9, 183-4; charges against, ii. 180-2; dispute, etc., with Gutierrez, ii. 190.

Copan, capture of, ii. 113-15.

Córdoba, F. H. de, voyage of, 1517, i. 132; exped. to Nic., 1524, i. 512-14.

Córdoba, G. F. de, bishop of Nic., 1535, ii. 435; of Guat., 1574, ii. 378-80.

Córdoba, H. de, defection of, i. 578-80, 584; Pedrarias' exped. against, i. 587-9; execution of, 1526, 589.

Cornejo, J. M., intrigues of, iii. 115-16; rebellion, 1832, iii. 116; defeat of, iii. 117-18; jefe of Salv., 1829-32, iii. 167.

Coronado, A. de, gov. of Pan., 1604, ii. 464.

Coronado, F. V. de, exped. of, 1540, i. 152.

Coronado, J. V., exped. of, ii. 427-30; gov. of C. R., 1565, ii. 430.

Corpus, affair at, 1844, iii. 310.

Corral, D. del, mission to Nicuesa, 1510, i. 331-3; intrigues, etc., of, i. 341; gov. of Antigua, 1522, i. 476.

Corral, Gen., negotiations of, 1855, iii. 260; capitulation with Walker, 1855, iii. 335; execution of, iii. 337-8.

Corregidor, jurisd., etc., of, i. 297.

Corregimientos, suppression of, 1660-1790, ii. 715-16.

Correoso, B., president of Pan., 1868-72, iii. 537-8; 1878, iii. 543; works of, iii. 559.

Cortereal, G., voyage of, 1500, i. 114; 1501, i. 117.

Córtes, decree of, iii. 5; memorial to, iii. 7; proceedings, iii. 30-1.

Cortés, H., exped. of, 1519, i. 133-4; popularity, etc., of, i. 522-3; Olid's exped., i. 524-8; exped. to Hond., 1524-6, i. 537-81; rumored death of, i. 544; machinations against, i. 572-5, 580-1; return to Mex., i. 582; Alvarado's exped., 1523-4, i. 627; Pizarro's, ii. 12, 14, 40.

Cortés, Archbishop, administr. of, 1778-9, ii. 726.

Cortés y Larraz, Dr P., archbishop of Guat., 1768, ii. 730-2.

Corzo, Pilot, explorations of, ii. 246.

Cosa, J. de la, map of, i. 115-16; friendship for Ojeda, i. 294; death of, 1509, i. 299.

Cosigüina, volcano, eruption of, 1835, iii. 176-7.

Cosío y Campa, T. J. de, president of Guat., 1712-16, ii. 703-6; the Tzendal campaign, 1712-13, ii. 704-5.

Costa Rica, Gutierrez exped. to, 1540-5, ii. 187-99; maps of, ii. 188; iii. 184, 234; Franciscans in, 1555-90, ii. 432-3; secession, 1821, iii. 49; union with Mex., iii. 66; assembly, iii. 178-9, 217-18, 224-5, 228, 374, 378-86; Nicoya incorporated with, 1825, iii. 179; location of capital, iii. 181; a state, iii. 183-4; secession, 1848, iii. 208-9; Morazan's invasion, 1842, iii. 216-17; Alfaro's revolt, iii. 219-22; constitution, iii. 225, 228, 374, 378, 381; arms of, iii. 229; a republic, iii. 230; treaties, iii. 230; boundary question, iii. 231-6; Walker's exped., 1855, iii. 342-5; 1856-7, iii. 354-61; war with Nic., 1857, iii. 362; Mora's invasion of, iii. 387; independence of, threatened, 1885, iii. 389-90; difficulty with Nic., 1873-5, iii. 478-82; extent, iii. 565-6; polit. divisions, etc., iii. 566; cities, iii. 566-7; population, iii. 587-8; colonization schemes, iii. 593; character of population, iii. 596-7; dwellings, iii. 597; food, etc., iii. 597-8; markets, iii. 598; dress, iii. 598-9; amusements, iii. 599; education, iii. 622; church affairs, iii. 634-5; administr. of justice, iii. 643-4; army, iii. 646; agric., iii. 653-4; mining, iii. 658; revenue, etc., iii. 683-4; debt, iii. 684-5; railroads, iii. 708.

Council of the Indies, description of the, i. 280-2; decree of the, 1519, ii. 237.

Coxon, Capt., commander-in-chief of pirates, 1680, ii. 527; defection of, ii. 537-8.

Creoles, condition, etc., of the, iii. 595-6.

Crowe, F., 'The Gospel in Cent. Amer.,' iii. 709.

Cruces, pillage of, 1550, ii. 281; captured by Drake, 1572, ii. 413-14; Morgan at, 1671, ii. 500.

Cruz, Gen. S., rebellion of, 1867-70, iii. 414-18.

Cruz, Brigadier V., vice-president of Guat., 1845, iii. 269; revolt of, 1848, iii. 276-7; death, 277.

Cruz, Col V. M., revolt of, 1872, iii. 428-9.

Cuba, Columbus at, 1492, i. 162-3; character of inhabitants, i. 165-6.

Cueva, C. de la, exped. to Hond., 1535, ii. 157-8; dispute with Cereceda, ii. 158-9.

Cueva, F. de la, lieut.-gov. of Guat., 1541, ii. 312-13; gov., 1542, 319.

'Curious Collection of Travels,' ii. 750.

'Curious and Entertaining Voyages,' ii. 755.

Cuzcatlan, Alvarado's occupation of, 1524, i. 675-6.

D

Dabaiba, name, i. 351; fabled temple of, i. 351, 406-7; ii. 51; Balboa's exped. to, 1512, i. 351-2; other expeds., 1515, i. 406-7; cacique, ii. 51; sierra of, ii. 52.

Dalrymple, A., works of, ii. 754.

Dampier, Capt. W., defection of, ii. 541; march across the Isthmus of Pan., 1681, ii. 544-8; raid on Realejo, 1684, ii. 548; off coast of South Amer., 1684-5, ii. 549-50; 'A New Voyage round the World,' ii. 568-9.

Dardon, J. P., campaign of, 1529, ii. 107-8.

Darien, discovered by Bastidas, 1501, i. 190-2; maps of, i. 362, 400, 405; mining in, iii. 659-60.

Darien River, see Atrato River.

Dávila, G. G., see Gonzalez, G.

Dávila, P., see Pedrarias.

Davis, C. H., 'Report,' iii. 709.

Davis, Capt. J., raid on Realejo, 1684, ii. 548; off coast of South Amer., 1684-5, ii. 549-50; out-manœuvred off Pan., ii. 551-3; capture of Leon, ii. 554.

De Brosse, 'Histoire des Navigations,' ii. 754.

De Bry, T., works of, ii. 741-2.

Debt of Cent. Amer. states, iii. 677-87.

De Costa, B. F., 'The Pre-Columbian Discovery,' i. 70.

Delaporte, M. l'Abbé, works of, ii. 754.

De Lesseps, F. de, the Panamá canal, iii. 704-6.

Delgado, J. M., revolt of, 1811, iii. 12-13; party leader, iii. 27; president of congress, iii. 67.

'Derrotero de las islas Antillas,' ii. 759.

Despard, Col, exped. to Mosquitia, 1782, ii. 605-6.

Diaz, B., joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 390; Cortés' exped. to Hond., 1525-6, i. 540, 549; ii. 78; Marin's exped. to Chiap., 1524, ii. 215-19, 224.

Diaz, J. J., president of Pan., 1868, iii. 535-6.

Diaz, M., imposture, etc., of, 1712, ii. 701.

Diaz, President P., correspondence with Barrios, 1885, iii. 448-9.

Diaz, Father P., quarrel with Córdoba, ii. 379-80.

Diego, Father D., martyrdom of, 1623, ii. 675.

Diriangen, Cacique, meeting with Gonzalez, 1522, i. 490-1; battle with, i. 491-2.

'Documentos para la Historia de México,' i. 201.

Domas y Valle, J., president of Guat., 1794-1801, ii. 728.

Dominguez, V., defeat, etc., of, 1832, iii. 114.

Dominicans, in Española, i. 275; in Cuba, i. 276; in Guat., ii. 135-7, 344-5, 666; in Nic., ii. 168-71, 436-7, 180-2; in Chiap., ii. 339; rivalry with Franciscans, ii. 347-8; provincia establd. by, etc., 1551, ii. 376-7; missionary labors, ii. 672, 680.

Dovalle, G., exped. to Lacandon, 1559, ii. 363.

Drake, E. C., works of, ii. 751.

Drake, Admiral Sir F., early career of, ii. 404-5; attack on Nombre de Dios, 1572, ii. 405-6; on Cartagena, 407-9; captures Cruces, ii. 413-14; captures treasure-train, ii. 415; return to England, ii. 417-18; voyage round the world, 1577-80, ii. 418-19; exped. of, 1585-6, ii. 419-21; 1595, ii. 422; death, 1596, 423.

Dueñas, F., president of Salv., 1852, iii. 299, 308; 1868-71, iii. 393-6; biog., iii. 392-3; surrender of, iii. 396; exile, iii. 397.

Dunlop, R. G., 'Travels in Cent. Amer.,' iii. 223.

Dururua, Cacique, defeats Gutierrez, etc., ii. 68-9.

E

Eads' ship railway, iii. 694.

Earthquakes in Guat., 1575-87, ii. 384-5; 1607-89, ii. 656; 1751, 1757, ii. 719; 1773, ii. 720-3; at Santiago, 1830, ii. 707-8; iii. 154; in Nic., 1835, iii. 175-6; in Salv., 1854, iii. 300; 1873, iii. 399-400; in Cent. Amer. 1575-1885, iii. 563-5.

Echever y Suvisa, P. A. de, president of Guat., 1724, ii. 709.

Education, in Pan., iii. 583-4; in C. R., iii. 622; in Nic., 622-4; in Salv., 624; in Hond., 624-5; in Guat., 625-7.

El Desaguadero, exped. to, ii. 170-1, 175-6.

El Espinal, affair at, iii. 58.

El Infierno de Masaya, adventure at, 1537, ii. 172-5; eruption of, 1670, ii. 444.

El Sauce, affair at, 1855, iii. 330.

Encinas, D. de, compilations of, i. 286-7.

Encinasola, P. de, exped. to Veragua, 1535-6, ii. 65-71.

Enciso, Bachiller M. F. de, Ojeda's exped., i. 297-8; at Cartagena, i. 322-3; defeats Cemaco, i. 326-7; founds Antigua, 1510, i. 327-8; deposed, i. 329-30, 339; works of, i. 339-40; denounces Balboa, i. 357, 386-7; alguacil mayor of Antigua, 1514, i. 390.

Encomendero, system, description of, i. 262-6.

England, the Scots' colony, 1695-1700, ii. 570-9; trading factories of, ii. 587; reprisals, ii. 587-8; war with, 1739-44, ii. 588-93; treaties with Spain, 1670-1721, ii. 598-600; 1783, ii. 606; war with Spain, 1769-80, ii. 608-11; claims of, in Belize, ii. 629-31; mediation of, sought, 1839-40, iii. 186-7; claims on Nic., iii. 239-40; protectorate over Mosquitia, iii. 244-51; hostilities with Nic., 1848, iii. 251-2; Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 1850, iii. 252; Zeledon-Wyke treaty, 1860, iii. 252-3; difficulty with Salv., iii. 297-8; relations with Hond., iii. 317; claims on Hond., iii. 317-19; usurpation in Hond., iii. 319-20; treaty with Hond., 1859, iii. 320; difficulty with Guat., 1874, iii. 433-4; MacGregor's exped. to Panamá, 1818-20, iii. 498-501; difficulty with New Gran., 1836, iii. 518.

Epidemics in Guat., 1558, ii. 360; 1565, ii. 369-70; 1601, 1686, ii. 656.

Escobar, J. B., president of Guat., 1848, iii. 276-7.

Espino, Missionary F. de, labors of, 1667-8, ii. 644.

Española, Columbus at, 1492-3, i. 164-5; 1493-5, i. 169-77; 1498, i. 179; 1502, i. 203-6; character of inhabitants, i. 165-6; natives of, destroyed, i. 276.

Esparza, sack of, 1680, ii. 541.

Espínola, Capt., capitulation, etc., of, iii. 86.

Espinosa, Licentiate G. de, alcalde mayor of Antigua, 1514, i. 390; exped. to the South Sea, 1516-17, i. 418-31; atrocities of, i. 422-3, 429-30; spoils, i. 431; trial of Balboa, 1517, i. 457; promotion of, i. 461; jealousy of Pedrarias, i. 464-5; other expeds., i. 468-9, 472, 504-5; founds Natá, i. 505-6.

Espíritu Santo, name, i. 642.

Esquivel, A., president of C. R., 1875, iii. 384-5.

Esquivel, J. de, cruelty of, i. 260.

Estachería, Brigadier J., gov. of Nic., 1783-89, ii. 608.

Estete, M., expeds. of, i. 667-8, 611; ii. 113.

Estrada, J. M., provis. president of Nic., 1855, iii. 260; negotiations, etc., of, iii. 260-1; appeal to Carrera, iii. 339; death, 1856, iii. 351.

Estrada, T. D. de, gov. of Nic., 1728, ii. 607.

Europe, condition of, 1475-1525, i. 1-5.

Exquemelin, A. O., works of, ii. 567-8.

F

Fábrega, F., gov. of Pan., 1855, iii. 526-7.

Fábrega, J. de, comandante of Pan., 1821, iii. 504, 508-9.

Fería, P. de, bishop of Chiap., 1575, ii. 373.

Fernandez, J., exped. to Peru, ii. 126-7.

Fernandez, Gen. P., president of C. R., 1882-5, iii. 388-90; biog., iii. 388-9; death, iii. 390.

Fernando VII., manifestoes, etc., of, iii. 20-22; designs on Cent. Amer., iii. 105-6.

Ferrera, F., president of Hond., 1841, iii. 309; biog., iii. 309.

Figueredo y Victoria, Dr F. J. de, archbishop of Guat., 1753-65, ii. 728-30; death, ii. 730.

Figueroa, P. P. de, bishop of Guat., 1736, ii. 711-12; consecration, ii. 711; biog., ii. 711; archbishop, 1745, ii. 712; death, 1751, ii. 712.

Figueroa y Silva, A. de, exped. to Belize, ii. 624-8.

Figueroa, Gen. F., acting president of Salv., 1876, iii. 411.

Filisola, Brigadier V., exped. of, 1822, iii. 56-7; operations against San Salv., iii. 62-4.

Findlay, A. G., works of, ii. 759.

Fine, O., map of, 1531, i. 149.

Fitoria, B. G., gov. of Nic., 1730, ii. 607.

Flores, C., vice-jefe of Guat., 1824, iii. 146; jefe, iii. 148; administr., iii. 148-9.

Flores, H. C., bishop of Hond., 1854, iii. 631.

Flores, J., gov. of C. R., ii. 622.

Florida, missionary exped. to, 1549, ii. 355-6.

Fonseca, C., defence of Leon, 1844, iii. 199.

Fonseca, J. R. de, patriarch of the Indies, i. 168.

Forster, J. R., works of, ii. 752-3.

Franciscans, in Española, i. 275; in Guat., 1535, ii. 345-8; rivalry with Dominicans, ii. 347-8; in C. R., 1555-70, ii. 432-3; in Itza, ii. 673-6.

Francos y Monroy, C., archbishop of Guat., 1779, ii. 726, 732.

Frederick, G., biog., etc., iii. 245-7.

Frederick, R. C., mention of, iii. 248.

Fröbel, J., 'Aus Amerika,' iii. 709.

Fuensalida, Friar B., mission to Itza, 1618, ii. 673-5.

Fuentes y Guzman, F. A. de, works, etc., of, ii. 86, 736-7.

G

Gainza, Brigadier G., command, etc., of, iii. 25-6; measures, iii. 32-6; capt.-gen., 1821, iii. 44; manifesto of, iii. 54-5; edict, iii. 55.

Gaitan, J., revolt of, 1554, ii. 424-5; execution, ii. 425.

Galarza, D., revolt of, 1812, iii. 14.

Galdo, A., bishop of Hond., 1613-45, ii. 641-2.

Galeaza, picture of, i. 188.

Galindo, V. O., president of Pan., iii. 534-5.

Gallegos, J. R., jefe of C. R., 1833, iii. 181; 1845, iii. 227.

Galleon, picture of, i. 188.

Galley, picture of, i. 188.

Galvano, A., works, etc., of, ii. 738-9.

Galvez, Don M. de, exped. to Mosquitia, 1782, ii. 604-5; capture of San Fernando de Omoa, 1779, ii. 647; president of Guat., 1778-83, ii. 725-8.

Galvez, M., Cornejo's revolt, 1831-2, iii. 116-17; deposed, 1838, iii. 128-31; jefe of Guat., 1831, iii. 155-6.

Gama, A. de la, gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 45-6.

Gamez, P. de, captures Quema, 1516, i. 426.

Garabito, A., exped. to Cuba, 1516, i. 434, 437; treachery of, i. 449-50.

Garabito, Cacique, exped. against, ii. 427-8.

Garay, F. de, expeds. of, i. 134, 140, 625.

García, L., campaign of, ii. 580-1.

García, Father W. P. M., 'Sublevacion de los Zendales,' MS., ii. 705-6.

Garro, P. de, exped. of, 1525, i. 578.

Gasca, P. de la, character, etc., ii. 265-6; power intrusted to, ii. 266; reception at the Isthmus, 1546, ii. 266-9; negotiations with Mejía, ii. 267; with Hinojosa, ii. 269-70; despatches, etc., of, ii. 270-2; exped. to Peru, ii. 272-3; the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 278-83.

Gazistas, party, iii. 26-7.

Geography, ancient, i. 70-4.

Germany, difficulty with Nic., 1876, iii. 256.

'Gobierno político de Guatemala,' iii. 28-9.

Godoy, D. de, exped. to Chiap., 1524, ii. 216, 221.

Goitia, P., president of Pan., 1863, iii. 532-3.

Golfo Dulce, name, i. 190; Bastidas at, 1501, i. 190; Pedrarias at, 1522, i. 484-5.

Gomara, F. L. de, biog., i. 314; works of, 315-16.

Gomera, Conde de la, president of Guat., 1611-26, ii. 651-2.

Gomez, C., acting president of Hond., 1876, iii. 463.

Gomez, E., exped. of, 1525, i. 142.

Gomez, Licentiate I., mission of, 1848, iii. 296.

Gonzalez, G., voyage of, 1522, i. 139-40; contador of Española, 1511, i. 267; character of, i. 479; dispute with Pedrarias, i. 481-3; exped. of, 1522-3, i. 483-94; escape to Santo Domingo, i. 516; exped. to Hond., 1524, i. 518; encounter with Soto, i. 519-20; meeting with Olid, i. 527-8; Olid's assassination, i. 531-3.

Gonzalez, Padre P., mention of, ii. 328.

Gonzalez, Gen. S., acting president of C. R., 1873, iii. 383; victory at Santa Ana, 1871, iii. 395-6; president of Salv., 1872-5, iii. 396-401; war with Guat., iii. 401-6.

Goodrich, F. B., 'Man upon the Sea,' ii. 757.

Gottfriedt, J. L., works of, ii. 742.

Gracias á Dios, founding of, 1536, ii. 165; audiencia of the Confines at, 1545, ii. 301.

Gracias á Dios, cape, rounded by Columbus, 1502, i. 211.

Granada, founding of, 1524, i. 527; the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 275-8; description of, ii. 438-41; captured by pirates, 1665, ii. 441; 1686, ii. 557-9; revolt at, 1811, iii. 14; junta at, iii. 48, 170; besieged by Jerez, 1854-5, iii. 259; captured by Walker, 1855, iii. 332; Zavala's assault, 1856, iii. 353-4; recapture of, iii. 356-7.

Granados, M. G., opposition to Guat. ministry, 1869; iii. 416-17; exile, iii. 419; revolution of, 1871, iii. 419-24; president of Guat. 1871-3, iii. 423-30.

Granda y Balbin, L. A. de, exped. to Talamanca, ii. 618-19.

Green, I., works of, ii. 747.

Greenland, sighted by Gunnbjörn, 876, i. 75-6; named by Eric the Red, i. 76.

Grijalva, J. de, map of, 1518, i. 132; death, 1526, i. 591; character, i. 591-2.

Grogniet, Capt., joins Davis' freebooters, 1685, ii. 550; capture of Pueblo Viejo, ii. 556; of Chiriquita, 1686, ii. 556; defeat at Pueblo Nuevo, ii. 557; capture of Granada, ii. 557-9; journey to the North Sea, ii. 563-6.

Grynævs, 'Novvs Orbis,' i. 148-9.

Guadalupe, affair at, 1827, iii. 91.

Gualcince, Salvadoran's surrender at, 1823, iii. 64.

Guanacaste, disturbance at, 1875, iii. 383-4.

Guarda Viejo, convention at, 1838, iii. 128-9.

Guardia, S. de la, gov. of Pan., 1860, iii. 528-30; death, iii. 530.

Guardia, T., president of C. R., 1870-6, iii. 380-4; 1877-82, iii. 386-8; death, 1882, iii. 388.

Guardiola, Gen. S., operations, etc., 1845, iii. 200, 202, 205-6; victory of, 1844, iii. 310; honors paid to, iii. 311; pronunciamiento of, iii. 313; president of Hond., iii. 322-3; character, iii. 323; defeat at El Sauce, 1855, iii. 330; at La Vírgen, iii. 331.

Guatemala, Alvarado's conquest of, 1522-4, i. 617-62; maps of, ii. 91, 320; iii. 191; slavery in, ii. 234-6; the new laws, ii. 323-5; church affairs in, 1541-8, ii. 341-8; 1601-82, ii. 663-9; 1753-1886, ii. 728-33; iii. 630-1; epidemics in, 1558, ii. 360; 1565, ii. 369-70; 1601, 1686, ii. 656; mining, ii. 383; iii. 656-7; commerce, ii. 383-4; earthquakes, etc., in, 1575-87, ii. 384-5; 1607-89, ii. 656; 1830, iii. 154; prosperity of, 1650-1700, ii. 653-4; terr., 1750, ii. 713-14; provinces subject to, ii. 714; army, ii. 727-8; iii. 648-9; society, iii. 1-2; loyalty of, iii. 2-3; capitán general, iii. 20-1; archbishops of, iii. 29-30; union with Mex., iii. 50-1; war with Salv., 1827-9, iii. 90-100; assembly, iii. 101-4, 145-8, 207, 273-6, 281-2, 416-17, 438-41; rebellion in, 1837, iii. 128-9; state govt dissolved, 1838, iii. 134; arms of, iii. 149, 269-70; medal, iii. 151; an independent state, 1839, iii. 160-1; Malespin's invasion of, 1844, iii. 191-3; secession of, 1847-8, ii. 207-8; council convoked, iii. 267; independence recognized, iii. 270; foreign relations, iii. 270-1; revolutions in, 1847-8, iii. 271-3; 1871, iii. 419-24; war with Salv. and Nic., 1850-3, iii. 279-80; with Hond., 1850-6, iii. 279-81; 1871-2, iii. 398-9; 1872-6, iii. 428, 457-62; with Salv., 1876, iii. 401-5; 1885, iii. 409-10; constitution, iii. 281-2, 438-9; Walker's exped., 1856-7, iii. 350-61; revolts in, 1867-70, iii. 414-18; 1872, iii. 428-9; suppression of religious orders, 1871-4, 425-7; difficulty with England, 1874, iii. 433-4; with Spain, 1875, iii. 434; attempted unification of Cent. Amer., 1883-5, iii. 442-9; boundaries, iii. 574; departments, iii. 574; govt, iii. 574-5; population, 1883-5, iii. 588; 1885, iii. 613; colonization in, 589-91; classes, etc., iii. 613-16; dwellings, iii. 616-17; dress, iii. 617-18; amusements, iii. 618; education, iii. 625-7; administr. of justice, iii. 638-40; agric., iii. 650-1; manufact., iii. 661; currency, iii. 670; revenue, etc., iii. 677-80; debt, iii. 678-80; railroads, iii. 706-7.

Guatemala City (see also Santiago City), description of, 1773, ii. 717-18; 1886, iii. 575-7; earthquakes in, 1751, 1757, ii. 719; 1773, ii. 720-3; site of, removed, ii. 723-6; occupation of, by Salvadorans, iii. 74; captured by Morazan, 1829, iii. 99-100; by Carrera, 1838, iii. 130-2; recaptured by Morazan, iii. 141; outbreak at, 1844, iii. 266; revolt at, 1845, iii. 268; plot at, 1877, iii. 437.

Guatusos, attempted pacification of the, ii. 613-17.

Guerra, C., voyage of, 1499, i. 186.

Guerrero, J., director of Nic., 1847, iii. 244.

Guill, A., gov. of Pan., 1758, ii. 584.

Gutierrez, D., exped. to C. R., 1540-5, ii. 189-99.

Gutierrez, F., exped. to Veragua, 1535-6, ii. 65-73.

Gutierrez, J., capture, etc., of, ii. 50-1.

Gutierrez, M. P., quells revolt, 1812, iii. 15.

Gutierrez, P., the Tzendal campaign, 1712, ii. 701-3.

Guzman, Gen. A., operations, 1849, iii. 277-8.

Guzman, A. T. de, exped. to Pan., 1515, i. 403-6; outrages of, i. 404.

Guzman, F., president of Nic., 1867-71, iii. 369, 470-5.

Guzman, J. de, proposed exped. of, ii. 256; joins Hinojosa, 1545, ii. 260-1; president of Guat., ii. 652.

Guzman, J. E., vice-president of Salv., 1844, iii. 195; administr., iii. 201-4; biog., iii. 202.

Guzman, J. E. de, capt.-gen. of Chiap., 1529, ii. 230-1.

Guzman, J. J., president of Salv., iii. 287.

Guzman, Don J. P. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 493; forces, etc., of, 503-5; defeated by Morgan, 1671, ii. 504-6.

Guzman, N. de, exped. of, 1530-1, i. 145-6.

Guzman, R., defeat, etc., of, 1832, iii. 113-14.

H

Hacha, Rio, Bradley's foray on the, 1670, ii. 491.

Hacke, Capt. W., 'A Collection of Original Voyages,' ii. 569.

Hakluyt, R., works, etc., of, ii. 739-41.

Haro, F. de, battle of Panamá, 1671, ii. 505.

Harris, J., works of, ii. 744-5.

Harris, Capt. P., raids off coast of South Amer., 1684-5, ii. 549-50.

Hayti, see Española.

Henderson, G., 'British Honduras,' iii. 247.

Henningsen's operations under Walker, 1856, iii. 355-7.

Heredia, A., exped. of, ii. 49-50.

Heredia, A. F. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607-8.

Heredia, P. de, province of, ii. 46-7; expeds., ii. 47-8, 52-3.

Hermosillo, J. G. de, rept of, 1856, ii. 397-8.

Hernandez, Gen., defeats Pineda, 1855, iii. 332.

Herrera, A. de, biog., i. 316; works of, 316-17.

Herrera, D., jefe of Hond., 1824, iii. 161-2; of Nic., 1830, iii. 174-6.

Herrera, Oidor, juez de residencia, ii. 179; opposition to Contreras, ii. 182.

Herrera, Col T., defeats Alzuru, 1831, iii. 514; jefe, etc., of Pan., 1840, iii. 515; gov., iii. 516.

Herrera, V., president of C. R., 1875-7, iii. 385-6.

Herrera, V. de, gov, of Hond., ii. 144-5; stratagem of, ii. 147; exped., 1531, ii. 149-50; plot against, ii. 150-1; assassination of, ii. 151.

Herrera, V. de, regent of audiencias, 1778, ii. 715.

Hinojosa, Friar A. de, bishop of Guat., ii. 380.

Hinojosa, P. de, conquest of Pan., 1545, ii. 255-61; defeats Verdugo, ii. 263-4; negotiations with Gasca, ii. 269-70; defection of, ii. 271-2.

Hinostrosa, Capt. D. M. de, arrest, etc., of, ii. 144-5.

'Historia de la Marina Real Española,' ii. 757.

'Historical Account of the Circumnavigation of the Globe,' ii. 752.

Hodgson, Col R., mission of, ii. 601-2.

Holguin, G., exped. to Peru, ii. 125-7.

Hollins, Commander, bombards San Juan del Norte, 1854, iii. 255.

Honduras, maps of, i. 518; ii. 148; iii. 110, 205; colonization, etc., in, 1524-5, i. 522-36; Cortés' exped. to, 1524-6, i. 537-81; Alvarado's, 1535-6, ii. 160-5; 1539, ii. 296-9; slavery in, ii. 233-4, 302; roads, ii. 293-4; settlements, 1547, ii. 294, 637-40; mining, ii. 295; church affairs, ii. 299-301, 641-2, 712-13; iii. 361; the new laws, ii. 301-7; piratical raids, 1576-95, ii. 636-9, 645; Gage's description of, 1636, ii. 639-40; annexation to Mex., 1821, iii. 46; revolutions in, 1829-30, iii. 109-11; 1844, iii. 310; assembly, iii. 161-2, 309-10; disturbances in, iii. 162-3; independence declared, 1838, iii. 164; war with Nic., 1844, iii. 194-200; with Salv., iii. 202-6, 393-9, 455-8; union with Salv. and Nic., iii. 209-11; war with Guat., 1850-6, iii. 279-81; 1872-6, iii. 398-9, 428, 457-62; relations with Gt Britain, iii. 317; British claims on, iii. 317-19; British usurpation in, iii. 319-20; treaty with Gt Britain, 1859, iii. 320; Walker's exped., 1856-7, iii. 350-64; boundaries, iii. 570; departments, etc., iii. 570; cities, iii. 570-1; population, 1883, iii. 588; immigration, iii. 591; races, iii. 608-10; women of, iii. 610-11; dwellings, iii. 611; food, etc., iii. 611-12; dress, iii. 612; amusements, iii. 612; education, iii. 624-5; administr. of justice, iii. 640-1; army, iii. 647; agric., iii. 651-2; mining, iii. 655-6; manufact., iii. 661; currency, iii. 670; revenue, iii. 680; debt, iii. 680-1; railroads, iii. 707.

Hore, A. de, gov. of Pan., 1815, iii. 497; oppression of, iii. 497-8; recaptures Portobello, 1819, iii. 500-1; death, 1820, iii. 502.

Huascar, defeat of, 1532, ii. 19; death, ii. 34.

Huistlan, besieged by Tzendales, 1712, ii. 702.

Humboldt, A. von, works of, i. 69.

Hurtado, B., exped. to Dabaiba, 1512, i. 352-3; arrest, etc., of, i. 354-5; atrocities of, i. 401, 417; exploration of, 1516, i. 426-8; exped. to Olancho, 1526, i. 589-91; death, i. 591.

Hylacomylus, 'Cosmographiæ Introdvctio,' i. 123.

I

Ibañez, Col P., gov. of Nic., 1759, ii. 607.

Icazbalceta, collection of, i. 201.

Iguala, plan of, accepted in Hond., iii. 46; in Nic., iii. 47-8.

Illanes, J. de, proposed exped. of, ii. 256; joins Hinojosa, 1545, ii. 260-1.

Illustrations, caravel, i. 187; galley, i. 188; galeaza, i. 188; galleon, i. 188; navío, i. 189; brigantine, i. 189.

Indians, treatment of, i. 253-66; ii. 232-9; of Hond., iii. 608-10; of Guat., iii. 615-16.

Infante, Father H., mission of, 1646-7, ii. 677-8.

Inquisition, in Spain, i. 32.

Interoceanic communication, projects, etc., for, 1534, ii. 246-7; 1539, ii. 293; 1616, ii. 471-2; 1801-87, iii. 688-709.

Interoceanic road, project for, 1514, i. 396-7; termini, i. 465; completed, 1519, i. 471-2.

Irving, W., works of, i. 69, 200, 239-43.

Isabela, founding of, 1493, i. 169.

Isla de Pinos, visited by Columbus, 1502, i. 207-10; Drake at, 1572, ii. 405-7.

Isla Rica, named by Balboa, 1513, i. 377; cacique of, 408-10.

Iturbide, A., designs of, iii. 51; instructions to Filisola, iii. 62; downfall of, iii. 65.

Itzas, attempted conversion of the, ii. 673-6; attempted subjugation, ii. 682-95.

Itzcuintlan, Alvarado's conquest of, 1524, i. 663-5.

Izaguirre, B. de, bishop of Pan., 1655, ii. 479.

Izalco, Indian outbreak at, 1875, iii. 400.

Izancanac, Cortés at, 1524, i. 557.

Irazu, Volcano, eruption of, 1723, ii. 620.

Iztapa, Guat., ship-building at, 1539, ii. 205.

Iztapa, Chiap., battle at, 1524, ii. 216.

Iztapan, Cortés at, 1524, i. 543.

J

Jocote, convention of, 1842, iii. 216-17.

Jalisco, insurrection in, 1541. ii. 206-7.

Jamaica, coasted by Columbus, 1494, i. 171.

Jaraguá, Bastidas shipwrecked at, 1501, i. 192.

Jerez, M., pronunciamiento of, 1869, iii. 472.

Jerez, Bishop N. G., revolt at Leon, 1812, iii. 14.

Jeronimites, mission of the, 1515-18, i. 277-80.

Jesuits, in Nic., 1616-21, ii. 442-3; in Talamanca, 1684, ii. 447; expulsion of the, 1767, ii. 730-1; 1871, iii. 425-6; 1881, iii. 476, 484-5; 1884, iii. 389; revolts caused by, 1881, iii. 476, 484-5.

Jews, mediæval brutality toward, i. 27-9.

Jimenez, J., president of C. R., 1863, iii. 377; 1868, iii. 378-9; arrest, etc., of, 379-80.

Jocoro, convention of, 1845, iii. 203.

Juan de Dios, order of, in Pan., ii. 477-8.

Juarros, D., works of, ii. 142, 737.

Junta, suprema central gubernativa, iii. 4; suprema de censura, iii. 26; consultiva, iii. 35-6, 42-5, 50, 52, 57.

Justice, administr., etc., of, in Cent. Amer., iii. 638-45.

Jutiapa, Malespin's forces at, 1844, iii. 191-2.

K

Kunstmann, 'Munich Atlas,' i. 69-70.

Kerr, R., works of, ii. 756.

Kinney, J. L., exped of, iii. 327-8.

Kohl, J. G., works of, i. 69.

L

La Antigua, revolt in, 1828, iii. 96; assembly installed at, 1824, iii. 145; affair at, iii. 420.

La Concepcion, convent, establd. in Guat., 1546-8, ii. 343-4.

La Gloria, S. G. de, imposture, etc., of, 1712, ii. 699-700.

La Harpe, works of, ii. 748-9.

La Navidad, fortress of, built, 1492, i. 164; abandoned, 169.

La Union, blockade of, 1849, iii. 297-8.

La Vírgen, affair at, 1855, iii. 331.

Lacandones, depredations, etc., of, ii. 361-2; exped. against, 1559, ii. 362-6; independence, etc., of, iii. 615-16.

Ladinos, condition, etc., of the, iii. 594.

Lafond, G., works of, ii. 755.

Lagares, P. de, labors of, in Tologalpa, ii. 450.

Lamilla, Father A. de, bishop of Guat., ii. 378.

Landa, Capt., cruelty of, ii. 282; execution of, 1550, 287.

Landecho, J. M. de, gov., etc., of Guat., ii. 366-9.

Lara, Friar D. de, bishop of Chiap., 1574, ii. 373.

Lara, J. C. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607.

Lara, Father S. de, priest of Cancuc, 1712, ii. 697.

Lara y Mogrobejo, A. de, president of Guat., 1649-54, ii. 653.

Lardner, D., 'Cabinet Cyclopædia,' iii. 709.

Las Casas, B. de, character of, i. 274-5; labors in Cuba, i. 276; protector of the Indians, i. 277; efforts in Spain, i. 279-84; works of, i. 309-10; dispute with Quevedo, i. 462-3; mission to Peru, etc., ii. 136-7; arrival in Nic., etc., 1532, ii. 169; opposition to Contreras, ii. 170-1; the new laws, ii. 239-40; dispute with the audiencia of the Confines, 1545, ii. 303-7; bishop of Chiap., 1543, ii. 330-1; administr., ii. 332-5; retirement, etc., ii. 335-6; works of, ii. 336; pacification of Vera Paz, ii. 348-54; death, 337; character, 337-8.

Las Charcas, federal defeat at, 1829, iii. 97.

Lawrie, Col, supt. of Mosquitia, ii. 603-4.

Leiva, P., provis. president of Hond., 1873-6, iii. 460-2.

Lempira, Cacique, valor of, ii. 290-1; stronghold of, captured, 1537, ii. 291-2; death, ii. 291-2.

Leon, founding of, 1527, i. 513; butchery of natives at, 1528, i. 610; convent founded at, 1532, ii. 168-9; the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 275-6; Gaitan's defeat at, 1554, ii. 425; new city of, ii. 439-40; captured by freebooters, 1685, ii. 553-5; cathedral of, 1743, ii. 613; revolts, etc., at, 1811-12, iii. 14-16; junta gubernativa at, 1823, iii. 170-1; sack of, 1824, iii. 171; siege of, 1824-5, iii. 171-2; 1844, iii. 197-200; revolts at, 1845, iii. 241; 1853-4, iii. 258-9; 1869, iii. 471-3; 1881, iii. 484-5; seat of govt at, 1847, iii. 244; description of, iii. 568-9.

Lepe, D. de, voyage of, 1499, i. 113, 186.

Lévy, P., 'Notas,' iii. 255.

Liaño, Pilot, exped. to Veragua, 1535-6, ii. 66.

Liberals, Guat., party, iii. 69-70; attitude of, iii. 85-7; operations of, 1826-7, iii. 148-50; prosecution of, iii. 151; division among, iii. 275.

Lindo, J., jefe of Salv., 1841, iii. 286; coup d'état, iii. 286; president of Hond., 1847-51, iii. 311-21.

Literature, of C. R., iii. 622; of Nic., iii. 623; of Salv., iii. 624; of Guat., iii. 627.

Llamas y Rivas, Dr F. J. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 583.

Llano, Capt. A. del, deputy to córtes, iii. 5.

Llano, Col M. del, deputy to córtes, iii. 5.

Loarca, A. L. de, storming of Mixco, 1525, i. 690-2.

L'Olonnois, F., character, etc., of, ii. 456-7; atrocities, 457-8; expeds., ii. 458-60; death, 460.

Lopez, Father T., explorations, etc., of, 1778, 1782, ii. 614-16.

Lorca y Villena Vivas, M. V. de, gov. of Nic., 1757, ii. 607.

Lorenzana, Marqués de, president of Guat., ii. 652-3.

Los Altos, state organized, 1838, iii. 156-7; assembly, iii. 157; maps of, iii. 157, 275; incorporated with Guat., 1840, iii. 158.

Los Santos, surprised by freebooters, 1686, ii. 561; revolution at, iii. 505-7.

Loyola, P. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607.

Luque, Padre, Pizarro's conquest, ii. 3, 8, 12, 14, 36.

M

M'Donald, A., usurpation of, in Yuc., iii. 315.

Macdonald, regent of Mosquitia, iii. 248; arrest of Quijano, 1841, iii. 249-51.

MacGregor, G., exped. of, 1818-19, iii. 498-501.

McClure, R. Le M., discoveries of, iii. 689-91.

Madriz, Licentiate, disturbances incited by, 1699-1701, ii. 662.

Magellan, F. de, voyage of, 1519, i. 134-6.

Mail service, of Cent. Amer., iii. 671-2.

Maiollo, map of, i. 136.

Major, R. H., 'Life of Prince Henry of Portugal,' i. 70.

Malacatan, capture of, 1525, i. 697-9.

Maldonado, A., alcalde mayor of Española, i. 250.

Maldonado, A., compilation of, i. 286.

Maldonado, A. de, visitador, 1535, ii. 131; juez de residencia, ii. 132; president of the audiencia of the Confines, ii. 301; dispute with Las Casas, 1545, ii. 304-7; residencia of, ii. 308-9; provis. gov. of Guat., 1542, ii. 323; exped. to Talamanca, 1660, ii. 446.

Malespin, president of Salv., iii. 190; defence of Salv., 1844, iii. 190-1; invasion of Guat., iii. 191-3; of Nic., iii. 194-5; capture of Leon, iii. 197-200; dispute with Guzman, iii. 202-3.

Malespin, Col F., revolution of, 1842, iii. 289; president of Salv., iii. 290; defeat of, iii. 293-4; death of, iii. 294.

Malinche, see Cortés, H.

Mames, Alvarado's conquest of the, 1525, i. 695-702.

Managua, revolt at, 1833-4, iii. 175-6; 1845, iii. 240-1; seat of govt at, 1845, iii. 241; cholera at, 1855, iii. 330; description of, iii. 568.

Manches, Christianization, etc., of, ii. 672-3.

Mañosca y Murillo, J. de, president of Guat., 1670, ii. 659; bishop of Guat., 1668-75, ii. 668.

Mansvelt, buccaneer, raids, etc., of, ii. 460-3.

Manufactures, of Cent. Amer., iii. 660-2.

Maps, the world, i. 73; Zeno's chart, 1390, i. 82; Behaim's globe, 1492, i. 93; Cosa's map, 1500, i. 115; Ruysch's, 1508, i. 126; Peter Martyr's, 1511, i. 127; Ptolemy's, 1513, i. 130; in Munich Atlas, 1518, i. 133; Schöner's globe, 1520, i. 137; Bordone's, 1528, i. 144; Ribero's, 1529, i. 146; the New World, 1530, i. 147; Ruscelli's, 1544, i. 148; Fine's, 1531, i. 149; Castillo's, 1541, i. 153; manuscript, 1532-40, i. 154; Castilla del Oro, i. 323; ii. 49; Darien, i. 362, 400, 405, 416, 427; Nic., i. 513; ii. 175; iii. 258; Hond., i. 518; ii. 148; iii. 110, 205, 198; Quiché and Cackchiquel, i. 629; Peru, ii. 9; Alvarado's march, ii. 82; Guat., ii. 91, 320; iii. 191; C. R., ii. 188; iii. 184, 234; Chiap., ii. 331; iii. 39; Lacandon war, ii. 363; Mosquitia, ii. 603; iii. 246; Belize, ii. 627; defeat of Padilla, iii. 58; Los Altos, iii. 157, 275; Salv., iii. 191, 205; Walker's exped., iii. 343; interoceanic communication, iii. 692.

Maracaibo, plundered by Morgan, ii. 490-1.

Marchena, Treasurer R. de, mention of, ii. 280-1.

Marin, E., acting jefe of Salv., 1842, iii. 286-7.

Marin, Gen. E., execution of, 1877, iii. 464.

Marin, Capt. L., character of, ii. 215; exped. to Chiap., 1524, 215-25.

Marquez, D., contador at Antigua, 1514, i. 390.

Marquez, G., acting jefe of Guat., 1830, iii. 154-5.

Marroquin, F., biog., etc., ii. 134; bishop of Guat., 1533, ii. 135; administr., ii. 135-40; Alvarado's executor, etc., ii. 207-9; dispute with Las Casas, ii. 303-6, 343; gov. of Guat., 1542, ii. 319; Indian policy, ii. 325-6; poverty of, ii. 342-3; convent, etc., founded by, ii. 343-4; death of, 1563, ii. 375.

Martin, A., first Spaniard to sail on South Sea, 1513, i. 369-70.

Martinez, B., bishop of Pan., 1583, ii. 475.

Martinez, Friar C., bishop of Pan., 1625, i. 478.

Martinez, J. A., president of Guat., 1848, iii. 274.

Martinez, Gen. T., operations of, 1855, iii. 261; 1856-7, iii. 352, 356, 360; member of junta, 1857, iii. 365; president of Nic., 1857-67, iii. 365-9; biog., iii. 366; death, iii. 370.

Martyr, P., map of, 1511, i. 127-8; biog., i. 312; works of, i. 312-14.

Marure, M. A., works of, iii. 17-18; imprisonment of, iii. 19-20.

Masaya, revolt at, 1812, iii. 15; Walker's attack on, 1856, iii. 353; destruction of, 1856, iii. 355-6.

Mata, Brigadier J. A. de la, gov. of Pan., 1805, iii. 489.

Matagalpa, insurrection in, 1881, iii. 484.

Mayorga, M. de, president of Guat., 1773-8, ii. 717-25.

Mazariegos, D. de, conquest of Chiap., 1526, ii. 226-7; meeting with Puertocarrero, ii. 227-8; administr. of, ii. 229-30; residencia of, ii. 230.

Mazariegos, M. R., exped. of, 1695, ii. 682-5.

Mazatecs, submission of the, 1524, i. 557-8.

Mazatenango, capture of, 1525, i. 696-7.

Medina, Alcalde, in charge at Trujillo, 1525, i. 535.

Medina, F. de, mention of, ii. 220-1.

Medina, J. M., president of Hond., 1836-72, iii. 453-8; revolt of, iii. 461-3; execution, 1878, iii. 464; biog., iii. 464-5.

Medrano y Solórzano, E., exped. of, 1699, ii. 695.

Mejía, G., prosecution of Alvarado, ii. 100.

Mejía, H., surprised by Verdugo, ii. 263; defection, etc., of, 1546, ii. 267-8, 271.

Mejicanos, Arce's defeat at, 1823, iii. 64; surrender of, iii. 95.

Melendez, Gov. P., defence of Portobello, 1602, ii. 467.

'Memorias,' iii. 107.

Mencos, M., exped. of, 1699, ii. 694-5.

Mencos, M. C. de, president of Guat., 1657-67, ii. 657-8.

Mendavia, Dean P. de, disturbance caused by, ii. 177-8.

Mendez, D., in Verag., 1503, i. 222-4; plot of, ii. 150-3; execution of, ii. 154.

Menendez, Gen. F., revolution of, 1885, iii. 411.

Mendez, H., procurator to Spain, etc., 1545, ii. 323-4.

Mendez, M., murder of, 1872, iii. 399.

Mendinueta y Muzquiz, P. de, viceroy of New Granada, 1801, iii. 489.

Mendoza, H. de, exped. of, 1532, i. 148.

Meneses, Capt., joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 390; garrison of, besieged, i. 402, 404.

Mercado, J. N. de, assassination of Olid, i. 531-3.

Mercado, Friar M. de, bishop of Pan., 1578, ii. 475.

Merced, order of, establd. in Guat., 1537, ii. 140-1; convent founded at Ciudad Real, ii. 328-9.

Merlo, R. de, exped. of, 1525, i. 577.

Mestizos, characteristics of the, iii. 594-5.

Mexico, union of Cent. Amer. with, 1821-2, iii. 42-59; war with Salv., 1822-3, iii. 62-4.

Mexico City, machinations against Cortés, i. 572-5, 580-1.

Meyner, C., gov. of Pan., 1812, iii. 495.

Milla, J. J., vice-jefe of Hond., 1824, iii. 161; defeats Herrera, iii. 162.

Millen, F. F., colonization scheme of, 1883, iii. 590-1.

Mining, in Hond., ii. 295; in Guat., ii. 383; in Pan., ii. 395-6, 585-6; in Cent. Amer., iii. 655-60.

Miro, G., president of Pan., 1873, iii. 541.

Mitla, insurrection in, 1837, iii. 124-5.

Mixco, capture of, 1525, i. 686-92; federal victory at, 1829, iii. 97.

Moderados, Guat., party organized, 1848, iii. 275.

Molina, Col M. A., jefe of Los Altos, 1838, iii. 157-9; execution of, 1842, iii. 218.

Molina, P., 'El Editor Constitucional,' iii. 27-8; biog., iii. 27-8; revolutionary movements, iii. 33; envoy to Bogotá, 1825, iii. 81; jefe of Guat., iii. 104; downfall of, iii. 105.

Mollinedo y Saravia, G., capt.-gen., 1801, iii. 3; rule, iii. 3-6; death, iii. 6.

Monasteries, suppression of, 1829, iii. 104.

Monasterio, Capt. J. de, operations, etc., of, 1603-9, ii. 650-1.

Montaiglon, M. de, works of, i. 54.

Montalboddo, 'Paesi Nouamente retrouati,' i. 123.

Montalvo, F., viceroy of New Granada, 1813, iii. 495.

Montealegre, J. M., president of Costa Rica, 1859-63, iii. 373-7.

Montejo, F. de, gov. of Hond., 1537-9, ii. 289-99; negotiations with Alvarado, 296-9.

Monterroso, F. de H., acting gov. of Pan., 1708, ii. 583.

Montes, F., arrest, etc., of, 1810, iii. 493.

Montes, J. F., president of Hond., 1863, iii. 324-5.

Montfraisier, Du P. de, 'Histoire Universelle,' ii. 748.

Montiano, M. de, gov. of Pan., 1749-55, ii. 584.

Montúfar, Col M., surrender of, iii. 95.

Mora, F., invasion of C. R., iii. 387.

Mora, J., jefe of C. R., 1822-33, iii. 179-81; biog., iii. 180.

Mora, J. F., president of C. R., 1849-53, iii. 236-7.

Mora, Gen. J. J., operations of, 1856, iii. 358.

Mora, J. R., president of C. R., 1859, iii. 372; revolt against, iii. 372-3; exile, iii. 373; revolt of, iii. 374-5; execution, 1860, iii. 375-6.

Morales, Capt. G. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 390; exped. to the Pearl Islands, 1515, i. 408-11; atrocities of, i. 411.

Morales, M. R., director of Nic., 1847, iii. 243.

Morazan, Gen., victory at Gualcho, 1828, iii. 95; campaign in Guat., 1828-9, iii. 96-100; harsh measures of, iii. 100-3; operations in Hond., iii. 111; president, 1830, iii. 112; rule, iii. 112-42; departure, 1840, iii. 142-3; invasion of C. R., 1842, iii. 216-17; measures, iii. 217-18; provis. jefe, iii. 218; capture of, iii. 219-20; execution, iii. 221-2.

Moreno, Fiscal P., exped. to Hond., 1525, i. 535-6.

Morgan, H., early career of, ii. 482-3; plunders Puerto Príncipe, ii. 483; captures Portobello, 1668, ii. 483-9; atrocities of, ii. 484-7, 510-12; encounters gov. of Pan., ii. 488-9; forces, etc., of, ii. 491-2; captures Santa Catarina, ii. 493; lands at Chagre, ii. 496-7; march across the Isthmus, ii. 497-502; captures Panamá, 1671, ii. 504-7; plot against, ii. 512; return to San Lorenzo, ii. 512-13; division of spoils, ii. 514; knighted, etc., ii. 515; imprisonment of, ii. 515.

Morillo, Mariscal P., exped. of, 1815, iii. 496.

Moscoso, L., exped. of, 1530, ii. 121.

Mosquitia, description of, ii. 595-8, 600-1; buccaneers in, ii. 598; British rights in, ii. 598-9; British aggression in, ii. 601-2; maps of, ii. 603; iii. 246; Galvez' exped. to, 1782, ii. 604-5; Despard's exped. to, 1782, ii. 605-6; British protectorate over, iii. 244-52; kings of, iii. 245-8; attempts at colonization, iii. 248-9.

Motolinia, Fray T. de, labors in Nic., 1528, ii. 184; in Guat., ii. 345-7.

Mourgeon, Mariscal J. de la C., capt.-gen. of New Granada, 1821, iii. 503; exped. of, iii. 504.

Moya, R., jefe of C. R., 1844, iii. 227.

Muñoz, F., execution of, 1517, i. 457-9.

Muñoz, J. B., 'Historia del Nuevo Mondo,' i. 197-8.

Muñoz, Gen. J. T., siege of Leon, 1844, iii. 197; promotion of, iii. 240; operations, etc., of, 1845, iii. 241-3; revolt of, 1851, iii. 256; negotiations, iii. 260; death, 1855, iii. 330.

Murillo, Lieut-col A., victory at Tecuaname, 1855, iii. 261.

N

Nacaome, diet of, 1848, iii. 208.

Naco Valley, exped. to, ii. 145, 147, 156-7.

Nancintlan, burning of, 1524, i. 668.

Napoleon I., usurpation of, iii. 2.

Naranjo, battle of, 1876, iii. 462.

Narragansett Bay, settlement founded at, 1000, i. 76.

Narvaez y la Torre, Brigadier A., gov. of Pan., 1801, iii. 489.

Natá, surprised by Espinosa, 1516, i. 423; settlement founded at, i. 505-9.

Natá, Cacique, capture of, 1515, i. 414; surrender of, 1516, i. 423-4; exped. against, i. 424-5; revolt of, 1517, i. 431.

Nava, J. de, gov. of C. R., 1773, ii. 622.

Navarrete, M. F. de, works of, i. 69, 198-200; biog., 198.

Navas y Quevada, A. de las, bishop of Nic., 1667, ii. 443-4.

Navigation, internal, iii. 667-8.

Navío, picture of, i. 189.

Nebah, capture of, 1530, ii. 111-12.

Negroes, importation of, ii. 386-7; regulations concerning, ii. 389-90.

Neira, G., president of Pan., 1872-3, iii. 538-41.

Nelson, H., exped. to Nic., 1780, ii. 609-11.

'New Collection of Voyages,' ii. 750.

Newfoundland, Leif lands at, 1000, i. 76.

New Granada, rebellion in, 1810-13, iii. 493-6; state of, organized, 1831, iii. 513; revolution in, 1840, iii. 515-16; difficulty with England, 1836, iii. 518; with U. S., 1855, iii. 519; 1856-7, iii. 520-2; mining in, iii. 659-60; treaty with U. S., 1846, iii. 700-1.

New laws, publication of the, 1543, ii. 240; provisions, ii. 240-1; opposition to the, ii. 242-3, 301-2, 323; repealed, 1545, ii. 325; opposition to, ii. 334-5, 338.

New St Andrew, founding of, 1698, ii. 576.

Newspapers, iii. 27-8, 273, 288, 290, 559, 584, 622, 627.

'New Universal Collection,' ii. 750.

'New Voyages and Travels,' ii. 751.

Nicaragua, Dávila's exped. to, 1522-3, i. 483-94; maps of, i. 513; ii. 175; iii. 258; church affairs in, ii. 168-9, 443-4, 612-17; iii. 632-3; revolts in, ii. 274-8; iii. 240-2, 259-61; settlements, etc., of, ii. 434, 437-8; Dominicans in, ii. 436-7; commerce of, ii. 438; piratical raids in, 1685-6, ii. 553-62; diputacion provincial in, iii. 47; annexation to Mex., 1821, iii. 47-8; internal strife in, 1833-7, iii. 170-7; juntas gubernativas, iii. 170-2; assembly, iii. 172-3, 243, 257-60, 367, 475-8; earthquake, etc., in, 1835, iii. 176-7; secession, 1838, iii. 178; British mediation requested, 1839-40, iii. 186-7; war with Hond., 1844, iii. 194-200; union with Salv. and Hond., iii. 209-11; C. R. boundary question, iii. 231-3; British claims, iii. 239-40; British aggressions in Mosquitia, iii. 244-51; hostilities with England, 1848, iii. 251-2; Zeledon-Wyke treaty, 1860, iii. 252-3; treaty with Spain, 1850, iii. 253; concordat, iii. 253; foreign relations, iii. 254; difficulty with U. S., 1854, iii. 254-5; with Germany, 1876, iii. 256; declared a republic, 1852-4, iii. 257; war with Guat., 1850-3, iii. 279-80; Walker's campaign in, 1855-6, iii. 328-46; cholera in, 1855, iii. 330; war with C. R., 1857, iii. 362; junta de gobierno in, 1857, iii. 365; revenue, iii. 366-7; constitution, iii. 367; rebellion in, 1869, iii. 471-4; difficulty with C. R., 1873-5, iii. 479-82; jesuitic seditions, iii. 484-5; opposition to Barrios, 1885, iii. 486; boundaries, iii. 567; departments, etc., iii. 567-8; cities, iii. 568-9; population, 1883, iii. 588; colonization in, iii. 591-2; character of population, iii. 599-601; dress, etc., iii. 601-2; dwellings, iii. 602; mode of life, iii. 603; amusements, iii. 603-4; education, iii. 622-4; administr. of justice, iii. 641-3; army, iii. 646-7; agric., iii. 652-3; mining, iii. 657-8; manufact., iii. 661; revenue, etc., iii. 683; debt, iii. 483, 683; railroads, iii. 708.

Nicaragua, Cacique, Dávila's visit to, 1522, i. 486-9; attacks the Spaniards, iii. 493.

Nicaragua, isthmus, project for canal, iii. 694-8.

Nicaragua, Lake, discovery of, 1522, i. 489.

Nicoya, Cacique, Dávila's meeting with, 1522, i. 485-6.

Nicoya, province, incorporated with C. R., 1825, iii. 179.

Nicoya, town, the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 277-8.

Nicuesa, D. de, biog., etc., of, i. 292-4; gov. of Castilla del Oro, i. 294-6; quarrel with Ojeda, i. 296-7; exped. to Veragua, 1509, i. 296-308; relieved by Colmenares, i. 331-2; reception at Antigua, i. 334-5; deposal, i. 335; fate of, i. 335-6.

'Niña,' voyage of the, 1492-3, i. 159-64.

Nindiri, volcano, eruption of, 1775, ii. 608.

Niño, Pilot A., exped., etc., of, 1522-3, i. 478-93.

Niño, P. A., voyage of, 1499, i. 186.

Nito, Cortés' arrival at, 1525, i. 565-7; sickness, etc., at, i. 567-8; site of, abandoned, i. 568, 570.

Niza, Friar M. de, exped. of, 1539, i. 151-2; rept of, ii. 205.

Nombre de Dios, name, i. 307; Nicuesa at, i. 307-8; fort of, built, 1510, i. 307-8; departure of garrison, i. 337-8; abandoned, i. 331-3; 412-13; refounded, 1519, i. 471; trade, etc., of, ii. 248-9; Nombre de Dios, Verdugo's invasion of, ii. 263-4; Gasca at, 1546, ii. 267-9; 1550, ii. 282-3; the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 278, 281-3; removal of site, etc., ii. 396-9; Drake's attack on, 1572, ii. 405-6; destroyed by Drake, 1595, ii. 422.

Norí, Cacique, execution of, ii. 55-6.

North-west passage, discov. of, iii. 689-91.

'Notes de Voyage en Centre Amérique,' iii. 676-7.

'Nouvelle Bibliothèque des Voyages,' ii. 757.

Nueva Andalucía, name, i. 294; Ojeda's exped. to, 1509-10, i. 294-301.

Nueva Jaen, founding of, ii. 186.

Nueva Segovia, freebooters at, 1687, ii. 563-4.

Nueva Valladolid, growth, etc., of, 1557-74, ii. 640-1; earthquake in, 1774, ii. 640.

'Nuevo Viajero Universal,' ii. 758.

Nuñez, A., Nicuesa's exped., 1509-10, i. 307-8.

Nuñez, J., vice-jefe of Nic., 1835, iii. 177.

Nuñez, Capt. V., capture, etc., of, ii. 257-8.

Nutibara, Cacique, defeat of, ii. 54.

O

Oajaca, city, capture, etc., of, iii. 6.

Obaldía, J. de, gov. of Pan., 1858, iii. 528.

Obaldía, Col A., revolt of, 1868, iii. 537-8.

Occhuc, Tzendales repulsed at, 1712, ii. 703-4.

Ococingo, massacre at, 1712, ii. 699.

Ojeda, A. de, voyage of, 1499-1500, i. 111, 186; 1502, i. 118-19; early career, etc., of, i. 292-4; gov. of Nueva Andalucía, i. 294-6; quarrel with Nicuesa, i. 296-7; exped. of, 1509, i. 296-301; death, i. 301.

Olancho, sedition in, 1829, iii. 109-11; revolt at, 1844, iii. 310.

Olancho Valley, occupation of, 1526, i. 589-90.

Olano, L. de, Nicuesa's exped., 1509-10, i. 301-7; ill treatment of, i. 332-3; death, i. 441.

Olarte, V., see Galindo, V. O.

Olaziregui, V., gov. of Pan., 1769, ii. 584.

Olid, C. de, exped. to Hond., 1524, i. 524; character, i. 525; treachery of, i. 526-7; meeting with Gonzalez, i. 527-8; fight with Casas, etc., i. 529-30; assassination, i. 531-3.

Olmos, P. de, defeat of, ii. 109-10.

Omoa, bombardment of, 1873, iii. 320.

O'Neill, Gen., exped. to Belize, 1798, iii. 314.

Orbita, Friar J. de, mission to Itza, 1618, ii. 673-5.

Ordoñez, Col C., commandant at Granada, iii. 59; revolt of, 1824, iii. 171-2.

Orduña, F. de, juez de residencia, 1529, ii. 105-6; exped. of, ii. 110-11; prosecution, etc., of, 1530, ii. 117-18.

Oreamuno, F. M., jefe of C. R., 1844, iii. 226-7; vice-president, 1853, iii. 237.

Orosco, Presbyter L. de, assassination of, ii. 709.

Ortega, J., president of Pan., 1878, iii. 543-4.

Ortiz, A., exped. of, ii. 148.

Orueta y Irusta, J. B. de, gov. of Pan., 1709, ii. 583.

Osorio, D. A., bishop of Nic., 1531, ii. 168-9.

Ostuncalco, Indian outbreak at, iii. 123.

Osuña, J. V. de, capture of Copan, 1530, ii. 115.

Ovalle, Missionary P. de, labors of, ii. 644.

Ovando, N. de, gov. of Española, 1502, i. 249; instructions to, i. 249-50; exped. of, i. 250; administr. i. 250-2, 256, 259-61, 266-8.

Oviedo, G. F. de, biog., i. 310; works of, i. 150, 310-12; veedor at Antigua, 1514, i. 390; efforts in Spain, 1515, i. 463-4; 1523, i. 511-12; regidor perpetuo de Antigua, i. 473; rule, i. 474-5; deposed, i. 476; departure, etc., 1528, i. 477; capt.-gen. of Cartagena, i. 593.

Oxenham, J., exped. to Pan., 1575, ii. 418.

Oxib Quieh, King, accession of, 1524, i. 645; plot of, i. 646; capture, etc., of, 648.

Orozco y Berra, 'Cartografía Mexicana,' i. 70.

P

Pacheco, Gen., defeat of, 1829, iii. 97.

Pacific Ocean, see South Sea.

Paiz, Brigadier G., cabinet-minister, 1845, iii. 268-9.

Palahunoh Pass, Alvarado's victory at, 1524, i. 634-6.

Palomar, J. M., in command at Trujillo, 1820, iii. 24.

Palomino, J. A., exped. to Nic., ii. 262.

Panaguali, Cacique, execution of, ii. 91.

Panamá (see also Castilla del Oro), audiencias of, ii. 57-8, 370-1, 585; slavery, etc., in, ii. 232-3; commerce, etc., in, ii. 390-3, 587, 594; iii. 672-5; shipping, ii. 392; pearl fisheries, ii. 394-5, 585; mining, ii. 395-6, 585-6; iii. 659-60; Drake's raids in, 1572, ii. 405-17; Oxenham's exped., 1575, ii. 418; officials of, ii. 471; smuggling in, ii. 473-4; iii. 491-2; church affairs, i. 500-1, ii. 474-80; iii. 635-7; Morgan's raids in, 1668-71, ii. 483-515; Indian raids in, 1745-74, ii. 581-2; incorporated with New Gran., 1718, ii. 584; revenue, iii. 490, 686-7; industrial depression in, iii. 490; population, etc., iii. 490-2, 580-1; viceregal seat at, 1812, iii. 494; Macgregor's invasion of, 1818-19, iii. 498-501; revolution in, 1821, iii. 602-7; 1831, iii. 514; 1840, iii. 514-15; 1868, iii. 536-7; annexed to Colombia, 1821, iii. 506-8; slavery abolished in, iii. 509; subjugation of, iii. 515-16; declared a state, 1855, iii. 525, 529; constitution of, iii. 526, 540, 542, 544; disturbances in, 1883-4, iii. 546-8; a national department, iii. 559; boundaries, etc., iii. 577-8; departments, iii. 578; cities, iii. 578-9; women of, iii. 581-2; education in, iii. 583-4; literature, iii. 584; amusements, iii. 584-5; epidemics, etc., iii. 585-6; administration of justice, iii. 644-5; army, iii. 645-6; agric., iii. 654-5; currency, iii. 675-6; telegraphs, iii. 708-9.

Panamá, city, name, i. 404; post established on site of, 1517, i. 429; founding of, 1519, i. 468; progress, etc., of, i. 495-500; arms of, i. 500; slave market at, i. 608-9; Pizarro's exped., ii. 1-15; proposed removal of site, 1531, ii. 247; prosperity, etc., of, ii. 249-50; pillage of, ii. 255; Hinojosa's conquest of, 1545, ii. 255-61; Gasca at, 1546-7, ii. 269-72; captured by Contreras, 1550, ii. 279-81; Bermejo's defeat at, ii. 284-6; sickness at, ii. 399-400; official embezzlement at, ii. 401-2; defences of, ii. 402-3; decadence of, 1610, ii. 470; convent establd. at, 1592-8, ii. 475-6; fires at, 1644, ii. 479; 1737-71, ii. 582; prosperity of, 1645-70, ii. 480-1; descriptions of, ii. 502-3; iii. 578-9; captured by Morgan, ii. 504-7; destruction of, 1671, ii. 507-8; site of, removed, ii. 517-18; rebuilding of, ii. 517-19; naval combat off, 1680, ii. 534-7; freebooters defeated off, 1685, ii. 552-3; revolution at, 1821, iii. 504-8; gen. congress at, 1826, iii. 510-12; disturbances at, 1856, iii. 520-1; 1859-60, iii. 528-30.

Panamá Isthmus, infested with criminals, iii. 518-19; guard of the, 1854, iii. 519; transit refused, iii. 522-3; order restored at, iii. 524; protection of the, iii. 539-40, 551-8; disturbances at, 1885, iii. 550-7; canal, iii. 698-700, 703-6; railroad, iii. 700-2.

Panciaco, story of the South Sea, i. 348; kindness to the Spaniards, i. 383.

Parada, J. G. de, bishop of Guat., 1729-36, ii. 710-11.

Paredes, A. G. de, exped., etc., of, 1695, ii. 687-90.

Paredes, M., president of Guat., 1849, iii. 277; treachery of, iii. 277-8.

Paris, Cacique, defeats Badajoz, 1515, i. 415-17; tomb of, plundered, i. 468.

Parker, Capt. W., exped. of, 1602-3, ii. 465-8.

Pasamonte, M. de, treasurer-general at Santo Domingo, 1508, i. 266-7.

Pasaquina, battle of, 1876, iii. 404.

Pastora, F. F. de la, gov. of C. R., 1746, ii. 622.

Paterson, W., the Scots' colony, 1695-9, ii. 570-7.

Patinamit, description of, i. 655-6; Alvarado's reception at, 1524, i. 656-7; abandoned by natives, 1524, i. 683-4; sack, etc., of, 1525, ii. 77; battle of, 1526, ii. 84.

Patzicia, pronunciamiento at, 1871, iii. 420-1.

Paul III., bull of, 1531, ii. 239.

Pavon, M. F., minister of relations, etc., 1844, iii. 192; death of, 1855, iii. 283.

Paz, M. J., jefe of Guat., 1838, iii. 159.

Paz, R., president of Guat., 1840-4, iii. 266-7.

Pazaco, Alvarado attacked at, 1524, i. 669.

Pearl fisheries, of Pan., ii. 394-5, 585; condition of, iii. 676.

Pearl Islands, named, 1513, i. 377-8; Morales' exped. to, 1515, i. 408-11; Balboa at, 1517, i. 445-52; yield, etc., of, iii. 676.

Pedrarias, D., character, etc., i. 387, 615-16; capt.-gen. of Castilla del Oro, 1514, i. 387; armament, i. 389; retinue, etc., i. 389-91; instructions to, i. 391-2, 397-9; voyage, i. 392; landing at Antigua, i. 393-4; exped. to Cenú, 1515, i. 417; founds Acla, i. 418; feud with Balboa, i. 432-3; fraud of, i. 435-6; duplicity, i. 452, 455; Balboa's trial and execution, 1517, i. 456-9; founds Panamá, 1519, i. 468; residencia of, i. 474, 594-6; resignation, i. 474; dispute with Gonzalez, i. 481-3; exped. against Urracá, i. 507-8; exped. to Nic., 1526, i. 587-92; 1528, i. 605; Pizarro's exped., i. 612-13; death, 1530, i. 614.

Pedraza, Licentiate C. de, arrival in Hond., 1538, ii. 292; intercession of, ii. 298; bishop, ii. 299; administr., ii. 299-308.

Peinado, J. M., intendente of San Salv., ii., 13-14.

Pelaez, F. de P. G., 'Memorias,' ii. 732-3, 737; archbishop of Guat., iii. 630.

Pelham, C., 'The World,' ii. 751.

Peñalver y Cardenas, L., archbishop of Guat., iii. 29.

Peralta, F. de, naval combat off Pan., 1680, ii. 535-7.

Peraza, Friar V. de, bishop of Pan., i. 501; ii. 59.

Perez, A., insurrection of, 1512, i. 355-6; captures Natá, 1515, i. 414.

Perez, B., viceroy of New Gran., 1812, iii. 494-5.

Perez, J., works of, iii. 345-6.

Perez, M., director of Nic., 1843, iii. 239.

Perie, J., gov. of C. R., 1779, ii. 622.

Perks, W., command, etc., of, iii. 93-4.

Peru, Pizarro's conquest of, ii. 1-42; map, ii. 9; traditions, ii. 16-17; annals, ii. 17-18; Alvarado's exped. to, ii. 38-9, 122-30; rebellion in, 1544-7, ii. 252-73.

Peten, capture of, 1697, ii. 692-3.

Peten, lake, Cortés at, i. 559-61.

Piedrahita, Bishop L. F., works of, ii. 62.

Pierzon, Col J., operations of, 1826, iii. 148-9; execution, iii. 150.

Pineda, D. de, juez de comision, ii. 178.

Pineda, Gen. J. L., director of Nic., 1851-3, iii. 256; revolt against, iii. 256; defeat of, 1855, iii. 332.

Piñeda y Zaldaña, T. M., bishop of Salv., iii. 632.

Pinelo, A. de L., works of, i. 287-8; ii. 762.

Pinkerton, J., works of, ii. 755-6.

Piñol y Aycinena, B., archbishop of Guat., 1868, iii. 630.

'Pinta,' voyage of the, 1492-3, i. 159-64.

Pinta, A., capture of San José, 1842, iii. 219-20; biog., iii. 219; execution of Morazan, iii. 222; comand.-gen., iii. 224; dismissal, iii. 225-6.

Pinto, J. A., vice-president of C. R., 1872, iii. 381-2.

Pinzon, M. A., voyage, etc., of, 1492-3, i. 158-63.

Pinzon, V. Y., voyage of, 1492-3, i. 112, 158-63; 1499, i. 186; 1506, i. 122, 289.

Pisa, A. de, captures Dururua, ii. 68; exped. to C. R., ii. 192-9.

Pizarro, F., joins Ojeda's exped., 1509, i. 298; at San Sebastian, i. 321-3; defeats Cemaco, i. 344; Balboa's exped., 1514, i. 376; Tabira's, i. 407; exped. to the Pearl Islands, 1515, i. 408-11; arrests Balboa, 1517, i. 452-3; exped. against Urracá, i. 504-5; character, etc., ii. 1-3; conquest of Peru, ii. 3-38; commission, ii. 13; assassination of, ii. 40-2.

Pizarro, G., conquest of Peru, ii. 13; gov. of Quito, ii. 251; revolt of, 1544, ii. 252-4; conquest of Pan., ii. 254-61; defeat of, ii. 272; execution, ii. 273.

Pizarro, H., conquest of Peru, ii. 22-40; death, ii. 40.

Pizarro, J., conquest of Peru, ii. 13.

Pizarro, Friar J., martyrdom of, 1586, ii. 433.

Pizarro y Orellana, F., works of, ii. 273.

Pocoa, Cacique, attack on Natá, etc., 1527, i. 510.

Pocorosa, Cacique, meeting with Balboa, etc., 1513, i. 381-2; captures Santa Cruz, 1515, i. 403; attacks Guzman, i. 405-6.

Ponca, Cacique, exped. against, 1512, i. 346; welcomes Balboa, i. 361-3.

Ponce, Gen. F., president of Pan., 1868, iii. 536.

Poncra, Cacique, Balboa's cruelty to, i. 379-80.

Pontaz, Friar, labors of, ii. 133.

Pontaza, Friar F. M. de, hermitage establ. by, 1524, i. 638.

Porque, Cacique, defeat of, 1513, i. 363-4.

Portobello, Columbus at, 1502, i. 216; Nicuesa at, 1510, i. 307; fair, etc., at, ii. 48-9; site of Nombre de Dios removed to, 1597, ii. 399; captured by Parker, 1602, ii. 466-8; description of, ii. 468-70; treasure fleet at, ii. 468-9; captured by Morgan, 1668, ii. 483-9; sacked by pirates, 1679, ii. 519; captured by Vernon, 1739, ii. 588-91; by MacGregor, 1819, iii. 498-9; recaptured, iii. 501.

Poveda, A., gov. of Nic., 1722, ii. 607.

Prado, M., vice-president, Cent. Amer. republic, 1830, iii. 112-13; jefe of Salv., 1832-4, iii. 122, 167; rule, iii. 167-8.

Prescott, W. H., works of, i. 242-6.

Press, freedom of, established, iii. 44-5.

Prestan, P., outrages of, 1885, iii. 551-3.

Prévost, Abbé A. F., works of, ii. 746-8.

Prior, P., 'Informe,' ii. 762.

'Provincias Unidas del Centro de América,' established, 1823, iii. 68; debt of, iii. 667-8.

Ptolemy, maps of, i. 130, 147.

Pueblo Nuevo, pirates defeated at, 1680, ii. 539; 1686, ii. 557.

Pueblo Viejo, captured by freebooters, 1686, ii. 556.

Puente, A. de la, treasurer at Antigua, 1514, i. 390.

Puerta, C. M. de la, labors of, in Tegucigalpa, ii. 642; martyrdom of, ii. 643.

Puerto de Caballos, Alvarado at, 1539, ii. 204; raids on, 1595-6, ii. 639; 1603, ii. 650; site of, removed, ii. 650.

Puerto Dulce, founding of, ii. 651.

Puerto Príncipe, captured by Morgan, ii. 483.

Puertocarrero, P., battle of Xelahuh, 1524, i. 639; character, ii. 87-8; exped. to Zacatepec, ii. 88-91; capture of Sinacam's stronghold, ii. 93-5; invasion of Chiap., 1526, ii. 227-8.

Purchas, S., works of, ii. 742-4.

Q

Qat, King, Alvarado's embassy to, i. 622-3.

Quadra, V., president of Nic., 1871-5, iii. 475-81.

Quarequá, Balboa at, 1513, i. 363-4.

Quauhtemotzin, King, execution of, 1524, i. 551-4.

Quema, Cacique, capture, etc., of, 1516, i. 426.

Quesada, Dr A. R. de, president of the audiencia of the Confines, 1555, ii. 358; administr., ii. 358-60.

Quevedo, J. de, bishop of Darien, 1514, i. 390; mediation, etc., of, i. 436-9; departure for Spain, i. 461; dispute with Las Casas, i. 462-3; memorials of, i. 463; death, i. 463.

Quezada, convention of, 1844, iii. 193.

Quezaltenango, founding of, 1524, i. 638; riot at, iii. 88-9; state congress at, 1826, iii. 148; captured by Pierzon, iii. 149; revolt at, iii. 283; affair at, 1871, iii. 422.

Quiché, power, etc., of, i. 620-2; map of, i. 629; conquest of, i. 634-6, 643-51.

Quijano, Lieut-col, protest, etc., of, iii. 250.

Quiñones, F., revolt at Leon, 1812, iii. 14.

Quintana, works, etc., of, ii. 42.

Quiroga, M. de, gov. of Nic., 1780, ii. 608.

R

Rábago, J. de E., exped. of, ii. 425-6.

Rada, J. de, assassination of Pizarro, ii. 40-1.

Railroads in Cent. Amer., iii. 700-2, 706-8.

Ramirez, D., mission to Chiap., 1543, ii. 338.

Ramirez, Friar H., bishop of Pan., 1644, ii. 479.

Ramirez, J., bishop of Guat., 1600, ii. 381.

Ramirez, M., director of Nic., 1849, iii. 256.

Ramirez, N., jefe of Salv., 1841, iii. 286.

Ramirez, P., exped. to Lacandon, 1559, ii. 363-5.

Raon, J., gov. of Pan., 1762, ii. 584.

Raoul, N., commander of artillery, etc., 1825, iii. 83; arrest, iii. 85-6.

Reactionists, Guat., choice of president, 1848, iii. 274; efforts of, 1872, iii. 427-9; 1873, iii. 433.

Realejo, the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 277; piratical raid on, 1684, ii. 548; 1685, ii. 555; 1686, ii. 560; blockade of, 1846, iii. 240.

'Recopilacion de Leyes de las Indias,' i. 257-8.

'Recueil de Voiages au Nord,' ii. 749-50.

Regent of Audiencias, office of, created, 1776, ii. 714-15.

Remesal, Friar A. de, works of, ii. 339-40, 736-7.

Repartimiento, system, description of, i. 262-6.

'República de Colombia,' name adopted, iii. 558.

Residencia, explanation of term, i. 250.

Revenue, of Cent. Amer. states, iii. 677-87.

Revolutions, Carrera's Guat., 1837-40, iii. 127-44; Alfaro's C. R., iii. 219-22; against Carrera, 1847-8, iii. 271-3; Menendez', 1885, iii. 411; Granados-Barrios, 1871, iii. 419-24; in Pan., 1821, iii. 502-7; 1840, iii. 515-16; 1868, iii. 536-7; 1875, iii. 541-2.

Ribera, Dr, defeats Verdugo, ii. 263-4.

Ribera, Duque de, bishop of Pan., 1594, ii. 475.

Ribera, P. E. de, bishop of Guat., 1659-68, ii. 667-8.

Ribero, D. de, Nicuesa's exped., 1509-10, i. 302-4.

Richardson, J., 'Polar Regions,' iii. 709.

Rincon, Gen. B. T. M. del, president of Guat., 1789-94, ii. 728.

Ringrose, B., adventure of, 1680, ii. 530-2; naval combat off Pan., ii. 535-7; works, etc., of, ii. 568.

Rios, P. de los, gov. of Castilla del Oro, 1526, i. 592-3; rule, i. 593-4; exped. to Nic., i. 602-4; Pizarro's conquest, ii. 6-8, 12; character, etc., ii. 44-5; usurpation of, ii. 177-8.

Riotte, Gen. C. N., intervention of, 1869, iii. 474.

Rivas, Friar, mission to Lacandon, 1685, ii. 680-1.

Rivas, F. R. de, president of Guat., 1716-24, ii. 706.

Rivas, President P., denounces Walker, iii. 349; govt of recognized, iii. 350; colonization decree of, 1855, iii. 592.

Rivas, city, Walker's defeat at, 1856, iii. 344-5; siege of, 1857, iii. 358-60.

Roads, in Pan., 1541-56, ii. 247-8; in Hond., 1539-47, ii. 293-4; of Cent. Amer., iii. 669.

Roatan, island, captured by pirates, etc., ii. 647-8; restored, iii. 113; British seizure of, iii. 319.

Roberts, O. W., 'Narrative of Voyages,' iii. 247-8.

Robertson, W., works of, i. 196-7.

Robles, Dr, exped. to El Desaguadero, ii. 176; gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 245; oidor, 1538, ii. 245; residencia of, ii. 245-6.

Rodriguez, J. M., revolt of, 1811, iii. 13.

Rojas, D. de, capture, etc., of, 1530, ii. 113.

Rojas, G. de, in charge at Acla, 1515, i. 418; exped. of, 1525, i. 577-8; 1526, i. 589-92.

Ruano, Capt. J., mention of, i. 536.

Rueda, P. M. de, president of Guat., 1589-93, ii. 382.

Ruiz, Pilot B., exped. to Peru, ii. 5-8.

Runnels, R., chief of isthmus guard, iii. 519.

Ruscelli, map of, 1544, i. 148.

Ruysch, J., map of, 1508, i. 126.

S

Saavedra, H., capt.-gen. of Hond., 1525, i. 574, 582; Pedrarias' exped. against, 1526, i. 589-92.

Sacasa, Col C., general order of, iii. 47; comand.-gen. of Nic., iii. 48; measures, iii. 48-9.

Sacasa, J., deputy to córtes, iii. 26.

Sahquiab, Cacique, defeat of, 1525, i. 699-700.

Salaya, H. de, death of, i. 501.

Salaya, Licentiate S. de, alcalde mayor of Antigua, 1522, i. 475.

Salazar, A. de, the Zacatepec revolt, 1525, i. 694.

Salazar, Gen. C., revolt at Leon, 1812, iii. 14; biog. iii. 131-2; victory at Villanueva, 1838, iii. 135-6.

Salazar, Factor G. de, proceedings of, 1530, ii. 16; usurpation, etc., of, ii. 75-6.

Salazar, L., pronunciamiento of, 1868, iii. 378.

Salcedo, D. L. de, gov. of Hond., 1525, i. 598; rule, i. 599-600; exped. to Nic., i. 600-5; imprisonment, etc., of, i. 605-7; return to Trujillo, 1529, ii. 145; death, ii. 146.

Salguero, R., the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 274-86; death, ii. 286.

Salinas, Minister, suggestions to Nic. assembly, 1847, iii. 243-4.

Salvador, Alvarado's invasion of, i. 669-76; independence proclaimed in, 1821, iii. 45; protest of, 1822, iii. 57; war with Guat., iii. 57-8, 90-100, 278-80, 401-5, 409-10; with Mex., 1822-3, iii. 62-4; secession of, iii. 116-17, 168; departments, iii. 165; state govt organized, 1824, iii. 165-6; church affairs in, iii. 166, 632; maps of, iii. 191, 205; war with Nic., 1844, iii. 196-200; with Hond., iii. 202-6, 393-9, 428, 455-62; union with Nic. and Hond., iii. 209-11; assembly, iii. 285-7, 397-8, 407; constitution, iii. 286, 308, 397-8, 407-9; invasion of, iii. 295; difficulty with England, 1849, iii. 297-8; declared a republic, iii. 300-1; seal of, iii. 301; Walker's exped., iii. 350-61; earthquake in, 1873, iii. 399-400; prosperity of, 1874, iii. 400; disturbances in, 1875, iii. 400-1; revolution in, 1885, iii. 411-12; boundaries, etc., iii. 571-2; polit. divisions, iii. 572; govt, iii. 572-3; cities, iii. 573-4; population, etc., iii. 588, 604-6; immigration, iii. 591; dress, iii. 606; mode of life, iii. 606-7; education in, iii. 624; administr. of justice, iii. 641; army, iii. 647-8; agric., iii. 652; mining, iii. 658; manufact., iii. 661; revenue, etc., iii. 681; debt, iii. 681-2; railroads, iii. 707-8.

'Salvador,' ship, case of the, 1864, iii. 522.

Sámano, viceroy of New Gran., 1821-2, iii. 503.

Samayoa, J. M., minister of war, Guat., 1876, iii. 402; exile of, iii. 419.

San Bartolomé Island, capture of, 1780, ii. 609-10.

San Buenaventura, Father J. de, mission of, 1695, ii. 690.

San Cárlos, fort, capture of, 1665, ii. 441; 1812, iii. 14; attack on, 1769, ii. 608-9.

San Cristóbal, freebooters at, 1625, ii. 453-4.

San Fernando, seat of Nic. govt at, iii. 240.

San Fernando de Omoa, fort, building of, ii. 645; captured by English, 1779, ii. 646; recaptured, ii. 647.

San Gil de Buenavista, site of, transferred, i. 565.

San Jorge de Olancho, founding of, 1530, ii. 121.

San José, Morazan besieged at, 1842, iii. 219-20; treaty of, 1858, iii. 232-3; pronunciamiento at, 1868, iii. 378; émeute at, 1870, iii. 379.

San Juan, J. N., deputy to córtes, iii. 26.

San Juan de Puerto Rico, Drake defeated at, 1595, ii. 422.

San Juan del Norte, British aggression at, iii. 249-52; bombardment of, 1854, iii. 254-5.

San Juan, fort, capture of, 1780, ii. 611.

San Juan River, exploration of, 1528, i. 607-8.

San Lorenzo, fortifications of, ii. 494; captured by Bradley, 1670, ii. 494-6; castle, etc., of, destroyed, ii. 514; captured by Vernon, 1740, ii. 59.

San Lúcas, affair at, 1871, iii. 423.

San Miguel, federal defeat at, 1828, iii. 95; sack, etc., of, 1875, iii. 400-1; occupied by Solares, 1876, iii. 404; description of, iii. 574.

San Miguel, gulf of, named by Balboa, 1513, i. 373.

San Martin, J. M. de, president of Salv., iii. 299.

San Pedro, L'Olonnois' raid on, ii. 458-9.

San Salvador, revolt at, 1811, iii. 13-14; 1814, iii. 20; 1844-5, iii. 200-1; junta at, 1821, iii. 45; Arzú's attack on, 1822, iii. 60-1; 1828, iii. 94; Filisola's exped. against, iii. 62-4; aid sought from U. S., iii. 64; Arce's repulse at, 1827, iii. 91; captured by Morazan, 1832, iii. 117-18; a federal district, 1835, iii. 120; convention at, 1840, iii. 143-4; seat of federal govt, iii. 152, 168-9; earthquake at, 1854, iii. 300; siege of, 1863, iii. 306; description of, iii. 573-4.

San Sebastian, founding of, 1510, i. 299-300; abandoned, i. 321-5; rebuilt, ii. 50.

Sanabria, Alcalde, mention of, ii. 71-2.

Sanchez, Pilot B., in Verag., 1503, i. 225-6.

Sandé, Dr F., president of Guat., 1593-6, ii. 382; gov. of Nueva Galicia, 1596, ii. 382-3.

Sandoval, J. L., director of Nic., 1845-7, iii. 240-2.

Santa Ana, captured by Arce, 1826, iii. 92; affair at, 1827, iii. 93; battle of, 1871, iii. 395-6; treaty of, 1876, iii. 406.

Santa Catarina, buccaneer colony at, i. 461-3; captured by Morgan, 1670, ii. 493, 496.

Santa Clara, B. de, treasurer at Santo Domingo, i. 267.

Santa Coloma, Gen. P., president of Pan., 1863, iii. 533.

Santa Cruz, settlement of, founded, 1514, i. 400; destroyed, 1515, i. 403.

Santa Fé de Bogotá, revolt at, 1810, iii. 493.

Santa María, piratical raid on, 1680, ii. 520-8.

'Santa María,' voyage of the, 1492, i. 159-62.

Santa Marta, viceregal seat at, 1813, iii. 495.

Santa Rosa, insurrection in, 1871, iii. 424-5.

Santa Tecla, insurrection at, 1883, iii. 408.

Santiago, city (see also Guatemala, city), founding of, 1524, i. 678-81; site of, removed, 1527-8, ii. 96-9; 1542, ii. 321-2; disorders in, 1530, ii. 118-19; distress at, ii. 120; church affairs at, ii. 136; cathedral of, ii. 137-8, 341-2, 668; flood, etc., at, 1541, ii. 314-18; decree of cabildo, 1543, ii. 323; prosperity of, 1650-1700, ii. 653; Gage's sketch of, ii. 654-5; office-holding in, ii. 655-6; ayuntamiento of, ii. 657; convents, etc., of, ii. 645; earthquakes at, 1702-17, ii. 707-8.

Santiago del Príncipe, founding of, 1570, ii. 388.

Santillan, Fiscal P. de M., imprisonment, etc., of, 1669, ii. 658.

Santo Domingo, founding of, i. 179; gold-hunting near, i. 252; sovereign tribunal at, 1511, i. 269; audiencia of, establd., 1526, i. 269-70; captured by Drake, 1586, ii. 420.

Santo Tomás, colonization at, iii. 589-90.

Serna, Capt. H. de la, explorations of, ii. 246.

Serviles, Guat., party, iii. 69; attitude of, iii. 85; downfall of, iii. 100; plot of, 1831, iii. 113-14; disturbances created by, iii. 123-4; league with Carrera, iii. 140-1; elections, iii. 150-1; persecution of, iii. 152-3.

Sharp, Capt. B., raid on Santa María, 1680, ii. 520-8; further operations, ii. 533, 541-2; trial of, ii. 542.

Silva, Doña B. de, mention of, ii. 344.

Simon, P., works of, ii. 61.

Sinacam, King, Alvarado's meeting with, 1524, i. 652-3; capture, etc., of, i. 661-2; ii. 92-5.

Sinibaldi, A., provis. president of Guat., 1885, iii. 449-50.

Santo Tomás de Castilla, founding of, ii. 650; Dutch raid on, 1607, ii. 651; abandoned, ii. 651.

Saravia, J. M., minister of state, 1842, iii. 217; capture of, iii. 219-20; death, iii. 220-1; biog., iii. 221.

Sawkins, Capt., raid on Santa María, 1680, ii. 523-5; naval combat off Pan., ii. 535-7; reply to gov., ii. 538-9; death of, ii. 539.

Schlessinger, L., envoy to C. R., 1855, iii. 342; defeat of, 1856, iii. 343-4.

Schöner, J., map of, 1520, i. 137.

Scots' Colony, the, 1695-1700, ii. 570-9.

Seals, Cent. Amer., iii. 71; Salv., iii. 301.

Segovia, N. de, campaign of, 1712, ii. 703-4.

Sensenti, treaty of, 1845, iii. 206.

Slavery, Indian and African, i. 253-66; in Pan., ii. 232-3; in Hond., ii. 233-4, 302; in Guat., ii. 234-6; in Vera Paz, ii. 355.

Soberanis, R. de, gov. of Yuc., etc., 1695, ii. 688, 691.

Society, mediæval, in Spain, i. 15-57.

Soconuscans, subjugation of, 1524, i. 628.

Soconusco, church affairs in, ii. 335, 372.

Solares, Gen. G., invasion of Salv., 1876, iii. 403-4; coöperation with Granados, iii. 420-2.

Solis, J. D. de, voyages of, i. 131, 289.

Soltero, B. G., bishop of Guat., 1650, ii. 664-5.

Sosa, J. de, exped. to Veragua, 1535-6, ii. 65-73.

Sosa, Lope de, capt.-gen. of Castilla del Oro, 1517, i. 460; arrival at Antigua, i. 472; death, 1520, i. 472-3.

Soto, B., president of C. R., 1885, iii. 390-1; biog., iii. 390.

Soto, F. de, exped. of, 1538, i. 151.

Soto, H. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 391; exped. against Urracá, i. 504; encounter with Gonzalez, i. 519-20; dispute with Córdoba, i. 586; journey to Natá, i. 586-7; conquest of Peru, ii. 20-5.

Soto, M. A., president of Hond., 1876-83, iii. 463-8; quarrel with Barrios, 1883, iii. 467-8.

Sotomayor, A. de, gov. of Pan., 1601, ii. 464.

Soto-Mayor, V., works of, ii. 761.

South Sea, discov. of, 1513, i. 364-8; Balboa takes possession of, i. 370-3.

Spain, origin of inhabitants, i. 5-7; the Iberian element in, i. 5-6, 15-16; the Celtic, i. 5-6, 15-17; the Phœnician, i. 5-6, 16-17; the Roman, i. 6-7, 15-16; the Gothic, etc., i. 6-7, 16-18; the Moorish, i. 7-10, 16-19; language of, i. 7-9; greatness of, 1474-1516, i. 11; decadence, i. 11-12; climate, i. 14-15; inquisition in, i. 32; slavery in, i. 33; sumptuary laws, i. 55-7; voyages of Columbus, i. 157-82; title to new world, i. 166-8; extension of new world privileges, i. 183-4; currency of, 1475-1525, i. 192-3; administr. of the Indies, 1492-1526, i. 247-85; colonization of Tierra Firme, i. 290-2; effect of Balboa's discov., i. 386; colonial policy, i. 514-15, 597-8; ii. 251-2; commercial policy, ii. 391-3; war with England, 1739-44, ii. 588-93; 1769-80, ii. 608-11; treaties with England, 1670-1721, ii. 598-600; 1783, ii. 606; affairs in, iii. 1-4; measures for protection against, iii. 105-6; C. R. boundary question, iii. 235-6; treaty with Nic., iii. 253; exped. of, 1815, iii. 496-7.

Spaniards, race elements and evolution, i. 15-19; character, i. 12-24, 29-32, 57-8; castes, etc., i. 25-6; occupations, i. 26-7; pastimes, i. 34-5, 49-50; dwellings, i. 35-9; markets, etc., i. 37; women, i. 39, 51-4; dress, i. 39-45; religion, i. 45; food, etc., i. 45-8; hospitality, i. 49; treatment, etc., of women, i. 51-4.

Squier, E. G., biog., iii. 261-2; works of, iii. 262-3.

Sterling, Vice-admiral C., mention of, iii. 494-5.

Stevens, H., 'Historical and Geographical Notes,' i. 70.

Stout, P. F., 'Nicaragua,' iii. 247.

Strangeways, T., 'Sketch of the Mosquito Shore,' iii. 247.

Swan, Capt., raids off coast of South Amer., 1684-5, ii. 549-50; capture of Leon, ii. 554.

T

Tabira, J. de, factor at Antigua, 1514, i. 390; exped. of, 1515, i. 407.

Tobaga, island, Pedrarias at, 1519, i. 467; pirates at, 1680, ii. 538.

Tacuxcalco, battle of, 1524, i. 673-4.

Tacuylula, Alvarado at, 1524, i. 667.

Tafur, Licentiate, mention of, ii. 7.

Talamanca, revolt in, 1610, ii. 445-6; Maldonado's exped. to, 1660, ii. 446; Franciscans in, ii. 447; attempted subjugation of, ii. 617-20.

Talavera, B. de, piracy of, i. 300; execution, 1510, i. 301.

Tapia, G. de, capture, etc., of, 1550, ii. 282.

Tarragona, Maestre de Campo, execution of, 1554, ii. 425.

Tatahuitlapan, Cortés at, 1524, i. 544-5.

Tataracherubi, Cacique, Badajoz' dealings with, 1515, i. 413-14.

Tayasal, pueblo, Cortés at, i. 559-61.

Tecum Umam, King, defeat of, 1524, i. 639-41.

Tegucigalpa, missionary labors in, ii. 642-3.

Tegucigalpa, city, capital of Hond., 1880, iii. 465; description of, iii. 571.

Tehuantepec, city, Alvarado's reception at, 1524, i. 627.

Tehuantepec, isthmus, project for canal, iii. 693-4.

Telegraphs, in Cent. Amer., iii. 708-9.

Tenango, captured by Tzendales, 1712, ii. 698.

Tenciz, pueblo, Cortés at, 1525, i. 564.

Teoca, Cacique, encounter with Balboa, 1513, i. 378.

Teotilac, Cortés at, 1524, i. 550-7.

Terci, J., gov. of C. R., 1785, ii. 622.

Terminos, bay of, buccaneer settlement at, ii. 623.

Ternaux-Compans, H., works of, i. 200; ii. 759.

Tetlepanquetzal, execution of, 1524, i. 551-4.

Thévenot, M., 'Relation de Divers Voyages,' ii. 744.

Thevet, A., works of, ii. 233.

Thiel, Bishop, mention of, iii. 389; expulsion, etc., of, iii. 635.

Tiac, Cortés at, 1524, i. 558.

Tierra Firme, name, i. 290-1; proposed colonization of, i. 290-2; partition of, i. 294; subject to viceroy of Peru, 1571, ii. 400-1.

Tiger Island, British seizure of, 1849, iii. 318.

Tizapetlan, Cortés at, 1524, i. 549-50.

Tlascaltecs, enslavement of, ii. 234.

Toledo, M. de, claim of, ii. 64.

Tologalpa, missionary labors in, ii. 447-50.

Tolosa, Father D. de, martyrdom of, 1549, ii. 356.

Tonalá, battle of, 1524, i. 628.

Torre, Friar T. de la, mention of, ii. 345; provincial, ii. 376.

Torres, Friar J. de, mention of, ii. 133.

Tortuga, freebooters at, ii. 453-4.

Totonagua, Cacique, surprised by Badajoz, 1515, i. 413.

Totonicapan, natives muster at, 1524, i. 633.

Townley, Capt., joins Davis' freebooters, 1685, ii. 550-1; capture of Leon, ii. 554; of Granada, 1686, ii. 557-9; surprise of Los Santos, ii. 561; defeat of, ii. 561; death, ii. 561.

Treasure fleet, regulations, etc., for, ii. 468-9, 473.

Treaties, Anglo-Spanish, 1670-1721, ii. 598-600; 1783, ii. 606; 1786, ii. 632-4; of Zatoca, 1844, iii. 196-7; Chinameca, 1845, iii. 203-4; Sensenti, 1845, iii. 206; San Jose, 1858, iii. 232-3; Clayton-Bulwer, 1850, iii. 252; Zeledon-Wyke, 1860, iii. 253; of Santa Ana, 1876, iii. 406.

Triana, R. de, mention of, i. 160.

Triunfo de la Cruz, founding of, 1524, i. 520, 527.

Trota, Cacique, exped. against, 1527, i. 509-10.

Trujillo, founding of, 1525, i. 535; Cortés at, 1525-6, i. 571-82; Mendez' revolt at, 1531, ii. 150-3; destitution at, ii. 155-6; partial abandonment of, ii. 156, 289; demands of colonists, ii. 159-60; raid on, 1596, ii. 639; 1643, 1797, ii. 645; description of, ii. 639; capture of, 1820, iii. 24-5; British occupation of, 1849, iii. 317.

Tubanamá, Cacique, captured by Balboa, 1513, i. 381-2.

Tuero, J. N., deputy to córtes, iii. 26.

Tumaco, Cacique, meeting with Balboa, 1513, i. 375-7.

Tumbez, Pizarro at, 1532, ii. 18.

Tuxpan, Cortés at, 1522, i. 624.

Tuzulutlan, see Vera Paz.

Tzendales, revolt of the, 1712-13, ii. 696-705.

U

Ubilla, Don F. A. de, bishop of Chiap., 1592, ii. 373.

Ugarte y Saravia, A. de, bishop of Guat., 1630-41, ii. 664.

Ulloa, A. de, 'Noticias Americanas,' ii. 760-1.

Ulloa, F. de, exped. of, 1539, i. 152.

United States, Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 1850, iii. 252; difficulty with Nic., iii. 254-5; with New Gran., 1855, iii. 519; 1856-7, iii. 520-2; treaty with New Gran., 1846, iii. 700-1.

United States of Colombia, organized, 1860, iii. 529; govt of, centralized, 1885, iii. 558.

Uraga, Gen. L., operations of, 1876, iii. 403.

Urbina, Col J. de M., gov. of Pan., 1803, iii. 489.

Urracá, Cacique, exped. against, i. 504-5; attack on Natá, i. 506; conflict with Pedrarias, i. 507-8; capture, etc., of, 509; death, 510.

Urrutia, C., capt.-gen., 1818, iii. 23; rule, iii. 23-32.

Ursua, M., enterprise of, 1692, ii. 681-2; Soberanis' opposition to, ii. 688, 691; campaigns of, 1697-9, ii. 691-5.

Ursua, P. de, campaign of, ii. 387-8.

Uspantan, exped. against, 1529, ii. 108-10; capture of, 1530, ii. 112-30.

Utatlan, description of, i. 643-5; burning of, 1524, i. 649-50.

V

Vaena, J., labors of, in Tegucigalpa, ii. 642-3; martyrdom of, ii. 643.

Vallarino, J., biog., iii. 513.

Valderas, Friar, mission to Spain, ii. 346.

Valderrábano, A. de, execution of, 1517, i. 457-9.

Valderrama, F. de, gov. of C. R., ii. 621.

Valdivia, Regidor, mission to Española, 1511, i. 342; fate of, i. 349-50.

Valdivieso, A. de, bishop of Nic., 1544, ii. 179-80; biog., ii. 179; feud with Contreras, ii. 180-3; dispute with the audiencia of the Confines, 1545, ii. 303-7; assassination of, 1550, ii. 276.

Valencia, Capt.-gen. P. de O., campaign of, ii. 388.

Valenzuela, joins Espinosa, i. 425; exped. of, 1516, i. 426.

Valladolid, junta at, 1541, ii. 239-40.

Valle, J. del, leader of gazistas, iii. 26; biog., iii. 26-7; death of, iii. 121.

Valtonado, B., bishop of Nic., 1621, ii. 443.

Valverde, G. de, president of Guat., 1578-89, ii. 380-1.

Valverde, V. de, conquest of Peru, ii. 27-9, 37-8.

Vara, R. de la, archbishop of Guat., iii. 29.

Vargas, Capt. A de, exped. of, 1527, i. 509-10.

Varnhagen, F. A. de, 'Le Premier Voyage de Amerigo Vespucci,' i. 70.

Vasco y Orosco, J., gov. of Pan., 1764, ii. 584.

Vasconcelos, D., defeat of, 1850, iii. 279-80; president of Salv., iii. 294-9.

Vazquez, F., works of, ii. 142-3, 736-7.

Vela, Viceroy V. N., measures of, in Pan., 1544, ii. 242-3; arrival in Peru, 1544, ii. 252; revolt against, ii. 252-3; death of, 1546, ii. 254.

Velasco, D. F. de, gov. of Castilla del Oro, 1616, ii. 471.

Velasco, J. D. de, exped. of, 1695, ii. 682-5; 1696, ii. 686.

Vera Paz, pacification of, ii. 348-54; slavery, etc., in, ii. 355; church affairs in, ii. 374; colonization in, iii. 122-3, 589.

Vera y Villaquiran, D. O. de, exped. of, 1646-8, ii. 677-9.

Veragua, Columbus' explorations, etc., in, 1503, i. 218-31; quibian of, i. 219-28; colony founded in, i. 221-2; abandoned, i. 229-30; Nicuesa's exped. to, 1509-10, i. 302-8; description of, ii. 63; Gutierrez' exped. to, 1535-6, ii. 65-73; secession of, 1840, iii. 515.

Verdelete, E., labors in Tologalpa, ii. 448-50; martyrdom, 1612, ii. 450.

Verdugo, M., arrest, etc., of, ii. 261-2; invasion of Pan., 1545, ii. 262-3; defeat of, ii. 263-4; rebuked by Gasca, ii. 269.

Vernon, Capt. E., exped. of, 1739-42, ii. 588-93.

Verrazano, G., exped. of, 1524, i. 140-1.

Verveer, Gen., mediation of, iii. 98.

Vespucci, A., voyages of, i. 99-107, 112-13, 117-18.

Vetancur, Don R. V., gov. of Yuc., ii. 631; exped. to Belize, ii. 631-2.

Vetancur, Father de S. J., founds Bethlehemite order in Guat., ii. 666.

Vila, Gen. R. S., president of Pan., 1885, iii. 549-50, 559.

Villa Hermosa, Marqués de, gov. of Pan., 1730-5, ii. 583-4.

Villa de Nicaragua, revolt at, 1812, iii. 14.

Villa Real, see Ciudad Real.

Villa Rocha, Marqués de, gov. of Pan., 1708, ii. 582.

Villacorta, J. V., jefe of Salv., 1824, iii. 166-7.

Villalpando, B. de, bishop of Guat., 1564, ii. 375-8.

Villanueva, battle of, 1838, iii. 135-6.

Villar, A. del, prosecution of conspirators, iii. 18-19.

Villaseñor, Col V., defection of, 1842, iii. 216-17; execution, iii. 221-2.

Villasis, Friar S. de, mission of, 1646, ii. 677-8.

Viteri, Bishop, mention of, iii. 190, 193, 202; revolution of, 1842, iii. 289; intrigues of, iii. 291-3.

Vivero, R. de, gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 472.

Votan, tradition of, ii. 213.

'Voyage Pittoresque,' ii. 754-5.

'Voyages round the World,' ii. 752.

'Voyages and Adventures of Capt. Barth. Sharp,' ii. 568.

Voyages of discovery, early, i. 68-154.

W

Wafer, 'A New Voyage,' ii. 569.

Walckenaer, C. A., works of, ii. 749.

Walker, W., campaign in Nic., 1855-6, iii. 328-46; biog., iii. 329; plan of exped., iii. 343; president of Nic., iii. 350; surrender, iii. 360-1; second exped. to Nic., iii. 363; exped. to Hond., iii. 363; execution, 1860, iii. 364.

Wappäus, J. G., 'Geographie und Statestif,' iii. 709.

Warner, T., exped. of, 1625, ii. 453.

Weatherhead, W. D., works of, iii. 502.

Wells, W. V., works of, iii. 323.

Wheeler, Amer. minister, relations with, discontinued, 1855, iii. 340.

'World Displayed,' ii. 250.

X

Xalpatlahua, Peñol, capture, ii. 82-3.

Xatruch, Gen., invasion of Hond., 1871, iii. 455-6.

Xelahuh, city, Alvarado's occupation of, 1524, i. 638; battle of, i. 639-41.

Xequiqel, river, named, 1524, i. 636.

Xicaques, missionary labors among the, 1667-98, ii. 643-4.

Xumay, outbreak at, 1529, ii. 107-8.

Y

Yucatan, Valdivia's shipwreck, etc., off, 1512, i. 350; buccaneers in, ii. 622-3; British usurpation in, iii. 315; population, iii. 316; products, iii. 316-17.

Z

Zacaha, fortifications of, i. 633.

Zacatepecs, revolt of the, 152, i. 692-5; 1527, ii. 88-91.

Zacatula, ship-building at, 1522, i. 623.

Zaclunes, revolt of the, 1624, ii. 676.

Zatoca, treaty of, 1844, iii. 196-7.

Zakuléu, capture of, 1525, i. 700-2.

Zaldívar, R., president of Salv., 1876-84, iii. 406-11; biog., iii. 406-7; negotiations with Barrios, iii. 446-7.

Zamora, A. C., bishop of C. R., 1884, iii. 635.

Zamora, J., revolt of, 1826, iii. 179-80.

Zamudio, M., gov. of Castilla del Oro, 1511, i. 335; cruelty to Nicuesa, i. 335-6; outdone by Balboa, i. 339-40.

Zapata y Sandoval, J., bishop of Guat., 1621-30, ii. 664.

Zapotitlan, capture of, 1524, i. 629-31.

Zavala, Gen. J., president of Nic., 1879-83, iii. 482-5.

Zavala, Gen. V., operations of, 1856, iii. 353-6; disturbances caused by, iii. 361-2; revolt in favor of, 1869, iii. 416-17.

Zelaya, G., jefe of Hond., 1827, iii. 162.

Zeledon-Wyke treaty, 1860, iii. 253.

Zeno, chart of, 1390, i. 82.

Zepeda, Father, explorations of, 1750-1, ii. 613-14.

Zepeda, J., jefe of Nic., 1835, iii. 177.

Zipangu, fabled realm of, i. 160-1.

Zorita, Oidor, measures of, in Guat., 1555, ii. 359.

Zuazo, Licentiate, despatch to Cortés, i. 572-3.

Zubiaur, P. de, exped. of, 1695, ii. 690.

Zutugils, subjugation, 1524, i. 657-60.

FOOTNOTES

[I-1] See History of Mexico, this series. The masses of the people were kept in utter ignorance, to be used, if necessary, as the blind tools of the ruling oligarchy. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 6.

[I-2] I have told in my History of Mexico how Cárlos IV. was forced to abdicate, and his son Fernando raised to the throne.

[I-3] There were the governor, archbishop, oidores of the real audiencia, Marqués de Aycinena, high officials of the treasury, dean and chapter of the archdiocese, alcaldes and regidores of the 'muy noble ayuntamiento,' officers of the university, prelates of the religious orders, prior and consuls of the real consulado, intendente of Comayagua, temporarily sojourning in the city, secretary of the audiencia, commandant of the artillery, and colonels of the militia regiments. Diario Méx., ix. 316-18; Guat. por Fern. VII., 2-6, 83-94; Saravia, Manif.

[I-4] His last position in Europe had been that of teniente de rey of Palma, in the island of Majorca. Juarros, Guat., i. 273.

[I-5] Guat. por Fern. VII., 50. In 1866 their descendants were living in Guatemala.

[I-6] Dec. 13, 1808.

[I-7] The acts were performed with great solemnity and magnificence, the people manifesting much joy. This evidence of loyalty was warmly acknowledged, May 27, 1809, by the Junta Suprema Gubernativa of Spain, sitting at Seville and acting for the imprisoned king. Most glowing descriptions of the ceremonies appear in Diario Méx., xi. 279-80; Guat. por Fern. VII., 7-82, 94-101, 158-9.

[I-8] 'No son propiamente colonias, ó factorías, como los de otras naciones, sino una parte esencial é integrante de la Monarquía Española.' Guat. por Fern. VII., 163-6; Dublan and Lozano, Leg. Mex., i. 326-7.

[I-9] Ayuntamientos of head towns were to choose three honorable and competent men, from among whom each ayuntamiento had to draw by lot one elector, whose name, country, age, profession, and political and moral qualifications must be at once made known to the president of the audiencia. After the names of all the nominees were in his possession, he, jointly with the electors, had to select by secret ballot three candidates of the highest recognized character and ability, out of which three the audiencia, presided over by the governor-general, was to choose the deputy, to whom all the ayuntamientos must forthwith send their powers and instructions. The deputy, duly provided with means to journey decorously, was required to embark for Spain, his yearly pay being fixed at $6,000. Alaman, Hist. Méj., i. 291-2. A later order of Oct. 6, 1809, required the deputy to be a native of Spanish America and a resident of the province choosing him; he was not to be the holder of any of the chief offices therein, such as governor, intendente, oidor, etc., nor a debtor to the royal treasury. The right of election was also given to minor ayuntamientos; and for the choice by plurality from among the candidates of cities a board was constituted, with two members of the audiencia, two canons, and two citizens named by the ayuntamiento. Guat. por Fern. VII., 165-6.

[I-10] His competitors were José de Aycinena and Lieut-col Antonio Juarros.

[I-11] He was not to give assent to the transfer of the Spanish dominions to any foreign power; the nation's rights must be upheld at all hazards; and the last drop of blood shed for the catholic religion, and for king and country.

[I-12] Feb. 14 and June 26, 1810. Diario Méx., xiii. 549-51.

[I-13] The American suplentes were lawyers or ecclesiastics seeking preferment at court, or military officers with a long residence there. Alaman, Hist. Méj., iii., ap. 4; Bustamante, Defensa, 16; Dispos. Varias, ii. fol. 10; Zamacois, Hist. Méj., viii. 450-1. The second named proxy in Nov. 1811 gave up his seat to the regularly chosen deputy. Córtes, Diario, 1811, 93.

[I-14] October 15, 1810. Alaman, Hist. Méj., iii. 10; Zamacois, Hist. Méj., viii. 458-9.

[I-15] Installed June 9, 1810. Its first members were the Spaniards José Mendez, an artillery officer, Oidor Joaquin Bernardo Campuzano, and Auditor de Guerra Joaquin Ibañez. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 5.

[I-16] Saravia died like a soldier, and his fate was deplored even by the enemies of his cause. Hist. Mex., iv. 486, this series. The Mexican writer Bustamante, who was not prone to praise Spanish officers, said of Saravia, 'hombre de bien, humano, religioso, de un corazon recto, digno de mejor fortuna.' Cuadro Hist., ii. 217; Alaman, Hist. Méj., iii. 325. He was accused, however, though it is believed the charge was slanderous, of having connived at smuggling by the treasury officials. The charge appears in Cancelada, Tel. Mex., 107-9.

[I-17] One was a cruise round the world under Malaspina, being the next in rank and commanding the corvette Atrevida. Juarros, Guat., ii., adv. ix.; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 6; Zamacois, Hist. Méj., vi. 134; viii. 569; Los Anales, Sept. 1872, 30; Salv., Diario Ofic., 1874, ap. 1.

[I-18] These were restrictions enforced by the crown against agriculture, mining, fisheries, manufactures, and commerce, despotism of rulers, and disregard of the merits of Americans, in keeping them out of public offices. See Hist. Mex., iv. 441-67, this series.

[I-19] In the first half of the 18th century.

[I-20] In the matter of appointments to office, an early royal order prescribed that American descendants of Spaniards should have the preference for the position of curate; and yet, during the last thirty years, the most lucrative curacies were given to European Spaniards. Of the 170 viceroys that ruled in America, four only were of American birth, and those were reared or educated in Spain. Out of 602 captain-generals, governors, and presidents, only 14 were Americans. Of 982 bishops and archbishops, 703 were Europeans, and 279 Creoles. Most of the latter were nominated in early times, when Europeans were few, navigation difficult, and mitres afforded more work than money. Guerra, Rev. N. Esp., i. 278-85.

[I-21] We are assured that Antonio Larrazábal, a clergyman, Antonio Juarros, and José M. Peinado were the chief authors of the instructions for Central American deputies in Spain. The Central American deputies whose names were appended to the constitution were: Larrazábal for Guatemala; José Ignacio Ávila for Salvador; José Francisco Morejon for Honduras; José Antonio Lopez de la Plata for Nicaragua; and Florencio Castillo for Costa Rica. Córtes, Col. Dec., ii. 158-62; iii. 201-2; Córtes, Diario, 1813, xvii. 240; Pap. Var., ccx. no. 1, 109-17; Const. Polít. Monarq., 1-134. Larrazábal ably defended in the córtes the rights of the Americans, specially of the aborigines, and above all, the national sovereignty. For this, after Fernando VII. returned to Spain in 1814, he was denounced by the absolutists, Conde de Torre Muzquiz and Marqués de Mata Florida, and confined in a fort in Spain. Pineda de Mont, in Guat. Recop. Leyes, iii. 348.

[I-22] Méx., Col. Ley. Fund., 34-91.

[I-23] The junta preparatoria, Nov. 12, 1812, designated only 12 deputies to the Spanish córtes from Central America (Chiapas included), based on the inaccurate census of 1778, which gave the whole country—with 101,506 for Chiapas—949,015 inhabitants in 881 towns. It was fixed that the 12 provinces of Guatemala, Chimaltenango, Quezaltenango, Ciudad Real de Chiapas, Vera Paz, San Salvador, San Miguel, Chiquimula, Sonsonate, Leon, Costa Rica, and Comayagua should each choose one deputy; and Guatemala, Ciudad Real, Leon, and Comayagua the four suplentes. Only two diputaciones provinciales were at first established, one in Guatemala and one in Leon. Córtes, Act. ord., i. 1813, Oct. 12, 62; Mendez, Mem. in Pap. Var., ccxv. no. 17, 16-17; Conder's Mex. and Guat., ii. 310; Modern Traveller's Mex. and Guat., ii. 309-10. Later, under the constitutional régime, Chiapas was represented in the Spanish córtes, and had a diputacion provincial. Larrainzar, Discurso, 12. In 1812 a census was formed to ascertain how many deputies Chiapas should have in the córtes. Pineda, in Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin, iii. 400.

[I-24] Quezaltenango had already, by its ayuntamiento of Aug. 12, 1812, expressed approval of the provisions of the instrument, promising loyal obedience to it. In Honduras Gov. Juan Antonio Tornos granted leave for the erection of a monument in the plaza of Comayagua, which was carried out. Córtes, Diario, ii., March 17, 18, 1822.

[I-25] Some authors give the 19th as the date of this defeat. Alaman, Hist. Méj., iii. 343-4; Bustamante, Cuad. Hist., ii. 269-73; Zamacois, Hist. Méj., ix. 9-10, 110-11. The last-named authority asserts that Dambrini again invaded and took the town of Tehuantepec, February 1814. During the revolutionary wars of Mexico, Chiapas, owing to her isolated position, was not a seat of war; and even when Morelos' troops from Oajaca visited Tonalá, as above stated, there was no resistance. This country enjoyed peace during the struggle in New Spain. Larrainzar, Chiapas, in Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin, iii. 100.

[I-26] Letters were constantly sent to the Spanish government, and to private persons, which were published in the newspapers friendly to the Spanish cause, representing the independents as banditti and murderers, and the Spaniards as exemplars of moderation. It was the emissaries of Bonaparte who had induced the Americans to rebel, they said. Trumped-up miracles and punishments from heaven, anathemas, and every means suggested by foul fanaticism were used to make the friends of freedom odious. Archbishop Casaus granted 80 days' indulgences to Guatemalans not participating in the revolutionary movements of Mexico. Puerto, Convite, pt iii., 2-3.

[I-27] The invitations sent the people of San Miguel to coöperate were burned in the plaza by the hands of the public executioner. Nor were these towns left without the usual cheap reward of monarchs. San Miguel received the title of 'muy noble y leal;' San Vicente was made a city, which title was confirmed Jan. 15, 1812. According to Juarros, Guat. (Lond. ed., 1823), 257, many noble families dwelt in the place, and among its founders were some descendants of Gonzalo and Jorge Alvarado, brothers of Pedro, the conqueror. Santa Ana was raised to the rank of villa. The parish priests of the several places were promoted to be canons of the chapter of Guatemala. Córtes, Diario, 1812, xiv. 38, 167; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 8.

[I-28] The archbishop sent priests to preach against the insurgents. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 9. Bustamante, Cuadro Hist., ii. 270, says that the whole country would have been driven into rebellion but for the advice of the able secretary of government, Alejandro Ramirez.

[I-29] Aycinena was, on the 7th of Feb., 1812, made by the Spanish córtes a councillor of state, and in Aug. 1813, entered upon his duties at Cádiz. Córtes, Diario, 1812, xvi. 16; 1813, xxii. 216. According to Zamacois, the appointment was made only after the adoption of the constitution; it is possible that the appointment was then renewed or confirmed. Hist. Méj., viii. 557; Ayon, Apuntes, 15-16; Rev. Cent. Am., 2-3; Salv., Diario Ofic., Feb. 11, 1875; Valois, Mex., 213-16.

[I-30] In 1813 he was elected a deputy to the Spanish córtes, but declined the position on account of ill health. Córtes, Diario, 1813, xxii. 216.

[I-31] A person writing from Guatemala, and referring to a document issued August 1811, in secret session held in London by 33 Spanish Americans, after registering his disapproval of its purpose, positively asserted that the masses were well disposed, fond of peace, and respectful to authority, if some agent of Satan did not turn their heads and make them believe they were superior beings, who needed no ruler over them. Cancelada, Tel. Mex., 438.

[I-32] Before the attack the city was visited by Father Benito Soto, as pacificator and commissioner from the bishop governor. He tried to fulfil his mission without degrading his countrymen; but seeing the object of the war was to crush liberal Americans, he made common cause with the Granadinos. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 11-12. Ayon, Apuntes, 17, gives the attack as occurring in August, which is an error.

[I-33] Miguel Lacayo, Telésforo and Juan Argüello, Manuel Antonio de la Cerda, Joaquin Chamorro, Juan Cerda, Francisco Cordero, José D. Espinosa, Leon Molina, Cleto Bendaña, Vicente Castillo, Gregorio Robledo, Gregorio Bracamonte, Juan D. Robledo, Francisco Gomez, and Manuel Parrilla were to suffer death. Among those sentenced to hard labor for life were Juan Espinosa, the adelantado of Costa Rica, Diego Montiel, and Pio Argüello. Ayon, Apuntes, 17-18; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 12-14; _Rev. Cent. Am._, 3.

[I-34] One of them, Manuel Antonio de la Cerda, refused to accept the pardon unless coupled with leave to prefer charges against Bustamante. But an influential friend of the general's prevented its being granted, and Cerda, to get out of the country, escaped on a vessel bound to Sweden; thence he went to Cuba, and lived there several years under an assumed name. Los Anales, Sept. 1, 1872, 30. The noted Nicaraguan statesman, Tomás Ayon, justly bewails the seeming ingratitude of some of his country's writers in saying that Nicaragua's independence had cost nothing. The history of that period, 1811-21, it is true, records no bloody fields, no brilliant feats of arms; but it presents an array of victims to the cause, of men who sacrificed their lives, liberty, and fortunes to secure their country's freedom; and these sacrifices, Ayon claims, should be remembered, and the sufferers' memory held in reverence. Apuntes, 18. Squier, in Travels, ii. 378, speaks of a suppressed revolution in Leon in 1815, giving that city the whole credit of the first impulse to liberal sentiment in Central America. There was no such movement in that year, and he probably had reference to that of 1811, though to Salvador certainly belongs the honor of the first attempt for independence. Pim's Gate of the Pac., 38, prints the same error.

[I-35] More empty rewards for Leon. In 1812 the córtes acceded to the bishop's petition for the creation of a university in this town. It was long delayed, however. The ayuntamiento had conferred on it the title of 'muy noble y leal;' and that of Nueva Segovia was similarly honored. The dean of Nicaragua was much commended in the córtes, Aug. 1813, for his loyal and judicious conduct. Córtes, Diario, 1811-12, xi. 198; 1813, xvii. 247, xxi. 45-6; Córtes, Col. Dec., ii. 47-8, iii. 177; Juarros, Guat. (Lond. ed., 1823), 335-8; Belly, Nic., i. 227; Conder's Mex. and Guat., ii. 309. Bishop Jerez had written the captain-general a warm letter on behalf of the Leonese, for whom he had a special predilection, and said, 'Si me desterrasen un Leones dejo de ser obispo.' Perez, Biog. Sacasa, 7.

[I-36] This bitterness originated bloody wars, and did much harm to Nicaragua. Rev. Cent. Am., 3; Ayon, Apuntes, 15, 18-19; Registro Ofic., Nov. 21, 1846, 381.

[I-37] The $43,538 went on the ship Venganza to Cádiz, and the arrival was announced, Feb. 15, 1813, to the córtes by the deputies of Guatemala. Córtes, Diario, 1813, xvii. 239-40.

[I-38] Marure, on the authority of the Gaceta de Guatemala, xiii. no. 112, and xiv. no. 191, assures us that nearly one and a half million dollars had been remitted by Central America to Spain, from donations and other sources, to cancel royal warrants. Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 18. This work, that I have occasion to quote so often, bears the title Bosquejo Histórico de las Revoluciones de Centro América desde 1811 hasta 1834. Its author, Alejandro Marure, who was a professor of history and geography in the university of Guatemala, and otherwise a prominent citizen, issued in Guatemala his 1st volume, sm. 4to, 295 pp., with designs on the frontispiece, in 1837; containing events to 1826 only. The publication of the other two volumes, it is understood, he was obliged to withhold by order of his government. Montúfar, Reseña, Hist. Cent. Am., i., preface pp. iii. and iv., tells us the circulation of the 2d vol. was not allowed; 'un solemne auto de fé devoró la edicion entera.' One copy escaped, however, from which another edition was printed in later years. It scathes the so-called conservative party, more properly entitled to the appellations of fanatical and servile, for the infamous acts of its men that for many years misgoverned the country. Its contents have been fully used by Montúfar. The 3d volume has not been published, and the author's heirs long refused to allow any one to see the manuscript. This work furnishes an interesting account of political affairs in Guatemala from the first attempt at separation from the mother country in 1811 to its accomplishment in 1821, from an American standpoint; the intrigues by which Central America was yoked to Iturbide's Mexican empire, and subsequent events culminating in the second and final enforcement of independence, followed by the organization of the federal government; rupture between Guatemala and the general government, and victory of the latter; church and military affairs; intrigues of parties; authorities being freely quoted to sustain statements. The author does not enter into much detail on military operations, but is quite full in his description of party workings, which affords a clear understanding of their antagonistic interests. Under the title of Efemérides de los hechos notables ... de Centro América, the same writer gave to the press at Guatemala, in 1844, a 12mo of 77 pp., furnishing a very brief synopsis of the chief events that occurred from 1821 to 1842, with tabular lists; quite useful as a chronology.

[I-39] Among the implicated were a number of military officers whose role was to win over the troops, and gain possession of their arms.

[I-40] The plan was to seize Bustamante, Auditor de Guerra Ibañez, Archbishop Casaus, and all the high military officers; after which the Granadan prisoners were to be liberated, and the country's independence proclaimed. The royal officials chose to add that the parties had harbored 'incendiary and horrible schemes of plunder and devastation.'

[I-41] Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 16; Romero, Bosq. Hist., 42; Mem. Hist. Cent. Am., 2, 3.

[I-42] Julian Ibarra, Andrés Dardon, Manuel de San José, Manuel Yot. The names of the other six do not appear. Pineda de Mont, in Guat., Recop. Leyes, iii. 347-8; Rodriguez, Problema Hist., in Salv., Diario Ofic., 1875, Apr. 1 and May 23. The author of Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 7, who was evidently blinded by prejudice against Barrundia and against the cause, says that the latter lost credit for being mixed up in the Betlen affair with 'hombres sin luces, sin crédito, y sin costumbres;' and forfeited the character for firmness he had held in public estimation by needlessly petitioning for a pardon when he had not been imprisoned, and could at any time have left the country without risk. Lorenzo Montúfar, a statesman and writer, tells us, in rebuttal, that these men were of good intelligence and position; that Barrundia's peril was imminent all the time of his concealment, and as only Spanish vessels visited the ports, it would have been risky to attempt escape upon one of them. Moreover, it was impossible to foresee when independence would be attained. Under the circumstances, Barrundia had to ask for pardon when he could get it. Costa R., Gaceta, Sept. 2, 1854. Villar, the prosecuting officer, became notorious in 1817 for cruelties and wanton murders of unfortunate inhabitants of Petén-Itzá, when he was commandant there. Fajardo, Inf. al Min. de Rel., Campeche, 1828, sm. 4to, 17 pp.

[I-43] He was the father of Alejandro Marure, born in Guatemala, and one who had attained a respectable rank in letters, at a very early age, in his country. At the time he began to figure in its political affairs he was a master of philosophy. Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 14-15.

[I-44] Arce began to figure in the rebellion of 1811. After the organization of the federal régime he was the first constitutional president of the republic. Rev. Cent. Am., 3; Salv., Diario Ofic., 1875, Feb. 13.

[I-45] In disregard of the rank and standing of the 'excelentísima diputacion,' he would append only his media firma, or surname, to its decrees and documents, when he should have used his name and surname—a serious breach of etiquette in those times.

[I-46] The chamber now had but a short time to live. Manuel Micheo had presented his credentials in Jan. 1814, and been admitted to his seat as deputy from Chimaltenango, Guatemala. Luis Aguirre's claim to admission was referred back on the petition of citizens of Chiquimula for his election to be declared null. Córtes, Act. ord., 1814, Jan. 21, i. 487, March 20, ii. 121.

[I-47] Several accusations had been preferred hitherto against Bustamante; all remained unheeded, so far as it ever became known. One more was that of Juan Argüello of Granada, in Nicaragua, who charged the governor with unjust treatment of him in 1814, and demanded his trial and punishment. This case was before the córtes Oct. 20, 1820. But as the second constitutional epoch was so short-lived, Argüello's demand for justice had no better result than preceding ones. A memorial of the ayuntamiento of Guatemala, on the political condition of the province, expressing fear that the harshness extended to men for political opinions might lead to evil consequences, and asking for the pardon of prisoners, was presented March 24, 1814, to the córtes. It was referred to a committee, and that was all the action taken, till the king in 1817 granted an amnesty. Córtes, Act. ord., March 24, 1814, ii. 152; Id., Diario, Oct. 20, 1820, ix. 4.

[I-48] Concluded Dec. 11, 1813.

[I-49] Upon the news of the king's acts becoming known in Guatemala, the archbishop and his clergy, and the other authorities, offered thanks to God for his release and restoration to the throne. Juarros, Guat., ii., adv. xii.

[I-50] The pope lent his support with an encyclical letter of Aug. 15, 1814, against freemasonry and other secret societies, which was published June 2, 1815. All persons affiliating in such organizations were required to sever their connection with them. Fern. VII., Decretos, 27-32.

[II-1] A native of Habana, Cuba. He had filled several high offices, the last being that of governor of Santo Domingo. Juarros, Guat., ii., adv. ix.-x.; Salv., Diario Ofic., Apr. 1, 1875, 4.

[II-2] Convulsions of nature had been constantly occurring in Quezaltenango during two months, which greatly alarmed the population. On the 17th of Jan., 1818, a hill on the south of the town burst open and threw out enormous quantities of ashes, covering the whole country, even to the distance of 35 leagues, and flames were occasionally seen. Cózar, Carta, in Noticioso Gen., March 16, 1818, 4.

[II-3] The Spanish official account published by the government of Guatemala, May 1 and 13, 1820, and copied in the Gaceta of Mex. of June 17th, same year, has it that the attempt resulted in the discomfiture of the assailants.

[II-4] The commander's ship hoisted a flag with two blue bars and a white one between them showing an escutcheon.

[II-5] The Spanish official account sets the enemy's casualties at 40 killed and wounded on shore; those on board could not be ascertained. The Spanish loss is given at one killed and two wounded.

[II-6] Córtes, Diario, 1820, ii. 19; Apr. 30, 1821, extra, xvi. 15-16; Id., Act. Púb., i., June 26, 1820, 6; Aug. 2, 1820, 2.

[II-7] A congratulatory address from the newly created corporation was received with marks of satisfaction. Córtes, Diario, June 17, 1821, xxii. 6.

[II-8] From the ecclesiastic state, Juan José Batres and José María Álvarez, with Pedro Ruiz de Bustamante for a substitute. From the secular class, Pedro Molina, José Barrundia, and Lic. Venancio Lopez. Secular substitutes, licenciados Francisco Javier Barrutia, Felipe Neri del Barrio. Córtes, Diario, 1820, ii. 228-9.

[II-9] A native of Choluteca, in Honduras. Rev. Cent. Am., 1. He was auditor de guerra. Valle was undoubtedly an able man; a speech of his on equality before the law is spoken of with high commendation. Observ. de la Rep. Mex., ii., Oct. 3, 1827, 128-33. Subsequently was a deputy to the imperial congress of Mexico, and when Iturbide was on the eve of succumbing under the blows of the republicans, he appointed Valle his minister of state, which office ceased with the fall of the empire. Valle returned to Guatemala and figured prominently in the government. In 1826-29 he was a federal deputy, and died on the 2d of March, 1834, soon after being elected president of the republic. The assembly on the 21st of March of the same year decreed honors to his memory. Guat., Recop. Ley., iii. 338-9, 348. Salvador did the same in April. A likeness of Valle is given in Montúfar, Reseña Hist. Cent. Am., ii. 160. Valle had been honored with the friendship of Bentham and other European savans; and he was a member of the French Academy of Sciences. Marure, Efemérides, 35.

[II-10] The same man who afterward appointed himself bishop of Salvador. Suarez y Navarro, Hist. Méj., 386.

[II-11] They cajoled the artisans with the promise of checking the trade with Belize, and of prohibiting the importation of foreign manufactures.

[II-12] He was born in Guatemala on the 29th of Apr., 1777; studied humanities under Father Goicoechea, one of the lights of his time, and received his diploma of a licentiate of medicine and surgery at the age of 22; served in Nicaragua as surgeon of the batallon fijo early in the century, and returned with it to his native city in 1811. He afterward filled the position of professor of medicine in the university. The degree of doctor was given him in 1817, and the office of protomédico, or head physician of the province of Guatemala. Salv., Gaceta, Oct. 12, 1854.

[II-13] He adjured all to free themselves from party influences, and to give their suffrages only to men who had their country's interests at heart. He demanded of all citizens to love their country, to be true to the constitution, and to respect the legitimate authorities.

[II-14] Urrutia, Modelo, 2-3. Constant complaints had been made to the national government since 1813 against the foreign trade. The regulations of 1778 had been made to appear advantageous to Spain and her American colonies. Foreign trade was declared a means of corruption which placed arms in the hands of Spain's foes. In the report now before me, the mechanics of the country are represented as hostile to the foreign trade. Arrillaga, Informe, in Cedulario, 66-7.

[II-15] The latter had three suffragans—Leon, Comayagua, and Ciudad Real de Chiapas. It had also 20 vicars, 161 curacies in 424 towns, 85 valleys, 23 doctrinas under missionaries, of which 16 were in charge of Dominicans, 4 of Franciscans, and 3 of the order of Mercy.

[II-16] Deputy José Mariano Mendez, from Sonsonate, gave the province of Guatemala 116 leagues from the Pacific to Santo Tomás, and a width of 100 leagues in some parts, and less in others, with two cities and about 294 towns. Mem., 12-13, 20; Memoria del estado político y eclesiástico de la capitanía general de Guatemala, Mad., 1821, sm. 4to, 30 pp., gives data on the economical, political, and ecclesiastical condition of Central America in general, and of each of the divisions or provinces, including Chiapas in particular, and proposing to the Spanish government reforms deemed advisable.

[II-17] A native of Habana, at which university he received the degree of doctor. Juarros, Guat., i. 296-7.

[II-18] He consecrated in his cathedral, on the 12th of Sept., 1802, the treasurer of the diocese, the licentiate of theology, Ambrosio Llano, as bishop of Ciudad Real de Chiapas.

[II-19] He had been bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in Peru. At the time of his death he was 55 years old. The remains were interred in the cathedral. Juarros, Guat., i. 297; Diario Méx., xii., Jan. 26, 1810, 104.

[II-20] He was a native of Jaca, in Aragon; took the Dominican habit in Zaragoza, and completed there his education; joined the province of Santiago in Mexico at the age of 23; became a lecturer in Porta Cœli college, and a professor in the university of Mexico, by which he was made a doctor, and by his order a maestro. On the 9th of Nov., 1806, as bishop of Rosen in partibus infidelium, he was made bishop-coadjutor of Oajaca, and consecrated on the 2d of Aug., 1807. Juarros, Guat., ii., adv. p. xi.-xii.; Córtes, Diario, xviii. 395; Puerto, Convite, p. iii. 1.

[II-21] The payments were to begin no later than one year after the installation of the autonomic government. The allowance was to be increased when the condition of the two countries should become improved.

[II-22] Positive news of Iturbide's defection had not yet reached Guatemala. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 2.

[II-23] He is represented as a fickle man, one easily influenced, and likely to act under the impressions of the moment. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 21; Salv., Diario Ofic., 1875, Apr. 1, 4. Events showed he was a man of no settled principles or character, who proved himself, first a traitor to his king and country, and next, for self-aggrandizement, betrayed the men that in an evil hour placed their trust in him.

[II-24] This plan is described in Hist. Mex., iv. 709-10, this series.

[II-25] The order was a dead letter, however. Gainza evidently issued it to cover his responsibility in Madrid; at any rate, no one was arrested, and the manifesto was soon after retired, public affairs being allowed to take their course. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 4; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 21-2.

[II-26] Gainza on the 13th had exacted of all the superior military officers a renewal of their oath of fidelity to the king. Id., i. 23.

[II-27] The diputacion, on motion of Simeon Cañas, had acted at the instance of the ayuntamiento, whose síndico, Mariano de Aycinena, had called for an extra session to petition for immediate independence. Gainza, with the view of averting such a declaration, attended personally to preside over the meeting; but he finally submitted to the inevitable, and weakly assented to the convocation of the authorities, without first obtaining Urrutia's approbation. He thus ignored the real chief authority in the country. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 4-5; Ayon, Apuntes, 21.

[II-28] Archbishop Casaus, oidores Miguel Moreno and José Valdez, Luis Escoto, prelate of the Dominicans, Félix Lagrava, Juan Bautista Jáuregui, José Villafañe, and others of less note. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 23-7.

[II-29] The supporters of this resolution were: Canon Doctor José María Castilla, Dean Doctor Antonio García Redondo; Regente of the audiencia Francisco Vilches, oidores Miguel Larreinaga and Tomás O'Horan; deputies from the university, doctors Mariano Galvez and Serapio Sanchez; deputies from the college of lawyers, José Francisco Córdoba and Santiago Milla; Antonio Rivera Cabezas, Mariano Beltranena, J. Mariano Calderon, Rev. Doctor J. Matías Delgado, M. A. Molina, members of the diputacion provincial; Mariano and J. Antonio Larrave, Isidoro Castriciones, Pedro Arroyave, and Mariano de Aycinena, members of the ayuntamiento; Lorenzo Romaña, government secretary; Domingo Dieguez, secretary of the meeting; Friars Mariano Perez and José Antonio Taboada, prelates respectively of the Recollects and Franciscans. Some Spaniards also recorded their names in favor of such action. Id. The Memorias de las Revoluciones de Centro América give among the members of the diputacion José Valdés, and leave out M. A. Molina, 5.

[II-30] 297 years, 3 months, and 19 days from June 24, 1524, when Pedro de Alvarado arrived with his 300 conquistadores.

[II-31] Article 2d, speaking of the congress, says: It is to decide upon the point of 'independencia general y absoluta, y fijar, en caso de acordarla, la forma de gobierno y ley fundamental que deba regir.' Marure, who gives the text of the acta, asserts that the declaration actually was for an 'independencia absoluta de Méjico y de cualquiera otra nacion;' and that Gainza, who favored annexation to Mexico, had beforehand prepared an oath to support it. Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 27, and ap. ii., iii.; Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 346-8; Ayon, Apuntes, 21; Squier's Trav., ii. 378; Squier's Cent. Am., 67; Cuevas, Porvenir de Méx., 252. Another vital clause in the instrument was that the Roman catholic religion which the Central Americans had professed in past centuries, 'y profesaremos en los siglos venideros,' must be preserved 'pura é inalterable,' its ministers respected, and protected in their persons and property. The prelates of the various religious communities were invited to coöperate in behalf of peace and harmony, endeavoring to do away with personal passions. The whole proceeding was novel, this of Spanish officials, presided over by the chief agent of the king, meeting with natives of the country to decide whether Guatemala should cast off the old mother country or not. Several other things worthy of notice happened then among them. Canon Castilla, though a friend of the archbishop, his prelate, who had advocated anti-independence, favored the separation. Many of the officials declared for secession, chief among their number the gazista leader José del Valle, who held the high office of auditor de guerra. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 5-6.

[II-32] The following names appear in the acta: Gavino Gainza, Mariano de Beltranena, José Mariano Calderon, José Matías Delgado, Manuel Antonio Molina, Mariano de Larrave, Antonio de Rivera, José Antonio de Larrave, Isidoro de Valle y Castriciones, Pedro de Arroyave, Mariano de Aycinena. Secretaries, Lorenzo de Romaña, Domingo Dieguez. Pineda de Mont, Recop. Ley. Guat., i. 1-14. The news of this declaration reached Spain, and mention was made of it in the córtes Dec. 15, 1821, by Deputy Navarrete. Córtes, Diario extraord., vi., 1821, Dec. 15, 34; Córtes, Diario, viii., 1822, Feb. 12, 5; Romero, Bosq. Hist., 43-4, 66-130; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 6-9.

[II-33] This clause gave rise to much trouble afterward.

[II-34] The authorities were to be apprised of any plots against the new régime by persons becoming aware of them, or the latter would be held as aiders and abettors of treason. Carrying concealed weapons, ringing of bells other than for religious service, and injuring or destroying public or private property, under any pretext, would be severely punished. Méx., Gac. Imp., Dec. 1, 1821, 260-3.

[II-35] The additional members were Miguel de Larreinaga, José del Valle, J. Antonio Alvarado, Marqués de Aycinena, José Valdés, José M. Candina, and Antonio Robles. Domingo Dieguez and Mariano Galvez were made the secretaries. Marure, Efemérides, 59.

[II-36] The acta was signed at Gainza's house on the 16th, and the extra members were appointed. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 6.

[II-37] Ciudad Real, the capital, had in the city proper 6,000, chiefly Spaniards; the outside districts and suburbs swelled the population to 14,000. Mazariegos, Mem. Hist. Chiapa, 51. The canon of Chiapas, Mariano Robles Dominguez de Mazariegos, being the deputy from his province in the Spanish córtes in 1813, laid before the chamber an interesting memorial, which was afterward given to the press at Cádiz, in one volume, 18mo, of 71 pages, under the title of Memoria Histórica de la Provincia de Chiapa. He suggested means to develop the commerce of the province on its navigable rivers, and particularly with Guatemala and Vera Cruz. His recommendations were heeded, and several ports and rivers were opened to trade. Id., 33-4, 54-9; Córtes, Diario, 1813, xix. 392; Noticioso Gen., Aug. 30, 1816. Mazariegos' successor was also a clergyman, Fernando Antonio Dávila, who took his seat in November, 1813. Córtes, Act. ord., i. 275.

[II-38] From the time of the conquest there existed in all Indian towns ayuntamientos called cabildos, and composed as follows: a gobernador, who was a cacique or noble Indian, generally for life, though 'sin jurisdiccion,' appointed formally in writing by the principal executive of the province; two alcaldes; four, six, or eight regidores, according to population; and some officers called in some places mayores, and in others alguaciles, who aided the regidores, took care of the cabildos' houses, and furnished supplies to travellers going through their towns. They were elected on the first day of January of each year, and were subject to the alcalde mayor and the teniente of each town, by whom they were too frequently badly treated. Mazariegos, Mem. Hist. Chiapa, 28-29.

[II-39] In some Indian towns, so-called maestros were salaried from the community funds of the inhabitants. Such maestros could scarcely read and write, and most of them were immoral and given to drunkenness. Of course no good results could be obtained from such teachers. The Spanish córtes in 1813 decreed the adoption of measures for promoting public instruction, and on the 24th of October enacted the establishment of a university in the province. Mazariegos, Mem. Hist. Chiapa, 51-53; Córtes, Diario, 1813, xix. 392; Id., Act. ord., 1813, i. 113, 141.

[II-40] The cathedral chapter was composed of four dignitaries, one simple canon, six choir chaplains. The revenue of the diocese was limited. The number of its parishes was forty-seven, which included the eleven of the capital and suburbs. Mazariegos, Mem. Hist. Chiapa, 48. From 1819 to 1836, according to Larrainzar, religious, educational, and general affairs had attained much improvement. In the diocese there were, besides the cathedral, three convents of friars and one of nuns; a hospital, founded by Bishop Juan Álvarez de Toledo; an ecclesiastic college, founded by Bishop Bravo de la Serna; primary schools and a university. Since 1819 existed the Sociedad de Amigos del País, to develop agriculture, industry, and learning. The inhabitants of the capital were quite cultured. Discurso, 17-18. In 1813 the Spanish córtes, among other measures for the benefit of Chiapas, decreed that the friars of Guatemala should undertake the conversion of the Indians of Palenque. Córtes, Diario, 1813, xix. 392.

[II-41] Soconusco cacao being considered the best of America, some loads of it were sent every year to Spain for the use of the royal family.

[II-42] On the 20th of Dec., 1817, he congratulated the viceroy of Mexico on the triumphs of the royal arms. The capture of Mina and other successes were enthusiastically celebrated in Ciudad Real. Noticioso Gen., Feb. 14, 1818, 4; Gaz. de Méx., 1818, ix. 141-2.

[II-43] The bishop of Chiapas, Salvador San Martin, incurred the wrath of the córtes, when he was acting as deputy from Porto Rico, for his support of the royal decree of 1814, that overthrew the national constitution. San Martin was dead when Chiapas followed the example of Mexico in 1821. Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 344; Méx., Gaceta Imp., i. 11, 173.

[II-44] In Ciudad Real, Iturbide was called 'padre salvador de la religion y de la patria.' Id., 10-12.

[II-45] The act of independence was signed by Juan N. Batres, José Ignacio Larrainzar, José Diego Lara, Julio José Flores, José Nicolás Osuna, Estévan Gordillo, and Lic. José Vives.

[II-46] Soon after this act that desire began to assume proportions. Larrainzar, Notic. Hist. Soconusco, 28.

[II-47] For particulars on the final separation of Chiapas, and incorporation as a state of the Mexican confederation, see Hist. Mex., v. 22-4, this series. The clergyman Pedro Solórzano was the agent appointed under the resolution referred to in the text, and he accordingly repaired to the city of Mexico. Larrainzar, Notic. Hist. Soconusco, 29; Méx., Gaceta Imp., i. 169-73, 270-1, 319-23, 337-9.

[III-1] They were Lorenzo Romaña, who was made colonel of the battalion of regulars, superseding the Spaniard Félix Lagrava, and Manuel Arzú, who obtained the command of the artillery, with the same rank. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 28.

[III-2] A writer of the opposite party asserts that the practice caused much confusion, arising from ignorance. The populace abused the privilege, and had finally to be excluded from the chamber. The same author speaks disparagingly of the three leaders. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 7. It is said of them that they often addressed from the gallery petitions to the junta, demanded removals of officials, and had disputes with its members or with Gainza. I have already given some account of Barrundia and Molina. Córdoba had suffered imprisonment and prosecution for being concerned in the revolutionary movements of 1811.

[III-3] 'Acorde al fin en sus sentimientos, se reunió últimamente en la opinion que debió siempre ser el vínculo estrecho de su voluntad. Así consta del testimonio que acompaño á V. E.' The last sentence must refer to a copy of the acta de independencia. Mex., Gaceta Imp., i. 60-2. And yet, another journal of Mexico, alluding to that letter, after erroneously giving the writer's name as Gabriel Quinia, actually asserted its contents to be that Guatemala, like Chiapas, had submitted to Mexico, party spirit having been powerless to disturb the peace or general will of the inhabitants! Méx., Noticioso Gen., Oct. 19, 1821.

[III-4] Decree of Sept 20, 1821.

[III-5] Decrees of Sept. 26 and 27, 1821. They were given two months' extra pay. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 6-7.

[III-6] This act was effected amidst great enthusiasm, and rejoicing at its accomplishment without bloodshed. Persons then residing in the city who had favored the movement had their names inserted in a book. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 27-30.

[III-7] Another committee was to count the population in order to apportion the deputies to congress. Gracias, Cuad. Estad., 28.

[III-8] Before the news reached Spain of the change in Guatemala, Deputy Milla spoke, on the 18th of Nov., in the córtes of the insufficiency of Spanish bottoms for the transportation of American produce, and demanded the privilege of using foreign vessels therefor. He alluded also to the inability of the royal navy to protect Spanish merchantmen, in proof of which he stated the fact that five vessels had been carried off by insurgent privateers from Nicaraguan ports. Córtes, Diario Extraord., Nov. 18, 1821, iv. 12-13.

[III-9] Men who had relations with Delgado, one of the junta in Guatemala. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 9-10.

[III-10] Delgado assumed authority on his arrival at Santa Ana, and used it effectively, though without violence. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 36-7. The extent of the province of Salvador was 50 leagues long and 30 wide; it was divided into the partidos of Santa Ana, San Salvador, San Vicente, and San Miguel, with three cities, five villas, and 140 pueblos. Mendez, Mem., 9-10. The following were the signers of independence: Pedro Barriere, Casimiro García Valdeavellano, José Ignacio Saldaña, José Rosi, Millan Bustos, Gerónimo de Ajuria, Francisco del Duque, Santiago Rosi, Trinidad Estupinian, Juan B. de Otonto, Francisco Ignacio de Urrutia, Narciso Ortega, and Pedro Miguel Lopez, secretary. Ruiz, Calend. Salv., 67-8; Salv., Diario Ofic., Jan. 26, 1875, 5; Bustamante, Cuad. Hist., vi., no. 187, 1-29; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 2, 9-10. Alaman has it that Delgado seized the government by a revolution in 1822. Hist. Méj., v. 474-5.

[III-11] In the Spanish córtes, March 29, 1813, was read and passed to a committee a petition of the ayuntamiento of Comayagua, objecting to the limited scope of the decree of May 24, 1812, which authorized the establishment of only two diputaciones in the whole of Guatemala, and asked for one in Comayagua with Omoa, Trujillo, and the partido of Tegucigalpa, and that of San Miguel in Salvador, within its jurisdiction, which would give the new diputacion a territory of 140 leagues from N. to S., and as many from E. to W. Córtes, Diario, 1813, xviii. 61. I have no evidence as to when Honduras was granted the diputacion, but the fact appears that it had such a corporation in September 1821. The province was larger than Nicaragua, and divided into the partidos of Comayagua and Tegucigalpa, and the nine sub-delegations of Gracias á Dios, San Pedro Zula, Tencoa, Yoro, Olanchito, Olancho Viejo, Tegucigalpa, Choluteca, and Trujillo, having within it the ports of Omoa, Puerto Caballos, Puerto Sal, Triunfo de la Cruz, Trujillo, and Cartago. The bishopric of Comayagua embraced the whole intendencia, with 35 parishes, one mission, and 145 churches. Mendez, Mem., 8, 21. In 1821 there lived in Trujillo about 2,500 Caribs, the original inhabitants of Saint Vincent, later occupying the island of Roatan, whence they removed to Trujillo. They were a rather industrious, honest people. Coggeshall's Voy., 2d ser., 161-3.

[III-12] Omoa by Captain Bernardo Caballero, P. Pedro Brito, and others, who seized and imprisoned the commandant, Antonio Prado. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 35.

[III-13] The junta in Guatemala passed an act on the 11th of Dec. to reward the villa of Tegucigalpa, raising it to the rank of a city, and bestowing on its ayuntamiento the title of 'patriótico.' Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 35.

[III-14] As a matter of fact, ill feeling had always existed in the provinces against the capital. This hatred was intensified by the respective intendentes in forwarding their ambitious purposes. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 2. Lieut-col Miguel Gonzalez Saravia, son of the old lieut-gen. shot in Oajaca, was the gov.-intendente of Nicaragua since 1818. Naturally he hated the independents for his father's execution. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 34; Ayon, Apuntes, 22; Juarros, Guat. (Lond. ed. 1823), 337-8.

[III-15] They would remain independent of the Spanish crown, they said, until the clouds disappeared. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 8; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 34; Ayon, Apuntes, 22; Suarez y Navarro, Hist. Méj., 387; Bustamante, Cuad. Hist., vi., no. 187, 1-29; Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 346-8; Wells' Hond., 468. Tomás Ayon, Apuntes sobre algunos de los acontecimientos políticos de Nicaragua, Leon, 1875, 8vo, 50 pp., gives a few important memoranda on the political events of Nicaragua in 1811-24, in a clear, concise, and apparently impartial manner.

[III-16] Saravia kept up a sort of underhanded war against Granada, obstructing her relations with Guatemala. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 35. The extent of the province of Nicaragua was 85 leagues long by 75 wide; detaching Nicoya, there were four partidos, Leon, Realejo, Sutiaba, and Matagalpa, with 88 towns in all. Mendez, Mem., 7. According to Miguel G. Saravia, Bosquejo político estadístico de Nicaragua, its population in 1813 was of 149,751, a very imperfect census. Squier's States Cent. Am., 50. The bishopric of Leon comprised all the intendencia of Costa Rica, with 40 parishes, 3 missions, and 88 churches. Mendez, Mem., 20. A considerable military force had been, since 1796, kept at San Juan del Norte; and in 1821 additional defences were erected, by government order of May 2d. This force was expelled after the declaration of independence by the patriots. Squier's Trav., i. 83.

[III-17] On the 11th of Nov. he answered in similar terms the diputacion at Comayagua. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 44-6.

[III-18] Its members were to be chosen by electors appointed by the ayuntamientos supporting the Granada régime. These members to choose every month from their own number the president. Perez, Biog. Sacasa, 5-6. Perez, Jerónimo, Biografía del coronel Don Crisanto Sacasa, 1875, fol., 18 pp., furnishes important data on the origin and life of a man who figured prominently and honorably in the affairs of Nicaragua from 1821 to his death in 1824. In connection with them appear several official letters on events during the period between secession from Spain and annexation to Mexico.

[III-19] The people acted prudently; they could but reap trouble from the political complications. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 2; Molina, Bosq. Costa Rica, 4-5, 17-18; Salv., Diario Ofic., May 23, 1875; Lond. Geog. Soc., vi. 135.

[III-20] It had, from the time of the conquest, a civil and military government of its own, but under dependence of the audiencia and captain-generalcy at Guatemala. In matters ecclesiastic and financial it had been under Leon. Molina, Bosq. Costa Rica, 92; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 2. The Spanish constitution gave it, together with Nicoya, a diputacion provincial. Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 54. In 1812 the province had 22 towns—12 of Indians and 10 of white and black men—besides farms, large estates, etc. The extent in 1821 was 160 by 60 leagues. The cities were Cartago and Esparza; the villas, San José de Ujarráz, Villa Vieja, and Villa Hermosa; the villages, Espíritu Santo, Pueblo Nuevo, Escasu, Alajuela, Bagasses, Las Cañas, Barba, San Fernando, and the Indian towns and settlements; adding Nicoya and Guanacaste, there would be 27 towns. The population was computed at between 60,000 and 70,000, besides the three nations of heathen Indians in the mountains and northern coasts, and known respectively as indios de la Talamanca, indios del norte, and indios Mosquitos, all quite numerous. Córtes, Diario, 1813, xix. 404-5. In 1813 the deputy from Costa Rica in the Spanish córtes petitioned for a bishopric; but at the time of the separation the matter had not been acted on. Mendez, Mem., 7.

[III-21] Juan de Dios Mayorga and the provincial of la Merced, Fray Luis García, were selected for Comayagua; the prelate of the Franciscans, Fray José Antonio Taboada, for Leon; the prebendado José María Castilla, Pedro Molina, and José Francisco Barrundia, for Mexico. Marure, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 37-9.

[III-22] Some of them asked for titles, decorations, and other rewards for their services in harnessing their country to Mexico's imperial car. El Progreso, Apr. 11, 1850. The organ of the empire spoke of the chimerical ideas of the republicans and federalists, adding that the opposition to them was large, and to be found in the officials, the higher classes, and indeed all sensible persons, who well knew how small was the number of the educated among them. It claimed that the journals published in Guatemala expressed the views of only a few deluded men, whose ranks were becoming thinner every day. That same organ had given to the public certain letters from the ayuntamiento of Comitan, in Chiapas, objecting to the 2d art. of the Guatemalan acta of Sept. 15th, on the ground that the country had no resources to sustain a separate government, which had been evident since the yearly allowance of $12,000 ceased; superadded to which, they said, the safety of Mexico might be imperilled should Spain at some future time recover possession of Cent. Am., which the latter, if independent, could not prevent, and vindicate her authority over the former. Méx., Gaceta Imp., i., Nov. 24 and Dec. 8, 1821, 202-7, 281-2.

[III-23] Dated Oct. 19th, and brought by José de Oñate.

[III-24] 'Guatemala no debia quedar independiente de Méjico, sino formar ... un gran imperio bajo el plan de Iguala, y tratados de Córdoba: que Guatemala se hallaba todavía impotente para gobernarse por sí misma, y que podría ser por lo mismo objeto de la ambicion extranjera.' Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 39-41. The aristocrats, now sure of Iturbide's aid, grew bolder in their plotting. Squier's Trav., ii. 378; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 35-9. Iturbide directed the conde de la Cadena, on the 20th of Nov., to write very courteously to Mariano de Aycinena, who was well connected and had addressed a communication to the liberator. Bustamante, Cuad. Hist., vi., no. 187, 28; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 20-2, 35-9.

[III-25] The circular directed the ayuntamientos to read at a public sitting Iturbide's letter, and express their opinion upon each point embraced in his proposal. Their answers as to whether they wanted annexation at once, or to await the action of congress, were to be in Guatemala city on or before the 31st of Dec., 1821. Petén-Itzá, Manif. de la Just., 2. This circular was drawn up by Valle. The elections for members of the congress that had been called to meet in February were to be made as formerly directed. In Guatemala the votes of heads of families were taken at each house by municipal agents in the presence of a notary public, and duly registered. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 10-11; Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 475-6.

[III-26] The exile of Barrundia, Molina, and others was demanded by Pedro Arroyave, síndico of the ayuntamiento. Gainza was suspected of inciting certain imperialists to prefer charges against these parties.

[III-27] A number of republicans, when acclaiming their principles near San José church, were fired upon by an armed force patrolling the town with the alcalde Mariano Larrave, and two killed outright, Mariano Bedoya and Remigio Maida. Several were wounded; some arrests were made. Salv., Gaceta, Oct. 12, 1854; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 41-2, 47; Dicc. Univ. Hist. Geog., app., i. 342; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 157.

[III-28] Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i., ap. v.; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 11; Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 474.

[III-29] His arguments were not founded on fact. Subsequent events proved it. Men of greater weight than Gainza, such as Mora, Pecchio, and Zavala, have since contradicted his assertions. Zavala said that Guatemala gained nothing by the union, and that it had resources of its own to exist as an independent nation. He added that the provinces viewed with dislike the course of the aristocrats at the capital. It could not be otherwise. Where was the advantage of a connection with the city of Mexico, which was almost inaccessible to them? But the rich men of Guatemala would have it, regardless of consequences. Ensayo Hist. Revol. Mex., i. 186-7.

[III-30] See Hist. Mex., iv. 710, 728-9, this series.

[III-31] The junta had on the 3d indicated to Iturbide that its duty was to annex the country to Mexico; 'como ya se le indicó en oficio de tres del corriente.' Other reasons were given by it for the action taken, the chief one being the necessity of preserving the country's entirety and repose, which had been in danger of a rupture. The names affixed to the manifesto are: Gavino Gainza, Marqués de Aycinena, Miguel de Larreinaga, José del Valle, Mariano de Beltranena, Miguel Antonio Molina, Antonio Rivera, José Mariano Calderon, José Antonio Alvarado, Angel Mª. Candina, Eusebio Castillo, José Valdés; José Domingo Dieguez and Mariano Galvez, secretaries. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 14-16; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i., ap. iv.-vi.; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 18-23, 40-2; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 8-9, 11; Bustamante, Cuad. Hist., vi., no. 187, 1-29; Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 476; Suarez y Navarro, Hist. Méj., 386-7; Lastarría, in La América, 249; Salv., Diario Ofic., Feb. 13, 1875, 4, and March 28, 1876, 603; Rivera, Hist. Jalapa, ii. 218; Squier's Trav., i. 383: Kewen's Nic. and Walker, MS., 33-6; Romero, Bosq. Hist., 103-6.

[III-32] 'Las ideas de prosperidad, objeto de la independencia, van á substituirse á los partidos ominosos ... neutralizar las tentativas del poder arbitrario y de los movimientos populares.' Gainza, Manifiesto, Gaceta Gob. Guadal., 1822, March 2, 302-4; Méx., Gaceta Imp., ii. 657-9; Kewen, Nic. and Walker, MS., 30-6.

[III-33] He now gives himself a long list of titles, viz.: knight of justice of the sacred religion of St John of Jerusalem; lieutenant-general by acclamation of the independent army of Guatemala; decorated with the banda nacional; her captain-general; inspector-general of all her arms; superior political chief, intendent-general, and president of the junta provisional consultiva. Méx., Gaceta Imp., i. 557-9; Gaceta Gob. Guadal., March 2, 1822, 304.

[III-34] Only two months earlier the diputaciones of Comayagua and Leon were told that neither the junta consultiva nor any other body then existing had any such power.

[III-35] It was rumored, and doubtless believed by the people, that a formidable force was on the way—5,000 men—which Central America in its present divided condition could not resist; hence the premature submission with an apparent good grace. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 10-11.

[III-36] Gaceta Imp., i. 162-3. According to Bustamante, Cuad. Hist., vi., no. 187, 1-29, the party in favor of absolute independence in Guatemala sustained itself till a Mexican force was sent, and it was by this means the absorption was effected. The force had not arrived, but was certainly expected. Luis G. Cuevas, a Mexican senator, tells us that the people of Cent. Am. were mostly very enthusiastic for Iturbide, and at the same time anxious to rid themselves of the liberal party, whose members he calls an unbridled set of demagogues. Moreover, they wanted to belong to a nation having so much credit abroad, and such large resources to aid them. Porvenir de Méx., 252.

[III-37] Conde de la Cadena was first in command, but he resigned it on account of sickness. Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 474-8; Suarez y Navarro, Hist. Méj., 387-8; Filisola á la Junta Soberana, note 3.

[III-38] Squier, Guat., 580-1, has it 700.

[III-39] The 3d. It was installed March 29, 1822. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 47; Id., Efemérides, 5.

[III-40] Among them were José del Valle, Juan de Dios Mayorga, and Marcial Zebadúa. Zavala, _Ensayo Hist. Rev. Mex._, i. 187. Suarez y Navarro says that Mayorga had a secret mission from Salvador near the Mexican government. Hist. Méj., 387.

[III-41] Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 11-12. The province was ruled by a junta gubernativa, one of whose members was Antonio José Cañas, one of the most distinguished among Cent. Americans. He soon after became the second in command of the 'batallon fijo,' organized to resist Iturbide's pretensions. Salv., Diario Ofic., Feb. 13 and 19, 1875.

[III-42] Gainza had meantime stationed troops in Sonsonate, a town which hitherto belonged to the province of Guatemala proper, and afterward became a part of Salvador.

[III-43] Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 12-13.

[III-44] The rest of the province had accepted that arrangement. Gov. Tinoco had made himself master of Omoa, but a revolution released it from his grasp. His authority over Trujillo ceased about the middle of January 1822. Id., 7-9.

[III-45] The inhabitants were influenced to that course by Canon Nicolás Irias and Juan Lindo. The diputacion sent Tinoco to Mexico to report the state of affairs in Honduras. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 37.

[III-46] There was, in consequence, a bitter correspondence between Saravia and Gainza. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 14.

[III-47] This man was of the lowest class; had been a common servant, and afterward an artilleryman. He was once confined in a dungeon at Trujillo, from which he escaped. When he began to figure in politics his wit made him popular with the citizens. It was said that he had some knowledge of medicine, and had written some creditable poetry. He was, however, given to cards and free-love, but abstained from the bottle. He was twice married, but left no children. Perez, Biog. Sacasa, 8; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 14; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 73-4.

[III-48] Ordoñez had Sacasa and others confined in irons in Fort San Cárlos. Public opinion accused him of being the most active instigator of hatred between the white and other races. Id., 74; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 14; Salv., Diario Ofic., Feb. 19, 1875.

[IV-1] His orders were to take the city of San Salvador on or before the 5th of April. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 12.

[IV-2] They claimed that their declaration of independence did not imply hostility to Guatemala, and in support of it expressed a willingness to furnish hostages. Their representations were of no effect, however; 'habia empeño en sojuzgar á San Salvador, y á este interés se sacrificaba todo.' Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 51.

[IV-3] Against Filisola's expressed wishes. That general was then in Chiapas, and had forbidden all military operations till his arrival. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 13; Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 478; Filisola á la Junta Soberana, note 6.

[IV-4] He went in by the road sloping from the volcano to the west, from which quarter, owing to the roughness of the ground, no attack had been expected.

[IV-5] The casualties were not heavy on either side. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 12-13.

[IV-6] It was chiefly on the superiority exhibited on this occasion that Salvador subsequently based her claim to a prominent place in the councils held upon Cent. American affairs. Many of the internal wars which for a number of years ravaged the country may be traced to this pretended superiority.

[IV-7] To answer charges preferred against him. Id., 15; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 53, followed by Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 478. Cuevas, Porvenir de Mex., 253-4, makes the doubtful assertion that Gainza went of his own accord. At any rate, he afterward was made a lieut-gen. of the imperial army, and an aide-de-camp of Iturbide's.

[IV-8] His proclamation of July 8, 1822, expressed his desire to be guided only by the best interests of the country. Méx., Gaceta Imp., 1822, 657-9.

[IV-9] Duly authorized agents of Salvador were to go for that purpose to Mexico in Nov. 1822; the districts of San Miguel and Santa Ana being permitted to recognize the government at Guatemala till an understanding should be arrived at in Mexico. Other clauses referred to the surrender of arms seized by Arce in Sonsonate, to the commercial interests of the two provinces, and to rules to be observed before renewing hostilities. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 56-7.

[IV-10] Oct. 31, 1822. See Hist. Mex., v., this series.

[IV-11] Filisola á la Junta Soberana, notes 9, 10.

[IV-12] His force consisted of about 2,000 men, chiefly from Guatemala, Santa Ana, San Miguel, Sonsonate, and Honduras.

[IV-13] Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 60-1; Molina, Costa Rica, 93; Squier's Travels, ii. 383. The decree never went into effect, however.

[IV-14] The principal conditions were: establishment in Mexico of a representative government; Salvador's absolute independence from Guatemala; participation of her delegates in framing the national constitution; continuation in office of the present incumbents; and erection of an episcopal see. For less important terms demanded on that occasion, see also Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 16-17; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 62.

[IV-15] It seems that he again asked for instructions from the emperor, who peremptorily directed him not to lose more time in negotiations. 'V. S. no es mas que un soldado que debe atacar la ciudad, posesionarse de ella y tratar á los cabecillas como perturbadores del órden.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 17. Filisola himself confirmed the above in his address to the junta soberana of Cent. Am. of June 24, 1823, note 10.

[IV-16] Squier, in his Travels, ii. 383-4, rather emphatically comments on this 'step expressive of sympathies and sentiments which still exist.'

[IV-17] 'With a declaration that he was not waging war on the U. S., he continued his operations.'

[IV-18] Feb. 7, 1823. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 17-18.

[IV-19] Filisola issued passports to all who wished to quit the country, and even furnished them money to leave. To the poor soldiers he afforded every facility to reach their homes.

[IV-20] It must be acknowledged that to the gallantry and constancy of the sons of this little province, Central America owed to a great extent its existence as a sovereign commonwealth. Zavala, Rev. N. Esp., i. 142. See also Alaman, Hist. Méj., v. 476; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 47; Suarez y Navarro, Hist. Méj., 387; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 11-12.

[IV-21] Col Felipe Codallos was appointed governor of the province.

[IV-22] Tinoco had gone to Mexico.

[IV-23] Hist. Mex., v., this series.

[IV-24] Filisola's course has been open to criticism. Some attributed it to a conviction that Cent. Am. could not be held as a province dependent from a republic, which was practicable as a dependence of an empire. Others have supposed that he was prompted by personal ambition. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 73, and Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 19, claim that it was the unavoidable result of the situation, which is not exactly true. With the force at his command, he might have maintained supremacy for a considerable time at least. Filisola himself said that his object had been to avert civil war. In his address of July 24, 1823, to the junta of Guatemala, he assured that body that his recognition of its sovereignty had been with the sanction of the supreme executive government of Mexico, communicated to him on the 18th of June. Filisola á la Junta Soberana de Guat., 1-8; Id., El Ciudadano, 16-17.

[IV-25] Among others, that of seizing, without any legal formality, the Spanish vessel Sinacam, whose cargo he sold to procure provisions and other supplies for his garrison. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 75; Ayon, Apuntes, 22-3.

[IV-26] It was installed at Leon on the 17th of April, 1823. Marure, Efem., 6.

[IV-27] On the 15th of April. Marure, Efem., 6.

[IV-28] Several of the conspirators were imprisoned at the capital, though only for a short time. Molina, Costa Rica, 94; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 12.

[IV-29] According to Marure, Efemérides, 6, reserving the liberty of recognizing anew Iturbide as the legitimate emperor, should he be again restored to the imperial throne.

[IV-30] Deputies from Cent. Am. to the Mexican congress complained of outrages committed by Filisola's soldiers, to which his attention was called to correct them by the executive of that republic.

[IV-31] Cuevas, Porvenir de Méx., 254-6, laments it, considering it an act injurious to Cent. America's best interests.

[IV-32] The imperialists 'se limitaron á oponerles algunas maniobras sordas, no teniendo ánimo de disputarlas á cara descubierta.' Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 82-3. The independents 'contrajeron sus planes á ganar las elecciones, y á hacer odiosas las tropas mejicanas, procurando á toda costa, y por todos los medios posibles, hacerlas evacuar la república.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 20.

[IV-33] The 1st of June had been the date originally fixed upon, but some preliminary work not having been completed in time, the installation was necessarily delayed. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 83.

[IV-34] Chiapas was not represented, that province having continued detached from Cent. Am.

[IV-35] It is said that Filisola installed the congress, the Mexican troops taking part with the native ones in paying honors to the national representatives. Till the organization of an executive, the first decrees were addressed to Filisola, as superior political chief, for their execution. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 20. That body, the first as well as the most numerous, was at the same time the most enlightened that the republic ever had. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 83; Id., Efem., 7; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 16-24.

[IV-36] The full text with the names of the delegates present appears in Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. xiii.-xviii.; and Rocha, Código Nic., i. 19-23. Its principal clauses were: 'That the said provinces ... are free and independent from old Spain, from Mexico, and every other power, alike of the old and the new world, y que no son ni deben ser el patrimonio de persona ni familia alguna.' Translations into other languages may be seen in Revue Américaine, i. 377-97; Democratic Rev., i. 486-7. The act was drawn up by the deputy José Francisco Córdoba, who was a member of the committee to whom the matter had been referred. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 21.

[IV-37] Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 24-32.

[IV-38] Aug. 20, 1824. Dublan and Lozano, Leg. Mex., i. 713; Alaman, Mem. á las Cám., 9.

[IV-39] Decree of July 15, 1823. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 32-3.

[IV-40] The party was mainly composed of members of the so-called noble families, Spaniards, civil and military officers, the clergy, and the most ignorant class of the population. It was therefore the most numerous. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 259.

[IV-41] As he was then in the United States, the canon Antonio de Larrazábal was to be his substitute during his absence. Larrazábal having declined the position, it was given to Antonio Rivera Cabezas. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 164-70; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 88; Id., Efem., 8; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 22.

[IV-42] The moderados wanted José Dionisio Herrera of Honduras, in the triumvirate, to avoid the undue influence Salvador would exercise, having two of her citizens in the executive, and because they considered Herrera intellectually superior to Villacorta. No one thought of José del Valle, who was then in Mexico. Cuevas, Porvenir de Mex., 256-7, erroneously states that the supreme authority was offered Filisola and he declined it. He declined the office of jefe político of Guatemala.

[IV-43] Just in some instances, no doubt; but it became known that Guatemalans disguised as Mexicans committed hostile acts to bring the soldiers into discredit. Filisola certainly strove to maintain order and discipline. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 89-93; Filisola, El Ciudadano, 22-8.

[IV-44] José Francisco Barrundia, of whom prominent mention is made in this history, severely attacked Filisola's course in a pamphlet, which was replied to in a small book entitled El Ciudadano ... Vicente Filisola á José Francisco Barrundia, Puebla, 1824, 132 p. The author defends himself, employing strong invective against his accuser, charging him with hypocrisy and cowardice. The book gives some historical data, but owing to its bitterness, must be received with caution. Filisola after that time figured as a prominent soldier of the Mexican republic in Texas, and during the war of the U. S. and Mexico in 1846-8.

[IV-45] Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 877-8.

[IV-46] Practically, the word 'don' never fell into disuse. The manner of ending official letters was changed from the former 'Dios guarde á ... muchos años,' to 'Dios, Union, Libertad.' Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 94; Id., Efem., 7.

[IV-47] Decrees of the national assembly of Aug. 21 and Nov. 5, 1823. Rocha, Código Nic., i. 162; Guat., _Recop. Leyes_, i. 54-5.

[IV-48] Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 33-8, 461-3; Méx., Col. Dec. Sob. Cong., 219.

[IV-49] Even the statistics that might have served as a basis for establishing imposts were not to be found. It was said that they had all been forwarded to Mexico during the imperial rule.

[IV-50] He was offended at not being appointed commanding officer of the battalion.

[IV-51] The author of Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 23-7, accused the government of allowing the conspiracy to assume serious proportions with the view of obtaining larger powers, including that of levying forced loans.

[IV-52] The 14th and 15th had been designated to commemorate the independence.

[IV-53] A number of persons were killed and others wounded in the street fight. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 102-3. On the 10th of Jan. following those who perished in defence of the assembly were declared 'beneméritos de la patria en grado heróico.' Id., Efem., 8.

[IV-54] Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 104, gives the almost incredible account that the soldiery behaved in an orderly manner.

[IV-55] His principal assistant and second in command, Manuel Estrada, was imprisoned and executed. An erroneous account of Ariza's revolt is given by Puydt and Binckum, Colonisation, 118-19, who place it in 1825, and assert it was effected by order of the government in Spain.

[IV-56] It found support among some of the deputies who had not been present at the election of the members of the executive. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 25.

[IV-57] The last named being a foreigner, congress repealed the law which admitted only natives to the executive power, passed July 8th, when Filisola had been proposed as a candidate. Foreigners who had rendered services to the republic were made eligible. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 107.

[IV-58] Villacorta at first declined the position, on the ground that to exercise, as a mere substitute, the functions he had just been discharging as proprietary in the office, affected his honor, 'era un paso que lastimaba su honor.' A unanimous resolution, however, of the congress, directing him to fill the office, induced him to accept it. Id., 107-8. It has been said of him for his final acceptance: 'Tuvo la falta de delicadeza de admitir la suplencia.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 26.

[IV-59] The Salvadoran commander alleged instructions from his government not to go back till he became convinced that the assembly could continue its labors without hindrance in the future. In Guatemala it was said that he had been prevailed on by the liberal party, somewhat displeased at the last elections for executive, not to heed the command to retire. In consequence of the events of Sept. 14th in Guatemala, the diputacion provincial at San Salvador on the 27th of Oct. assumed the powers of a junta gubernativa, and exercised them till the constituent congress of the state was installed. Marure, Efem., 8.

[IV-60] 'No sin algunos aparatos escandalosos y hostiles de parte de los salvadoreños.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 27.

[IV-61] They had been reported to the chamber by its committee on the 25th of Oct. Marure, Efem., 8.

[IV-62] The states had already constituted their governments by Sept. 1824. Chiapas was not included among the new states. Her admission was left open for such a time as she should apply for it, the belief in Cent. Am. being that the province had not voluntarily attached itself to Mexico. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 40-2, 59-62, 68, 96-7; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 27; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 120-1, 149; La Tribuna, ii., no. 2.

[IV-63] Marure, Efem., 12, gives the date as April 10th.

[IV-64] Cent. Am., Informe sobre la Constituc., 1-73, and 1-30. This constitution has been called 'el bello ideal de copiantes y teoristas que soñaron un pueblo para constituirlo, y que no conocian el país en que nacieron.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 36.

[IV-65] The asamblea, foreseeing this, had designed La Antigua as the meeting place of the local congress; but the latter at its first sittings selected for future times the capital. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 179.

[IV-66] Such as to determine the military and financial budgets, superintend the education of the people, declare war and conclude peace, and regulate the financial and commercial interests of the country. Its members were to be elected at the rate of one for every 30,000 inhabitants. Id., 174-5. There were 17 representatives for Guatemala, nine for Salvador, five for Honduras, six for Nicaragua, and two for Costa Rica. Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 13. Dunlop, Cent. Am., 164, says Honduras had six representatives.

[IV-67] Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 13. Molina, Costa Rica, 19, criticises this organization as follows: 'Se estableció un senado nulo, un Ejecutivo impotente y un congreso absoluto.' Necessarily the greater number of representatives of Guatemala would outweigh those of the other states, and thus make the constitution only an imperfect copy of that which had originally served as a model.

[IV-68] Part of the constitution is given in Rocha, Código Nic., i. 37-9; on the following pages will be found such clauses of the old Spanish constitution as were retained under the new system. See also Peralta, Costa R., 5; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 13-5.

[IV-69] 'Se hacen libres los esclavos que de reinos extranjeros pasen á nuestros Estados, por recobrar su libertad.' Rocha, Código Nic., i. 212-13; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 217-9; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 133-5; Id., Efem., 10.

[IV-70] Holders of slaves thus emancipated were to be indemnified. We are assured that no one ever applied for such indemnification.

[IV-71] In 1840 Great Britain, would-be champion of the world's high morality, on one occasion claimed the return of some fugitive slaves from Belize, and supported the demand with the presence of a man-of-war. Notwithstanding her weakness, Central America refused to comply, on the ground that under her constitution there were no slaves in the country. Crowe's Gospel, 121-2; Squier's Travels, ii. 385-6; Revue Américaine, ii. 550; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 163. According to Molina, the number of slaves thus emancipated was about 1,000.

[IV-72] 'Una confederacion general que representase unida á la gran familia americana.' Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 138.

[IV-73] Barclay, Herring, Richardson, & Co., whose agent was J. Bailey. Thompson's Guat., 266; Marure, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 143.

[IV-74] One of the conditions was that the republic should not contract for another loan within two years. It was estimated that the debt could be paid in 20 years. Asamblea Nac., Decreto, Dec. 6, 1824, in Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 144. That expectation was not realized. Details will appear in connection with the finances of the republic, elsewhere in this volume.

[IV-75] The total number of decrees passed was 137, and of orders 1186. El Indicador de Guat., 1825, no. 16.

[V-1] He is represented as an able man, who had formerly favored the union with Mexico, but afterward joined the liberal party, becoming one of its most prominent members. The author of Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 39-41, 46, while acknowledging his ability, says that he was 'de poca delicadeza ... de un carácter falso, y afectando una franqueza y una moderacion que no le es propia.'

[V-2] The delegates of the different states were in the following proportion: Guatemala 17, Salvador 9, Honduras and Nicaragua 6 each, Costa Rica 2. The total number being 40, and not 34 as Squier erroneously has it. Travels, ii. 388.

[V-3] Arce had in his favor the prestige of past services, and his sufferings in the cause of independence. Valle had the support of those who objected to Salvadoran predominance. Moreover, he had been educated in Guatemala, and had property there; from which circumstances it was surmised that he would be more in sympathy with that state and the so-called serviles. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 150; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 28-9.

[V-4] The total number of votes for the whole republic was 82, but three had been rejected by congress for various reasons. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 210-11; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 40-1.

[V-5] Salvador insisted on having an episcopal see, in order to be independent of Guatemala in ecclesiastical affairs. This was the chief question at issue. Arce promised to leave its decision to the next congress. Arce, Mem., 3. Valle really had obtained more votes than Arce, and congress defrauded him of his election. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 268.

[V-6] Barrundia had been elected upon Valle's refusal to accept the office, and likewise declined it. Valle protested against Arce's election as illegal, in several writings, apparently to little purpose. El Indicador, 1825, no. 26 et seq.; El Liberal, 1825, no. 7, 8; Nulidad de la prim. elec., passim; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 212-13; Id., Efem., 13.

[V-7] Arce, Mem., 4, has it April 30th, but in view of the numerous misprints in his work, the date given in the text is probably more correct. It is the one supported by Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 213; Squier's Travels, ii. 388; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 164. Its first president was Tomás Antonio O'Horan. This court superseded the audiencia founded in 1544 at Gracias á Dios, and transferred in 1549 to Guatemala. Marure, Efem., 14.

[V-8] It was for a defensive and offensive alliance and equal privileges of trade. It was ratified by the Cent. Am. govt Sept. 12, 1825. The full text is given in Rocha, Código Nic., i. 95-9; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. xxxviii.-xlvii. See also Ayon, Consid. Lím., 28-9; Gaceta de Salv., Oct. 12, 1854.

[V-9] It was therein stipulated that the citizens of both republics should enjoy all the rights granted by one or the other to the most favored nation. The same rights for political purposes were also agreed upon, that of free exercise of religion being included. All clauses of a commercial character were to be in force 12 years; the others perpetually. Privileges and rights enjoyed by the citizens of either republic were to be also allowed to those immigrating from the other. This treaty was ratified by the younger republic on the 28th of June, 1826. The text in both English and Spanish may be seen in U. S. Govt Doc., U. S. Acts, Cong. 19, Sess. 2, Sen. Doc. 1, i. 149-70; Am. St. Pap., For. Rel., v. 774-82; Gordon's Digest of Laws, 328-35; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. xlvii.-lxv.

[V-10] Arce's Mess., March 1, 1826, in Repertorio Am., i. 274-9; Santangelo, Congreso Panamá, 73-5.

[V-11] Their newspapers, El Liberal and Don Meliton, charged him with partiality and incapacity. The latter, for its satire and ridicule, was the more formidable foe, as Arce himself acknowledges. Mem., 5.

[V-12] The departmental chief of Guatemala claimed that he was not under Arce's authority, but under that of the state, then residing at La Antigua. Congress empowered the executive to compel the local authorities to attend the celebration, and it was done. Arce, Mem., 8.

[V-13] The total number of decrees enacted was 92, and that of orders submitted to the executive 308. For more details, see El Centro Americano, 1826, 38.

[V-14] One half of the representatives of every state had to retire, according to the constitution.

[V-15] He had at first declined the connection, but afterward accepted it 'para dar rienda suelta á sus resentimientos y pasiones contra el presidente Arce.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 48.

[V-16] Text in Repertorio Am., i. 273-89.

[V-17] He brought letters of recommendation from Pedro Molina, who was representing Cent. Am. at Bogotá, and had a high opinion of him, as he had served under Napoleon. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 230.

[V-18] After he completed that work he was ordered to remain on the coast till further orders from the government. The congress tried in vain to prevent it.

[V-19] The reasons adduced by him in his Mem., 22-4, and comments on the same in Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 236-7.

[V-20] 'Este asunto se renovaba cada vez que á los diputados ministeriales convenia paralizar algun golpe contra el ejecutivo.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 51.

[V-21] The deputies of Salvador defended their course in a long argument, June 8, 1826, calling it an inevitable result of the unlawful conduct of the majority of congress. Doc., in Arce, Mem., 10-17.

[V-22] Restricting the archbishop's powers, and placing him to some extent under civil authority; suppressing the subventions of curates, and abolishing certain privileges the clergy had till then enjoyed; tithes were reduced, and persons under 25 years of age were not allowed to take monastic vows. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 244-5.

[V-23] The full text of the resignation is given in Arce, Mem., 25-7.

[V-24] 'Pondrá sobre las armas toda la fuerza que crea necesaria.... En caso de resistencia repelerá la fuerza con la fuerza.' Id., 32.

[V-25] On the ground that only Guatemala had paid such contingent, and even more, and the other states had arbitrarily eluded payments. Arce was accused, not without foundation, it seems, of allowing such discrimination.

[V-26] On September 3, 1826; the document merely stipulates a temporary suspension of hostilities, without further entering into the question. Arce, Mem., 39. It has been asserted that Espínola held a favorable position, and adds: 'A pesar de esto, capituló vergonzosamente'—a charge without much foundation, in view of the numerical superiority of the Guatemalan forces. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 52-3.

[V-27] Arce, Mem., 39-41, gives a lengthy account of his deliberations, and doubts whether it would or not be just, and consistent with his duties, to imprison Barrundia, all of which is at least doubtful.

[V-28] Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 53. Crowe's Gospel, 127, and Squier's Travels, ii. 395, confound the jefe with his brother José Francisco. The orders were, 'Que en el caso de resistencia obre fuertemente hasta concluir el arresto y ocupacion de las armas.' Arce, Mem., 41-2.

[V-29] This non-resistance is attributed to treachery on the part of Vera, a Mexican commanding the state forces, who subsequently entered the federal service. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 254-5.

[V-30] Doc., in Arce, Mem., 26.

[V-31] It is a long doc., giving details, and dwelling specially on the part Raoul had played. Id., 27-31.

[V-32] Comments and details on the subject in Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 255-8; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 53-4.

[V-33] 'Este desenlace hizo ridículo todo lo que antes habia parecido un golpe maestro.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 54.

[V-34] To save appearances, Arce pretended to induce his supporters to assume their positions in the chamber, but there is little doubt of its being mere sham. It has been intimated that even some liberals declined to sit, from apprehension that an investigation of Arce's conduct might lead to civil war.

[V-35] Still declaring its allegiance to the federation. Gaz. de Méx., Jan. 25. 1827; Arce, Mem., 51.

[V-36] The impossibility of obtaining a quorum of members chosen to the 2d congress, and impending civil war, were among the reasons assigned for his action. The elections were to be made on the basis of two deputies for every 30,000 inhabitants, and Cojutepeque in Salvador was appointed as the place of meeting. This measure was at first well received by the states, but afterward rejected in consequence of a decree of the Salvador government on the 6th of Dec., inviting the federal deputies to meet at the villa of Ahuachapan. Marure, Efem., 17; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 56.

[V-37] Oct. 11, 1826. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 273; Corres. Fed. Mex., Nov. 27, 1826.

[V-38] He sought refuge in the parish church, but was pursued by the crowd. His only safety lay in the pulpit, the remonstrances of the religious, and the presence of the host. The religious succeeded at times in calming the rabble, promising that Flores should be sent into exile. But Antonio Corzo, who was in the court-yard with a few poorly armed militiamen, fired a volley upon the mob, which became still more excited. The women dragged Flores from the pulpit, took him out of the temple, 'y le inmolaron en un claustro bárbara y horrorosamente.' Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 57-8. Squier's Travels, ii. 396, has it that the Indians had been infuriated by the harangues of a friar from the pulpit, and that the rabble slaughtered Flores at the very foot of the altar, literally rending his body in pieces; the apparent cause of this vindictiveness of the priests being that in the general levy of taxes for the state the property of the convents had not been spared. 'And thus was the movement started by the aristocrats, seconded by their allies, the priests.' Ex-president Morazan, referring to that catastrophe, uses these words: 'Puesto en manos de un feroz populacho, instigado por las funestas ideas que le inculcaron sus sacerdotes, pereció al pié de las imágenes de los santos, á la vista de sus inicuos jueces, y en presencia de la eucaristía, que estos cubrieran.' Apuntes, MS., 4. Flores had been noted for his charity to the poor, specially to the Indians, to whom he constantly gave medical aid, medicines, and other necessaries. The state assembly, after being restored in 1829, decreed honors to his memory, and ordered placed in its hall of sessions an inscription in letters of gold, as follows: 'Al inmortal Vice-jefe Ciudadano Cirilo Flores, mártir de la Libertad, sacrificado en Quezaltenango, en las aras de la ley.' In May 1831 the name of Ciudad Flores was given in his honor to the head town of the district of Peten. Marure, Efem., 17, 28.

[V-39] The liberals looked upon it as the result of an arrangement of Arce and his partisans; the latter declared it to have resulted from an accident, or rather from violent acts on the part of liberals in Quezaltenango, such as forcibly taking horses in the night from private houses and the Franciscan convent. Marure states that he thoroughly examined every document bearing on the subject, and found no evidence against Arce or his party. Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 275-85. The author of Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 58, acquits Arce, attributing the act to a sudden popular excitement. See also Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 15; Crowe's Gospel, 127-8; Pineda, in Guat., Recop. Leyes, iii. 348; Corres. Fed. Mex., Nov. 9, 1826; Doc., in Arce, Mem., 32-3.

[V-40] There was an effort toward reconciliation, the liberals offering to make concessions, and Arce favoring their proposals; but the serviles haughtily refused.

[V-41] Owing, it was said, to the publication of a pontifical bull, which, under Arce's exequatur, had been restricted to Guatemala by the archbishop, a step that Delgado supposed to have been by Arce's instigation, or at least a lack of interest on his part for San Salvador. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 60. Arce himself attributed the estrangement to party intrigues. Mem., 60. Dunlop, Cent. Am., 165, assigns disputes about the erection of the bishopric as the cause of the rupture.

[V-42] Arce, Mem., 61, finds fault with Prado's act, when his own had been just as illegal.

[V-43] Colonel Milla invaded the state with a federal force, captured Comayagua on the 9th of May, 1827, and arrested the jefe of the state, Herrera. The whole was a wanton proceeding. Morazan, Apuntes, MS., 6-9.

[V-44] The commander of the Salvadorans was unable to explain his illegal proceeding. Doc., in Arce, Mem., 45-6.

[V-45] Detailed accounts, with copies of the official exaggerated reports, are given in Gaz. de Méx., Apr. 26 till May 1 and May 22, 1827; Marure, Efem., 19; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 62-4. Decree of government of Guatemala on the subject, March 28, 1827. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 250.

[V-46] Beltranena and several of Arce's officers disapproved the retaliatory plan. Aycinena, on the contrary, favored it, though willing to abide by Arce's decision.

[V-47] Both districts had seceded from the state government of Salvador, attaching themselves to the federal cause.

[V-48] He committed the error of entertaining peace proposals, which were made only to gain time. He endeavored to explain it away on the plea of Cent. Am. brotherhood: 'Puedo yo dejar de tener un corazon Centro Americano? No es posible.' Arce, Mem., 69. On the same and following pages is a detailed account of the action, carefully worded and extolling the bravery of his Guatemalan soldiers. The official reports are in El Sol, Mex., July 3, 1827; Marure, Efem., 19.

[V-49] The government of Salvador had in May made peace proposals, but the federal authorities rejected them. Docs., in Arce, Mem., 47-57.

[V-50] It was decided in secret session of the state assembly on the 16th of Oct. that the state had a right to intervene, and if it was ignored, and treaties displeasing to the state were concluded, the latter should detach itself from the federation, and its troops continue occupying the towns they then held. Arce's letter of Oct. 17, 1827, to Brig. Cáscaras, in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 22.

[V-51] It may have been of his own seeking, for he must have seen ere this the great difficulty of conquering San Salvador with his small force, and that to continue longer in the field would only bring him into further disrepute.

[V-52] Ex-marqués de Aycinena, brother of the jefe of Guatemala, called the decree impolitic, illegal, and arbitrary. The serviles could see that it would restore the old congress, so hostile to them; and with a majority against them in both houses, they might have to resort to the dangerous expedient of driving away the senators and deputies at the point of the bayonet. It was ridiculous in them to rail against arbitrariness, when they had arbitrarily deposed Barrundia in Guatemala and Herrera in Honduras. It was arbitrary to keep the nation without a congress, which was their work. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 9, 23.

[V-53] Three brothers Merino, and a Frenchman named Soumaestra. Rafael Merino was made commander-in-chief. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 75; Arce, Mem., 77.

[V-54] Near the hill of La Trinidad the federal forces which had control of Honduras were defeated by Nicaraguans and Salvadorans under Lieut-col Remigio Diaz. Marure, Efem., 20.

[V-55] It is difficult to see how the Guatemalans could place faith on pledges so often violated; evidently given to gain time.

[V-56] This ended the second campaign between Salvadorans and Guatemalans.

[V-57] This army was to be used, first in subduing Salvador, and next Guatemala, where Arce encountered more and more opposition to his plans. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 81-2.

[V-58] The commissioners, as agreed upon, were to meet at Jutiapa. Those of the general government went there and waited several days; no Salvadorans appeared.

[V-59] The mutiny took place at Xalpatagua on the 9th of Feb. Marure, Efem., 20; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 83-5. Aycinena wrote his cousin Antonio, who was in the theatre of war, that in order to hinder all peace arrangements, measures would be resorted to that were unknown even to Machiavelli. The mutiny against Perks was evidently one of these measures.

[V-60] He alleged as a reason the unwillingness of Salvador to enter into negotiations as long as he remained at the head of affairs. Arce, Mem., 84-7. The real cause, however, was a resolution of the assembly of Guatemala demanding his resignation, and he was unable to disregard it. This course of the assembly was altogether illegal, but the time for the expiation of Arce's political sins had arrived. According to his own statement, he retired to his plantations at Santa Ana.

[V-61] This was the most bloody fight of the war of 1826-9, and opened the third campaign between Guatemala and Salvador. Marure, Efem., 21.

[V-62] Their supply of ammunition had been destroyed by fire, and their commander had received a serious contusion. This fight has been since known as the 'ataque del viérnes santo,' having taken place on good-friday, March 12, 1828. Id., 21.

[V-63] April 13th, action of Quelepa, in which the Salvadorans were defeated. With that victory, and another at Guascoran on the 25th of the same month, the whole department of San Miguel was brought under subjection to the federal government. June 12th, peace stipulations were signed at the house of Esquibel, Manuel F. Pavon acting for the federal government and Matías Delgado for Salvador, by which the former was to be recognized by the latter, a general diet was to meet at Santa Ana, and a federal force occupy San Salvador; but the Salvador government refused to sanction the arrangement, and the war continued with more fury than ever. Details on those preliminaries are given in Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 100-1. July 6th, battle of Gualcho, on the banks of the Lempa, in the department of San Miguel, between Hondurans and Guatemalans. The latter, under Col. Dominguez, hitherto victorious, were utterly defeated. Marure, Efem., 21-2; El Espíritu Púb., Jan. 18, 1829.

[V-64] Arzú had abandoned them to their fate. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 47-51.

[V-65] Morazan, Apuntes, MS.; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 53-4. Thus ended disastrously for the federal forces their third invasion of Salvador territory. The actions of Gualcho and San Antonio were the first in which the great Central American soldier and statesman Francisco Morazan figured as a general. Morazan will stand in history in many respects as the best, and in all as the ablest, man that Central America had. He was born in Honduras in 1799, his father being a French creole from the W. I., and his mother of Tegucigalpa, in Honduras. His education was such as he could obtain in the country at that time; but his quickness of apprehension and thirst for knowledge soon placed him far above his countrymen. He was of an impetuous temperament, and possessed at the same time great decision and perseverance. His bearing was free and manly, and his manner frank and open. These qualities could not fail to and did secure him the love and respect of his fellow-citizens, giving him an immense influence over them. In 1824 he was already occupying the position of secretary-general of Honduras, and later was senator, and for a time acting jefe of that state; but his temperament soon made him turn his attention to martial affairs. He ever after was noted as a republican of very liberal views. Squier's Travels, ii. 400; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 170-1; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 17. The writer of Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 92, says that Morazan had been at one time a clerk in a notary's office at Comayagua, where he 'habia dado á conocer disposiciones muy felices, pero poco honrosas, para la imitacion de letras ó firmas.' It has been said that Morazan joined the party opposed to the existing federal government at the instigation of Pedro Molina. Gaceta de S. Salv., Oct. 3, 1851. A portrait of Morazan is given in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 72.

[V-66] It has been asserted that he offered his services to Salvador, and was slighted, Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 97-8, which finds confirmation in Arce's own statement. Mem., 88-9. Squier has it that Arce went to Mexico, Travels, ii. 402; but this seems to be a mistake, for he was in Guatemala in 1829.

[V-67] A few days previously, on the 20th, the assembly of Guatemala decreed a renewal of all the powers of the state, with the vain purpose of removing one of the obstacles to the termination of the war. Marure, Efem., 22.

[V-68] Prado and Morazan offered peace to the Guatemalans on condition that the federal government should be fully restored. El Espíritu Púb., Feb. 14, 1829.

[V-69] He established his general headquarters in Ahuachapan, whence raids were constantly made into the enemy's territory.

[V-70] This took place on the 22d of Jan., 1829. The sedition, though soon quelled, rather hastened the action of Morazan with his allied Salvador and Honduras force.

[V-71] The repulse was so unimportant, however, that Morazan does not even mention it in his memoirs. Marure, Efem., 23; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 61.

[V-72] Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 123; Marure, Efem., 23, gives the 18th as the date. Morazan, Apuntes, MS., 14, says with reference to that defeat, 'Cerda acreditó en esta derrota su ineptitud y cobardía y el enemigo su crueldad con el asesinato de los vencidos.' After that the town was given the title of Villa de la Victoria; but later resumed its original name. This defeat was exaggerated in San Salvador, where it was reported that Morazan was besieged in La Antigua, and preparations to meet another invasion were hastily made.

[V-73] Morazan might have been besieged in La Antigua; for during his stay there he despatched a force to Quezaltenango, that should have been followed by another from Guatemala, and destroyed between the latter and the few forces that Irisarri might have brought against it in the hard roads of Istaguacan and Laja; instead of which, Irisarri retreated toward Soconusco, to be afterward undone and taken prisoner. Morazan's force occupied Los Altos, took many prisoners, levied contributions which Irisarri had failed to get from the Quezaltecs, and left the enemy powerless to recuperate. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 124; Morazan's Memoirs, quoted in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 63.

[V-74] March 6, 1829. The disaster occurred at San Miguelito. Morazan, Apuntes, MS., 15. The place received, for that reason, the name of San Miguel Morazan. The Frenchman Raoul, now a general under Morazan, figures prominently in the military operations at this time.

[V-75] On the 15th of March. Marure, Efem., 23; Morazan, Apuntes, MS., 15; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 62-3.

[V-76] The federal force that succumbed in Las Charcas was commanded by their mayor-general, Agustin Prado, not Col Pacheco, as supposed by some. The federals had no general now. Cáscaras had lost his reputation, and was distrusted by the serviles. Arzú would not take the command, or was not trusted on account of his ill success in the third invasion of Salvador. Morazan had defeated Milla, Dominguez, Aycinena, Pacheco, and Prado. Id., 63-4.

[V-77] The representatives were, Arbeu for Vice-president Beltranena, Pavon for Guatemala, Espinosa for Salvador, and Morazan for Honduras and Nicaragua. The last propositions of Espinosa and Morazan were the following, namely: 1st. That a provisional government should be formed in Guatemala, composed of the chief of the state Mariano Aycinena, Mariano Prado, and Morazan; 2d. That the two armies should be reduced to 1,000 men, Guatemalans and Salvadorans in equal parts; 3d. That the provisional government should be installed in Pinula, and afterward enter Guatemala with that force to give it strength and preserve order in the state; 4th. A general forgetfulness of the past. Morazan, Apuntes, MS., 5, 16; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 65. It is claimed, on the other hand, that Morazan really wanted the federal vice-president and the chief of the state of Guatemala to throw up their offices, the legislative assembly and representative council to cease exercising their functions; and that of 1826, sitting at La Antigua, and which had made Zenteno chief, was also to dissolve; the supreme court of justice was to stop acting. Meantime, and until new elections took place, Morazan was to be clothed with executive, representative, and judicial powers. Under the pretext of restoring the sway of law and constitutional order, a dictatorship, emanating from a war treaty, would have been created, whose sole object was to reward the victor with an unlimited authority. The commissioners of the federal and Guatemalan governments refused to accede, and presented counter-propositions of a different nature, namely, to the effect that the existing high functionaries should resign their powers, and a provisional government be established, with one representative from each state, to govern till new elections and the restoration of the constitutional régime. There were also propositions respecting the government of the state of Guatemala. Full details in Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 125-9, 231-6, which are widely different from those in Morazan, Apuntes, MS., 16. The government of Mexico, at the request of that of Guatemala, tendered its mediation on the 20th of February, but it arrived too late, and there was nothing left for it to do but to tender the hospitalities of the Mexican soil to the victims of persecution. The full correspondence is to be found in Méx., Mem. Rel., 1830, 2-3; also in Suarez y Navarro, Hist. Méj., 407-14; this authority claims that Mexican mediation might have been finally successful in restoring peace but for the opposition of the new chief of Guatemala.

[V-78] A long account of the alleged outrages of Morazan's forces appears in Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 132-3. Marure, Efem., 24, in referring to the capture of Guatemala, makes no mention of any such abuses.

[V-79] Morazan's answer was addressed to Gen. Aycinena, not recognizing the latter as chief of Guatemala, Juan Barrundia's term not having expired when Arce deposed him, in consequence of which act Aycinena rose to that position. The dissolved authorities of 1826 were now assembled in La Antigua, and Morazan held relations with them. Aycinena had changed his tone; he was no longer the man of the manifestoes of 1827, of the proscriptive decrees, nor of the stringent military orders of the first months of 1829. He did not now call his opponents 'un puñado de enemigos del órden, descamisados y forajidos.' Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 72-5, 79-86.

[V-80] Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 18, erroneously places the surrender on the 20th. The terms of the capitulation are given in Arce, Mem., 98-4; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 76-7. Only the life and property of the inhabitants were guaranteed; the vanquished were in all else subject to the good-will of the victor. José Milla y Vidaurre, in his biographical sketch of Manuel Francisco Pavon, who figured in these events, claims that the capitulation was contrary to Aycinena's wishes, who was ready to defend the place foot by foot. Montúfar, quoted above, denies the statement, adding that it was advanced solely to make the chief of the serviles and head man of the nobles appear as a hero, and refers to the correspondence, which will show Aycinena quite anxious to accept the guarantee of life and property.

[V-81] According to Miguel García Granados, who in later years was a liberal leader and acting president of Guatemala, Arce had remained unmolested at his house in sight of the besiegers during the three days' attack. Id., 103.

[V-82] This was done pursuant to orders from the governments of the states. So says Morazan himself, adding that the measure was in consonance with his own views, to reduce the number of prisoners to a minimum, 'y tenia tambien por objeto poner en absoluta incapacidad de obrar á los principales jefes que habian llevado la guerra á los Estados.' Apuntes, MS., 16-17.

[V-83] He took charge of the provisional government at the end of April. Mariano Zenteno, who had held the position ad int., was given a vote of thanks for his patriotism and courage. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 127.

[V-84] The federal authorities alleged that their soldiers only had 431 muskets, and not 1,500, as demanded from them. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 236-9. Morazan says that soldiers were allowed to leave the city with their arms, infringing the 4th clause of the capitulation, and he could get only evasive answers. Apuntes, MS., 17; Arce, Mem., 58-9, 98-103, from which the conclusion will be drawn that the charges against the federal party were not unfounded. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 109-17. On this subject Morazan himself said: 'No one was put to death, or had money exacted from him by me. The capitulation was faithfully carried out, even after being annulled. Duty gave way to magnanimity, and there was no cause to regret it. Not that there was no blood to avenge, grievance to punish, and reparation to demand. Among many other victims sacrificed, there were, calling for vengeance, generals Pierzon and Merino, the one shot, without even the form of a trial, the other taken out of a Chilian vessel on which he intended to return to Guayaquil, his country, to be murdered in the city of San Miguel. There were, besides, the burning and plundering of the towns of Salvador and Honduras, which demanded a just reparation.' Apuntes, MS., 10, 17.

[V-85] He called them to the palace, and some of them mistaking the object of the summons made their appearance in full uniform. When all were assembled they were taken to prison and kept in confinement till July 9th, when most of them were sent out of the country. Marure, Efem., 24.

[V-86] Marure, Efem., 24.

[V-87] Among its acts was one recognizing the services of Morazan, to whom was due its reinstallation. He was voted a gold medal, with the word 'benemérito' before his name. A full-length portrait was ordered placed in the hall of sessions. The decree, however, was never carried out. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 129; Marure, Efem., 25.

[V-88] 'Son reos de alta traicion, y como tales, acreedores á la pena capital.' Arce, Mem., 108; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 151; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 130.

[V-89] The text is given in full in Id., 131-4; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 253-7; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 254-6.

[V-90] 'Y por lo mismo sujetos á la jurisdiccion militar de los mismos Estados.' Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 134-5.

[V-91] Crowe, Gospel Cent. Am., 131, erroneously asserts that all their property was confiscated.

[V-92] Arce addressed to Morazan a most virulent protest. He afterward boasted that he had bearded the tyrant. The very fact that he dared to send such a document, and did not lose his head, proves that Morazan was not a tyrant. Arce, Mem., 113-14. Antonio José Irisarri, Manuel and Juan Montúfar, protested before the assembly and government of Salvador, before the assemblies of all the states of the union, before Gen. Morazan, before all the republics of America, and before all the free people of the world. The document was drawn up by Irisarri, who was not a soldier, though a colonel of militia; the language was pure and elegant, but it was virulent and full of sophistry. Irisarri also in several publications boasted of his courage in having sent such a document. He must have known that it would not have any effect on Morazan. The latter was a generous man. The effect would have been different on Rafael Carrera, whom the serviles at a later period made their master, as well as of the whole country. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 135-6.

[V-93] Marure has it in Efem., 25; Montúfar, _Reseña Hist._, i. 137-9.

[V-94] Portrait in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 138.

[V-95] The senate, dissolved in 1826, was reinstalled July 9th. Marure, Efem., 25.

[V-96] Arce, Mem., 122-3, and Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 167-9, assert that they were not even allowed to make preparations for the journey, and many had furthermore to start on foot. The decree of expatriation was not, however, issued till August 22d, and José del Valle is said to have been its author. The persons thus exiled for life were Arce and Beltranena, and their ministers, Aycinena and his secretaries, Cáscaras, Villar, and other high military officers, Spaniards not naturalized that served the usurping governments, and many other prominent officers. Others were expatriated for various terms of years. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 144-50; Marure, Efem., 26. Arce and Aycinena left Guatemala on the 7th of Sept. They were required to reside in the U. S. of Am.; embarked at Omoa for Belize, and thence went to New Orleans.

[V-97] Dunlop, Cent. Am., 177, and Squier, Travels, ii. 408, speak of plots against the republic as the reason, but it was probably what the liberal party alleged.

[V-98] This step was subsequently approved by the federal congress. Marure, Efem., 25; Rocha, Código Nic., ii. 373. The friars sent away were the Dominicans, Franciscans, and Recollects. Those of the order of Mercy were not banished; they were but few, and had not been active against the liberal cause. The Bethlehemite hospitallers, who devoted their time to teaching and to the care of convalescents, were also allowed to remain. The author of Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 170, says that the exiled priests were on the passage vilely treated, for they were allowed only sailors' rations. Montúfar confesses that it is not likely that the 289 friars had the succulent viands that were usually prepared for them in their convents, nor the dainty dishes they were so often favored with from the nuns, beatas, and all the daughters of confession. As for the archbishop, he journeyed with every comfort. Juan B. Asturias, who made the inventory of his property, reported on 31st of Dec., 1829, that $218 had been paid for a saddled mule to take the archbishop to the coast; he was allowed $2,000 for the expenses of his journey, and $1,008.50 were given to the pages for conveying him and his effects. A person having all that cannot be said to be unprovided with edibles. Saint Peter would not have needed so much. Reseña Hist., i. 156-7.

[V-99] In June 1830 he was declared a traitor. It has been said that it was because he accepted a pension of $3,000 from the Spanish government at Habana. Archbishop Casaus was later appointed to administer the vacant see of Habana, and held the office till his death. The above-mentioned law was revoked by the constituent assembly on the 21st of June, 1839, and Casaus was restored to all his former rights, and recognized as legitimate archbishop. He was repeatedly invited to return, but never would do so. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 242-3.

[V-100] This declaration was subsequently confirmed by all the states. At a later time—Feb. 27, 1834—a further step was taken to consummate the suppression of monastic establishments, ordaining that the authorities should not retain the nuns refusing to reside in the convents where they professed. These measures continued in force till June 21, 1839, when the second constituent assembly of Guatemala repealed them, decreeing, consequently, the reëstablishment of the suppressed convents. Marure, Efem., 25.

[V-101] He had been declared elected on the 22d of Aug., 1829. Antonio Rivera Cabezas had been chosen vice-jefe. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 172-4, giving also a portrait of Molina.

[V-102] Because the number of Guatemalan representatives in the federal congress would be greatly decreased. Moreover, several of the best public buildings in the city would become national property. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 200.

[V-103] By his plan a congress representing the entire union was to wield the executive powers in foreign affairs. The scheme fell through, owing to the little interest shown by the states, and to the powerful opposition of persons holding or aspiring to federal offices, among the most prominent being Morazan. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 201-3, dwells extensively and comments on the subject.

[V-104] Full particulars in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 205-17.

[V-105] This report came from Gen. Mariano Mantilla, commanding the Colombian district of the Magdalena, dated Jan. 8, 1829, and addressed to the jefe of Nicaragua. It was a long time in getting to Guatemala, and the government and Gen. Morazan at once made preparations for the defence of the coast.

[V-106] See my Hist. Mex., v. 72-6.

[V-107] Under this decree some of the Spanish property was sold; but after a while, upon the receipt of favorable news from Mexico, and when there was a quasi certainty that Spain would not again make such attempts as that against Tampico, the law was revoked. But property already sold was declared to be legally disposed of, adding that the former owners should not be indemnified therefor till Spain had recognized Central American independence. The texts of both the federal and Guatemalan decrees may be seen in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 182-7.

Memorias para la Historia de la Revolucion de Centro América. Por un Guatemalteco. Jalapa, 1832. 16mo, 257 pp. The authorship of these memoirs was attributed by well-informed men, namely, Morazan, ex-president of Central America, and the distinguished statesman and diplomate of that country, Lorenzo Montúfar, to Manuel Montúfar, who had been chief of staff of the first president of the republic, Manuel José Arce. The work begins with the geography and political and ecclesiastical divisions of the country, accompanied with data on each of the states and territories; namely, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Poyais, Honduras, Salvador, Guatemala, and Chiapas, together with some remarks on mining and other industries, military defences, and financial condition. The political portion, as the author himself acknowledges, is loosely put together, and lacks many necessary details, which he attributes to absence from home when the first sheets went to the press. He claims, however, to have impartially and correctly narrated the events of Cent. Am. history from 1820 to 1829. This to some extent is true; nevertheless there crops out in places class-bias, particularly in describing the events from 1826 to 1829, by the ideas which prevailed in the moderado, otherwise called servile, party, in which he was affiliated and serving, and for whose acts he, like many others, was driven into exile after the defeat of that party on the field of battle.

Manuel José Arce, Memoria de la Conducta Pública y Administrativa de ... durante el período de su presidencia. Mex., 1830. 8vo, p. 140 and 63. This work purports to be a defence of his administration by the first president of the republic of Central America, against what he calls the slanders heaped upon his name by those who rebelled against the government and the nation, with documents bearing on the revolts, the whole having been prepared while the author was in exile. The book is a disconnected, disjointed patchwork, incomplete in its various records of events, and indicates, as does Arce's career, a weak character. A number of meaningless and inapt quotations from the old classics and from law-books help to confuse the narrative still more.

[VI-1] Most of them had been agents of Milla, and contributed to the overthrow of the state government. A number had moved to Guatemala, Salvador, and elsewhere. The most prominent in the list were the ex-provisor, Nicolás Irias, and Pedro Arriaga. The latter was sent out of the country from the port of Omoa. He had been Milla's chief agent and adviser, and brought about the destruction by fire of Comayagua, his native place. This will account for his hostility in after years to liberals, and for his active coöperation with the despots of Guatemala. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 190.

[VI-2] The pretext for the movement was to resist a moderate tax established by the legislature; the real object was to bring on a reaction.

[VI-3] The friendship existing between Barrundia and Molina, from the earliest period of their political life, previous to the independence, became weakened, threatening a disruption of the liberal party. The disagreement was increased by Molina's opposition to the federal government remaining in Guatemala.

[VI-4] The same who made the revolt of Xalpatagua, murdered Gen. Merino at San Miguel, and was defeated at Gualcho.

[VI-5] Marure, Efem., 26.

[VI-6] Forty-one of them, including the clergyman Antonio Rivas, were sentenced to military duty in the castle of San Felipe for five years. Father Rivas, after serving out his term, said that he was an innocent victim and a martyr of religion, and prayed upon the liberals all the maledictions of the 108th psalm. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 196.

[VI-7] Composed of the citizens Nicolás Espinosa, José Antonio Larrave, Manuel José de la Cerda, and Jacobo Rosa.

[VI-8] Barrundia did not want the position, and did not work for it. He wished Morazan to be elected. Morazan had in his favor the prestige of a victorious general. He was somewhat in the position of Bonaparte when he returned from Egypt. Valle was recognized to be the best informed man of Central America; none could compete with him in literary or scientific attainments. In politics he was always an opponent of the aristocracy, who execrated his memory, and even impudently pretended to deny his literary merits. But we have seen elsewhere that he was not, like Barrundia, an uncompromising opponent of all governments not based on democracy and republicanism. He compromised with the Mexican empire, was a deputy to the imperial congress, where he made a brilliant record, and became a minister of the emperor, who sent him to prison when he dissolved the congress. After the emperor's overthrow, Valle maintained that the provinces of Central America were free to act their own pleasure. He was a popular man, but Morazan's victorious sword eclipsed all else just then. Id., 268.

[VI-9] It was the same question that occurred in 1825 between Arce and Valle. The congress at that time, in order to exclude Valle, decided in favor of the former. Valle published pamphlets in favor of the latter principle, and the congress of 1830 acted upon his arguments.

[VI-10] Among the warmest were those of the legislature of Guatemala. The spokesman for the committee presenting them was Alejandro Marure.

[VI-11] This was a common course with our brethren across the Atlantic. Marure, Efem., 27; Squier's Travels, ii. 414.

[VI-12] This was on the 21st of Nov., at about 11 p. m.

[VI-13] Larrainzar, Soconusco, 80; Morazan y Carrera, MS., no. 3, 9, say troops from Mexico, which is doubtful.

[VI-14] Details on this campaign are given in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 348-65.

[VI-15] The national armed schooner Deseada took the Ejecutivo. The Spanish flags that waved over the fort and the latter vessel were dragged through the streets of Guatemala, tied to the tails of horses, on the day of the national anniversary. Ramon Guzman was executed at Omoa on the 13th of Sept., by order of Col Agustin Guzman, who commanded, Terrelonge being bedridden by a serious illness. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 377-81; Marure, Efem., 29.

[VI-16] A man who, though amenable to exile under the law of expulsion, had been pardoned at his repeated supplications.

[VI-17] Duplessis died like a hero. His execution was a murder, similar to that of Gen. Merino. Both instances served as an example of what the liberals might expect if the serviles got the upper hand again.

[VI-18] Among them were a number of rosaries and prayers to the virgin of Guadalupe, supposed to possess the power of benumbing the enemy in the fight.

[VI-19] He is said not to have shown at the hour of his execution that courage which was manifested by his victims at the scaffold.

[VI-20] It was probably unfounded; and yet the fact stands that though often requested to make Arce reside farther in the interior, the Mexican authorities never did it. Arce recruited his men, issued proclamations, and built forts undisturbed by the Chiapanec officials, who, on the other hand, exerted themselves to hinder the action of the government forces.

[VI-21] This man was a servile at heart, and undoubtedly had secret relations with the invaders; as was shown in the proclamation of Dominguez and Father Herrera, in the praises the serviles awarded him, and in his rebellion. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 334, 382.

[VI-22] It is understood they were jealous in Salvador of Guatemala's influence in the federal policy. Cornejo claimed that what he wanted was reforms in the national constitution. Reforms were certainly necessary, and if they had been adopted in good faith by the states, the union might have been saved. The executive had no participation in the framing of laws, either directly or indirectly; he had not the sanction of them, nor could he veto or suspend. It was the senate, as the council of the government, that sanctioned the laws. That body, elected very like the chamber of deputies, was the judge of ministers and other functionaries. It nominated the officials, and at the same time had legislative, administrative, and judicial powers. The president of the republic had no independent place of abode, and was ever at the mercy of the state where the federal government had its seat; at best, he was the object of that state's benevolent hospitality. On the other hand, he was the target of all the assaults promoted by the spirit of localism for or against that state. It was therefore evident that a federal district was a necessity; one which the states would look upon as common property, and would foster and advance.

[VI-23] Galvez' record is not clean in the eyes of many liberals. He had belonged to the imperial party, and had been leagued with the aristocracy. He was a patriot, it is true, but his patria was Guatemala; his patriotism did not embrace all Central America. Such is the opinion given of him, with his portrait, by Montúfar, in Reseña Hist., i. 296.

[VI-24] Besides, Cornejo had officially said that Morazan had neither supporters nor prestige in Salvador.

[VI-25] Galvez had wanted arrangements made to repel invaders, but leaving Cornejo, though he disliked his indiscreet acts, in his position. Morazan was, on the contrary, impressed with the idea that Cornejo's deposal was a necessity.

[VI-26] The act outlawed all persons who having been expelled from Nicaraguan territory should uphold the authorities of Salvador. Correspondence with the enemies of the country, or any expression, verbal or written, favoring them, were made punishable by death. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 338.

[VI-27] Cornejo had consented to negotiate, believing the force on the frontier to be controlled by Guatemala; but on ascertaining that it was under Morazan's orders, and that Galvez had merely intended a mediation without being recreant to his federal obligations, his commissioners broke off the conferences under various pretexts.

[VI-28] It was a great mistake, perhaps, not to have given the state time to reflect, when it might have gone back quietly to the union. As it was, liberals were for the first time arrayed against liberals, and the shedding of blood begat animosities that never could be healed. The serviles, of course, gladly fanned the flame.

[VI-29] In fact, they hardly made any resistance. The president's casualties were trifling. Marure, Efem., 30; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 340.

[VI-30] The following facts are taken from Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., lib. iii., chap. 14. Filisola in 1823 needed 2,000 bayonets to take San Salvador. In 1827-8, Arce, Arzú, and Montúfar failed to do it with an equal, if not a larger force. In 1832 Morazan with only 800 men made himself master of the place in less than two hours. The object of these remarks was to show that no credit should be given to Morazan's detractors in their attempts to lessen his military reputation. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 343.

[VI-31] There were 38 of them, including Cornejo and Antonio J. Cañas.

[VI-32] The new rulers, raised to power under the auspices of the victor, declared those of 1831 and the beginning of 1832 to have been illegitimate, and organized courts for the trial of treason. The decrees of June 7 and 26, and July 28, 1832, were severe; fortunately, they were not executed with the same animosity displayed in enacting them. Marure, Efem., 30.

[VI-33] Nicaragua seceded Dec. 3, 1832; Guatemala, Jan. 27, 1833; Salvador repeated her declaration on Feb. 13, 1833; Honduras and Costa Rica separated themselves, respectively, on the 19th of May and 18th of Sept., 1833. Marure, Efem., 32; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 42-3; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 20; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 184; Crowe's Gospel, 134; Squier's Travels, ii. 417.

[VI-34] 'Todos los habitantes de la república son libres para adorar á Dios segun su conciencia, y que el gobierno nacional les proteje en el ejercicio de esta libertad.' Marure, Efem., 31. José F. Barrundia is said to have effectively fathered this resolution. Salv., Gaceta, Oct. 12, 1854.

[VI-35] July 8, 1833. Barrundia's speech in closing the congress is given in El Centro Americano, July 11, 1833, 57-69.

[VI-36] This jealousy had developed during the states' rights agitation.

[VI-37] Guatemala rejected this convocation by an act of June 2, 1833. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 240-1. A project appeared in the Centro Americano of June 11, 1833, 28-30, to terminate the question of equal numerical representation in congress for the five states. It was proposed to divide the territory into three states of about the same population each, the executive authority to be alternately held by the presidents of the three states. The plan was impracticable.

[VI-38] The adoption of such a plan by the federal congress could not be secured until July 18, 1838. The decree of convocation issued on that date was generally accepted, and yet the diet never met till March 17, 1842. Marure, Efem., 33.

[VI-39] The correspondence between the state governments for the strict vigilance on the coast of that state appears in El Centro Americano, Oct. 18, 1833; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 41-2.

[VI-40] Pursuant to a resolution of the national congress of June 25, 1833. As early as 1826 the government of Salvador had tried to have the federal authorities reside at least 40 leagues from Guatemala. Similar requests had been subsequently made by other states; and even in the legislature of Guatemala reiterated motions had been presented to the same effect. But the federalist party, as long as it was in the majority in congress, strenuously opposed the removal, believing that it would bring about, as it actually did, the downfall of the federal system, and the dissolution of the federal authorities. Marure, Efem., 34. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 58-9, remarks that Marure when he wrote the first two volumes of his Bosquejo Histórico was a liberal; in his Efemérides, written later, he speaks like a conservative. The change of tone is attributed to the iron influence of the government from whom he had a salary as a professor. Lastarría, in La América, 250, erroneously attributes the transfer to Morazan's action to break up the influence of the oligarchical party in Guatemala.

[VI-41] The affray lasted five hours; the federal force being under Gen. Salazar, and that of Salvador under Col. José D. Castillo. Marure, Efem., 36.

[VI-42] Decree of vice-president of Sept. 1, 1834.

[VI-43] The legislature of the state had made a cession of the territory for the purpose on the 28th of Jan., 1835. On the 9th of March, 1836, the district was enlarged by the addition of Zacatecoluca. The national government had its capital in San Salvador till the 3d of May, 1839, when the assembly of San Salvador resumed possession of the whole territory that had been ceded. Id., 37; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 165-7. Dunlop, Cent. Am., 187, says that the district occupied San Salvador and ten leagues of territory surrounding it. Squier's Travels, ii. 419; Crowe's Gospel, 136.

[VI-44] The opposition came not only from the serviles, but from not a few liberals. It contained many liberal and equable modifications. Marure, Efem., 37, says it did not contain 'las alteraciones sustanciales que reiteradas veces se habian propuesto por las legislaturas de los estados,' for which reason it was not accepted by the states, except Costa Rica, which expressed assent May 7, 1835. Squier, Travels, ii. 422, also says that only Costa Rica expressed an acceptance of the proposed constitution, adding that the opposing states wanted different, and in most cases irreconcilable, reforms. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 169-73, giving details, asserts that both Nicaragua and Costa Rica accepted the reforms.

[VI-45] The assembly of Guatemala decreed, after hearing several eulogistic motions, that all the state officials residing in the capital should wear the badge of mourning three days; that the bells of the churches should be tolled morning, noon, and eve of each day; that a portrait of Valle, contributed by the members of the legislature, should be placed in its hall of sessions; and that the other states should be requested to make manifestations of sorrow for the loss of their distinguished statesman and savant. Salvador, on the 9th of Apr., 1834, decreed similar honors. Marure, in his Efemérides, 35, bestows the highest praise on Valle. 'Perdió Centro América, con el fallecimiento del licenciado José del Valle, uno de sus mas distinguidos hijos.' This remark is followed by a sketch of Valle's career, which has been given by me elsewhere. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 95-9, also eulogizes Valle and gives his portrait.

[VI-46] It was so formally declared by the federal congress, Feb. 2, 1835, with the clause that he should be placed in possession of the office on the 14th. Id., 155-7.

[VI-47] Feb. 15, 1835. El Correo Atlántico, May 9, 1835.

[VI-48] The first colonists, 63 in all, arrived from London on the schooner Mary Ann Arabella, under a Mr Fletcher. Their settlement took the name of Abbotsville. Marure, Efem., 38.

[VI-49] Many of the immigrants died, while others returned to England or went to the West Indies, but few remaining. Dunlop, Cent. Am., 191, makes appropriate remarks on the 'infatuation in Europeans to attempt colonizing on pestiferous shores, under a burning sun, where no native of a temperate region, not even those of the interior of the same country, can enjoy tolerable health.' See also Astaburuaga's comments on the undertaking. Cent. Am., 25. A glowing and favorable account of the enterprise was issued as late as 1839. See Cent. Am., Brief Statement, 1 et seq.

[VI-50] On the 6th of March, 1837. Marure, Efem., 39; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 353.

[VI-51] B. Lambur, commissioned by Galvez, jefe of Guatemala, to report on the origin and progress of the disease, wrote from Aceituno April 3d: 'There can be no doubt that cholera came by way of Omoa to Gualan, thence went to Zacapa and to Esquipulas, this last-named town being the focus whence it has irradiated with such velocity to the towns at present infested.' Esquipulas is a species of Mecca which people from all parts of Central America and Mexico visit in January of each year, to worship an image of Christ, to which countless miracles have been attributed. In the Boletin de Noticias del Cólera of Apr. 4, 1837, appear the following words, 'En San Sur han muerto muchos romeristas de Esquipulas.' Id., 351-3. The fact is, that the disease had been doing havoc in the towns near the northern coast since Feb., and gradually spread throughout the rest of the state and republic till toward the end of the year, when it abated. The first case in the city of Guatemala occurred on the 19th of April. The mortality in that city during the invasion was 819, or a little over the 44th part of the population, which was much smaller than in other less populated cities. Marure, Efem., 40. See also Dunlop's Cent. Am., 193-4; Salv. Diario Ofic., Feb. 14, 1875; Rocha, Código Nic., i. 215-16; ii. 163-4.

[VI-52] Squier's Travels, ii. 427-8. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 370-2, gives copies of the documents that were circulated.

[VI-53] Such as making them swallow the contents of their medicine-chests, or pouring water down their throats till they died, a circumstance that was always looked upon as an evidence of guilt. Crowe's Gospel, 141. Montgomery, Guat., speaks of an Englishman who was nearly killed by the water torture inflicted by an enraged Indian mob.

[VI-54] On the plains of Ambelis, near Santa Rosa, accompanied with imprecations against the ley de jurados and the so-called 'envenenadores.' It was the beginning of a struggle which, in less than two years, wrought a complete change in public affairs. Marure, Efem., 41, copied by Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 353; Squier's Travels, ii. 428.

[VI-55] Tempsky, Mitla, 337, says that Carrera was born in Santa Rosa, misled probably by the circumstance that the first Indian outbreak under his lead occurred there. He was born about 1815 or 1816, and was the illegitimate offspring of Antonio Aycinena, a member of one of the chief families of Guatemala, and of Manuela Carrillo, a servant in the paternal mansion. Through the influence of the Aycinenas he was immediately after his birth adopted by one Juana Rosa Turcios, whose husband's name of Carrera the boy subsequently was given. Such is the version of the author of a manuscript written in July 1844, and entitled Orígen de Carrera, in Morazan y Carrera, no. 4, 1 et seq., the authenticity of which is made doubtful by some inaccuracies in other statements, the object evidently being to give Carrera's descent a little respectability. Stephens, Cent. Am., i. 225, says that in 1829 he was a drummer-boy, leaving the army after the capture of Guatemala by Morazan, and retiring to Mataquescuintla, where he became a pig-driver, or, as Montgomery, Guat., 143-4, has it, a dealer in hogs, having risen in the federal army as high as corporal. Dunlop, Cent. Am., 195, followed by Crowe's Gospel, 141, and Squier's Trav., ii. 429, essentially confirms Stephens' statements. Belly, Nic., i. 75, adds that Carrera was for a time employed in the plantation of a Frenchman named Laumonier, near La Antigua. Montúfar says of him: 'Un joven como de 25 años, sin ninguna educacion, ni conocimientos de ningun género, pues no conocia siquiera el abecedario. Los primeros años de su vida los empleó, ya de sirviente doméstico, ya de apacentador de cerdos, ya de peon en los trabajos de campo.' The same authority refers to Milla's eulogies of Carrera, where the words occur, 'Carrera á pesar de su falta de educacion, y de los hábitos de la vida del campo,' which might have secured for Milla lodgings in the dungeons of the castle of Guatemala. The same writer repeats the assertion often made against the jesuit Paul, later bishop of Panamá, and raised to the position of archbishop of Bogotá, that he said at Carrera's death, in his funeral oration, that the man whose corpse was descending into the tomb was on the right side of God the father. All repentant villains are given some such post-mortem place by sympathizing ministers of the gospel.

[VI-56] In the early days they assured the Indians that he was their protecting angel Rafael, and resorted to tricks to favor the delusion. Squier's Travels, ii. 429-30.

[VII-1] On the 15th of June. Marure, Efem., 41. Gen. Carrascosa's report of his victory, with details, in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 356-9.

[VII-2] Among the sufferers was Carrera's wife, which circumstance, it is said, awakened in him an implacable hatred. Stephens' Cent. Am., i. 226; Crowe's Gospel, 142. Montgomery, Guat., 144, states that Carrera was then commanding a few men of the military cordon established because of the epidemic, which he induced to rebel.

[VII-3] The hostilities now carried on partook more of the character of highway robbery than of orthodox war, both parties being plundered; but the liberals were the greater sufferers.

[VII-4] The provisional government constituted at La Antigua placed itself under the protection of the federal authorities. Marure, Efem., 42.

[VII-5] The division was created by José Francisco Barrundia. It is said that he joined the discontented because the jefe Galvez refused him a high office for one of his relatives. Stephens' Cent. Am., i. 227. But looking over the correspondence that passed between them in June 1837, the conclusion is that the cause of the disagreement was not a personal one. Barrundia opposed the convocation of the assembly to an extra session, and all the decrees enacted by it. The correspondence produced much sensation. Galvez ended accusing Barrundia of having adopted, when he was president of the republic, some measures similar to those he had now censured. The most serious charge against Barrundia was his persecution of Padre Rojas, to which the former answered that the priest had been at the head of the insurgents who proclaimed the Spanish domination on the Atlantic coast, and though outlawed for that offence, was not executed. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 377-407.

[VII-6] The battalion La Concordia mutinied on the 26th of January.

[VII-7] Stephens, loc. cit., places these events in February, but he is evidently mistaken. Marure, Efem., 43, gives the 29th of Jan. as the date.

[VII-8] At 4 P. M. of Jan. 28, 1838. Id., ii. 543.

[VII-9] Galvez well knew of the relations existing between Carrera and the revolutionists of La Antigua. The convention of Guarda Viejo would have saved the situation. Had the forces of the city, consisting of 411 men, been placed under Morazan, they with those of Sacatepequez would have been too strong for Carrera, and he would not have entertained the idea that a powerful party looked to him for aid.

[VII-10] Full details appear in Gen. Carrascosa's correspondence given in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 589-97.

[VII-11] Among them were Miguel García Granados, the brothers Arrivillaga, and their relations the Zepedas, together with the Barrundias.

[VII-12] He was in all this affair guided by the priests. Barrundia was accused throughout Central America of having brought about Carrera's invasion of the capital. The serviles, who were responsible for all Carrera's iniquities, have endeavored to place some of the odium on that patriot, who had nothing to do with it. Indeed, had Barrundia gone to Carrera's headquarters, he would probably have been shot. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 573; Squier's Travels, ii. 432.

[VII-13] The chiefs of Sacatepequez had become convinced of their inability to take the city, or even to properly besiege it.

[VII-14] Dunlop, Cent. Am., 198, and Crowe, Gospel, 143, erroneously say it was on the 30th of January.

[VII-15] Marure, Efem., 43, places this event on the 2d of Feb., 1838.

[VII-16] Carrera himself is described as having on a pair of coarse frieze trousers, and a fine coat with gold embroidery belonging to Gen. Prem, which had been taken by Monreal. For a chapeau the new general wore a woman's hat with a green veil, the property of Prem's wife, who was known as La Colombiana. In lieu of decorations Carrera had on his breast a number of 'escapularios del Cármen,' symbolizing the religion he had come to protect. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 574.

[VII-17] It seems that a large portion of the men and women had never seen a city before.

[VII-18] The physician Quirino Flores, who belonged to the opposition party, and was an intimate friend of Carrascosa and Carballo, believing that his house would be a place of safety, induced the vice-president and his family to use it. It so happened that a small force of Galvez entered the house, fired upon the invaders from the windows and retired. The men fired upon were not of the force from La Antigua, but some of Carrera's savage horde, called from that time 'cachurecos,' who rushed into the house, fired upon the family, wounding one of the women and a child, and killing José Gregorio Salazar, the vice-president. Salazar was born in San Salvador in 1793, and had two brothers, Cárlos, the general, and Francisco, who as a captain was killed in action on the 23d of June, 1834. José Gregorio Salazar was one of the leaders in whom Morazan reposed the highest trust. As senator, president of the senate, jefe of Salvador, vice-president of the republic, and acting executive at such times as Morazan assumed personal command of the troops, Salazar unswervingly supported progressive principles. His portrait shows a fine and intelligent face. The murder of the vice-president, instead of calling for execration on the part of the priests, Duran, Lobo, Nicolás Arellano, Antonio Gonzalez, and others, only brought out their diatribes against the victim. Id., 576-9.

[VII-19] It was found at first difficult to elicit a satisfactory answer from him. The pillaging, though not officially decreed, had been carried on mostly in the houses of foreigners. Charles Savage, U. S. consul at Guatemala, has been highly praised for his intrepidity in protecting from the infuriated Indians the foreign residents and their property. Montgomery's Guat., 146; Stephens' Cent. Am., i. 233-4.

[VII-20] There being no money in the treasury, it was borrowed from private persons. Stephens' Cent. Am., i. 227 et seq., copied by Larenaudière, Mexique et Guat., 298-9. The facts appear in the records of the asamblea.

[VII-21] Had he resisted, the reënforced troops of La Antigua would in all probability have defeated his undisciplined rabble. This would not have suited Father Duran and the other priests, who expected their own triumph through Carrera's success. Those same priests aided Barrundia and Valenzuela to rid the city of himself and his men. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 584.

[VII-22] The priest who seemed to exercise the greatest influence on Carrera was named Lobo, a man of dissolute character, who always accompanied him as a sort of counsellor.

[VII-23] Los Altos, Manif. Document., 1-28. The federal congress ratified the separation on the 5th of June, 1838; the departments were, however, reincorporated a year after. Marure, Efem., 43; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 198; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 28. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 9-23, furnishes a detailed account of the events preceding and following the separation. The provisional government then established was a triumvirate formed by Marcelo Molina, José M. Galvez, and José A. Aguilar.

[VII-24] Stephens, Cent. Am., i. 239-42, details some of the military movements, which are not of sufficient interest to reproduce here. Marure, Efem., 43-4, says that Morazan attacked the rebels on the hill of Mataquescuintla; 'pero despues de tres meses de combates, marchas, contramarchas, y todo género de maniobras, el ejército de operaciones tiene que replegarse á la capital ... sin haberse adelantado nada en la pacificacion de aquellos pueblos.'

[VII-25] On the 18th of June, 1838, the vice-jefe Valenzuela, and the deputies Pedro Molina, José Gándara, José F. Barrundia, Bernardo Escobar, Pedro Amaya, Felipe Molina, and Mariano Padilla, laid a paper before the federal congress on the war and its consequences. In this document they say, among other things, that it had been moved in the asamblea of Guatemala to authorize the restoration of the archbishop and of the religious orders, to abolish divorce, and to declare void the decrees of 1829, 'decretos que sostuvieron entónces la revolucion en favor de las instituciones y de la libertad.' They accuse the serviles of perversely attempting to render the representatives of liberalism and progress hateful in the eyes of the ignorant populace. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 47.

[VII-26] Arguments, cajolery, entertainments, and every other possible means were employed to induce him to swerve from the principles he had always upheld. Barrundia looked aghast on their proceedings, and describing them, says it is impossible to realize 'el envilecimiento, la miseria ruin de este partido noble aristocrático.' The haughty patricians, represented by Pavon, Batres, Aycinena, and their confreres, fawned at his feet, covered him with flowers, disgusted him with their flattery, feasted him to satiety, and patiently bore his contemptuous rebuffs as long as they hoped to win him over. After their failure, sarcasm, ridicule, and abuse were heaped upon him and his name. Had Morazan's morals been equal to those of the serviles, he might have accepted the dictatorship, assumed the full powers, and then crushed them; but he was an honest man, who always acted in good faith. Id., 175-9.

[VII-27] On the 30th of May it passed an act declaring the states free to constitute themselves as they might deem best, preserving, however, the popular representative form of government. This amendment to the 12th art. of the constitution of 1824 was accepted by all the states, excluding the restrictions contained in the federal decree of June 9, 1838, which was rejected by a majority of the legislatures. Marure, Efem., 44-5. The federal congress passed, on the 7th of July, 1838, an act as follows: 'The federated states of Cent. Am. are, and by right should be, sovereign, free, and independent political bodies.' Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 69.

[VII-28] It was the spontaneous act of the citizens of the capital, who, in view of the progress made by the rebels of Mita, deemed it necessary to provide for their own safety. Valenzuela resigned, on the 23d, the executive office into the hands of the asamblea. Marure, Efem., 45; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 181-5. Crowe, Gospel, 144, attributes to Morazan the authorship of the act adopted by the citizens.

[VII-29] On the 20th of July, 1838, he was required to give himself up; failing to do so, a reward was offered for his apprehension, alive or dead—$1,500 and two caballerías of land, besides a full pardon for any offences against the laws his captor or captors might have committed. Stephens' Cent. Am., i. 242.

[VII-30] Squier, Travels, ii. 435, says that Carrera entered Guatemala; he probably meant Old Guatemala, or La Antigua. Carrera, at Jalapa, had 2,000 men, while his opponent, Col Manuel Bonilla, had about 500. The latter were nearly annihilated. The few officers and soldiers who escaped with life found refuge in Salvador territory. Carrera's excesses at this time knew no bounds. He not only ravished women, but amused himself cutting off their tresses and ears. Some of these earless women entered the city of Guatemala, and their stories produced great indignation. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 204; Marure, Efem., 45.

[VII-31] This action took place early in the morning of Sept. 11th. Salazar at once despatched a courier to Guatemala with the news of his success, which caused the utmost joy. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 206-8; Marure, Efem., 46. Dunlop, Cent. Am., 201, asserts that no mercy was shown by the federal troops in this encounter. By a decree of Sept. 13, 1838, pensions were granted to the wounded, and to the widows and orphans of the slain federals. Badges of honor were also conferred on the survivors. Guat., Recop. Leyes, ii. 636-7.

[VII-32] This man's life was then spared, but some time afterward he was shot, for which the serviles called Morazan a murderer. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 208.

[VII-33] His resignation was made before the body of his officers, which implied a disregard of the authority of the government. The officers eluded all responsibility, alleging that they had nothing to do with his resignation. The government then revoked the extraordinary powers conferred on him two months previously. Marure, Efem., 46.

[VII-34] In the Observador and the Apéndice.

[VII-35] Exhortacion cristiana que el vicario capitular ... dirige á los pueblos, etc., 17 p.

[VII-36] Text of his funeral oration on the 14th of Sept. in honor of the slain on the government side at Villanueva, in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 216-21.

[VII-37] José Francisco Barrundia, who fought in that action, said: 'He [Carrera] could have been captured or annihilated had he been forthwith pursued; but no advantage was derived from such a glorious victory, and in a few days vandalism became again menacing.' Salazar was blamed, Montúfar thinks unjustly. According to him, the victorious troops were not in condition to pursue. This authority, partly on the testimony of Gen. Carballo, lays the blame on Rivera Paz, who had no interest in destroying a faction on which his party relied in the emergency of Morazan refusing his aid to the serviles. Morazan, on the 24th of Oct., declared martial law in portions of Guatemala, peremptorily refused to listen to the proposals of the recalcitrants, and marched to Guatemala, leaving the government in charge of the vice-president, Diego Vijil, whom congress had chosen to succeed the murdered Salazar. Id., 223-6.

[VII-38] His hordes committed all sorts of outrages in these departments of Salvador. Barrundia, in El Progreso of S. Salv., 1850, no. 3.

[VII-39] 'Les causó un descalabro de entidad la division del coronel Carballo.' Marure, Efem., 46.

[VII-40] Once he was almost starved to death on the top of a mountain, surrounded at its base by a large force; but owing to some neglect he escaped.

[VII-41] Stephens, Cent. Am., i. 244, erroneously has it that the delivery was to be of only 1,000 muskets.

[VII-42] The president of the republic ratified the agreement on the 25th of Dec.

[VII-43] The fact was that the arrangement at Rinconcito was prompted to Gen. Agustin Guzman by Manuel Pavon, whom he believed to be a friend that would give him nothing but honorable advice. He had good reason at a later date to think differently, when he was taken into Guatemala in rags, tied on a mule, as a trophy of Carrera's success. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 228-9.

[VII-44] After that Diego Vijil represented the unity in the federal district as vice-president. The conventicle of the four nobles, Pavon, Batres, and the two Aycinenas, had, however, during Rivera Paz's rule in Guatemala, arranged matters to their own satisfaction, in order to break up the union, having at their disposal the requisite number of municipal districts. Their emissaries supported the separation in Honduras and Nicaragua. Costa Rica was governed by Carrillo, a declared foe to Central American nationality. They were now working with Rivera Paz's successor, Gen. Cárlos Salazar, with almost a certainty of carrying their point. Salazar was a good soldier, but as a politician, without guile, and easily deceived. Id., 241-3.

[VII-45] And also to protect other states against all interference on the part of the late federal government. Full text of the convention in Cent. Am. Constitutions, no. 4, 1-5. By virtue of this arrangement, the combined forces of the two states invaded Salvador. Marure, Efem., 47. This treaty brought about Morazan's ruin, and the disruption of the federal union. Francisco Ferrera, commander of the forces of Honduras, himself made it known to Carrera, and it prompted the latter's rebellion on the 24th of March, 1839, and his march against Guatemala. It enabled Pavon, Batres, and the Aycinenas to take Carrera in triumph into that city on the 13th of Apr., 1839.

[VII-46] The jefe of Guatemala, on the 17th of April, 1839, declared the federal compact dissolved, and the resumption by the state of its absolute sovereignty. This declaration was ratified by the constituent assembly on the 14th of June of the same year. Guat. on the 11th of May entered into a treaty of amity and alliance with Honduras; on the 5th of June, 24th of July, and 1st of Aug., made similar treaties with Salv., Nic., and Costa R., respectively. July 1st, Hond. and Costa R. for the first time made a treaty of friendship and alliance as sovereign states. Aug. 10th was signed at Quezaltenango the first treaty of a similar nature between the new state of Los Altos and Salv. Marure, Efem., 48-50. Costa Rica had in Nov. 1838 assumed the plenitude of her sovereignty. In obedience to a decree of Braulio Carrillo, the supreme chief of the state, dated Aug. 4, 1838, her representatives and senators had left their seats in the federal congress. The state recognized its share of the federal debt and paid it at once. Carrillo's decree shows that the Costa Ricans were dissatisfied with the inequality of their representation in the national lower house, where Guatemala had 19 more deputies than Nicaragua, 17 more than Honduras, 15 more than Salvador, and 23 more than Costa Rica, which had only four representatives in the 'congreso,' as the lower house was called. The representation in the senate was equal to that of the other states; but if the latter chamber refused its sanction to any bill adopted, the former could, under the 83d art. of the constitution, make it a law by three fourths of the votes present. Thus was Costa Rica made a nonentity in the legislative body. There were other reasons for complaint. By a good management of her finances, Costa Rica always had available resources, and punctually paid her contingent to the national treasury in money. She was therefore taxed while virtually without representation. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 266-73, 310, 313-41.

[VII-47] It was a force from Leon, under Col B. Mendez, who had entered by the frontier of San Miguel. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 292-3.

[VII-48] The allied commander was Francisco Ferrera, an Hondureño, who had been connected with the incendiaries of Comayagua. This victory was mainly due to Morazan's daring. He was seriously wounded in the right arm. Col Benitez, who was a Colombian, was slain. Marure, Efem., 48; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 293-5.

[VII-49] Brigadier Cabañas occupied the capital Aug. 28th. He defeated the Hondurans at Cuesta Grande Sept. 6th, and then entered Tegucigalpa. On the 25th, after quelling a revolt which took place on the 16th, in San Salvador, Morazan was again victorious at San Pedro Perulapan with 600 Salvadorans over a double force of Hondurans and Nicaraguans, who, under Ferrera, had entered that town on their way to San Salvador, to destroy the 'simulacro de gobierno federal que existia aun en aquella capital.' Cabañas triumphed again at Soledad on Nov. 13th. Marure, Efem., 48-51; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 354-6, 446.

[VII-50] Ferrera was without a command for some time, owing to his continual defeats. Quijano was another 'notabilidad del partido servil aristocrático.'

[VII-51] Cabañas' official report of Feb. 3d from San Antonio del Sauce says that the enemy's force being superior, he had resolved to retire to San Miguel in Salv. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 451-2.

[VII-52] Stephens, Cent. Am., i. 245, quaintly remarks, 'It must have been quite new to him, and a satisfaction to find out what principles he sustained.'

[VII-53] Among them were Mariscal and Del Rio. War had been declared between Guatemala and Salvador. The fiction of Atescatempa, Carrera's proclamations against Morazan the chief magistrate of Salv., the movement of the 16th of Sept., 1839, against the lawful authorities of Salvador prompted and aided by Carrera, the destruction of Los Altos the friend and ally of Salv., and many other causes, constituted a real state of war. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 456.

[VII-54] Their head men sought refuge with the nuns of La Concepcion.

[VII-55] Made up exclusively of Indians, as Carrera wanted no white soldiers or officers. Stephens' Cent. Am., ii. 111.

[VII-56] The worshippers of Carrera have said that he intentionally allowed Morazan to enter the city, with the view of besieging him, which is absurd. The city was full of war material, and was plentifully supplied with meat.

[VII-57] His officers who distinguished themselves in the operations were Generals Cabañas and Rivas, colonels Antonio Rivera Cabezas and Ignacio Malespin, and Lieut-col Bernardo Rivera Cabezas.

[VII-58] Carrera's official report is dated at Guatemala on the 23d of March. He does not speak of the assassination of Col Sanchez, Morazan's aide-de-camp, by order of his brother, Sotero Carrera; nor of the wanton massacre of many others; nor of the maltreatment of women, followers of the Salvadoran camp, which caused the French consul to raise his voice in protest. Carrera gave full sway to his ferocious instincts on that day, taking the greatest delight in butchering the vanquished. Many of the pursued sought an asylum in the house of Chatfield, the British consul, and a word from him on their behalf would have saved their lives; but he did not utter it, and they were put to death. Id., 460-7; Marure, Efem., 52.

[VII-59] Their hatred against Morazan was shown in their cries, accompanying those of 'Viva la religion! Guanacos, entreguen á ese canalla, entreguen á ese hereje; nosotros, defendemos á Dios y á sus santos.' They called their opponents 'guanacos, pirujos, malvados, ladrones,' and declared that they were going to bring back the archbishop, and the friars who were sent away in 1829.

[VII-60] Stephens, who was then on his way from San Salvador to Guatemala, met the defeated troops, and in his Cent. Am., ii. 69 et seq., gives a graphic description.

[VII-61] Miguel Álvarez Castro, José Miguel Saravia, Isidro Menendez, Cárlos Salazar, Máximo Orellana, Nicolás Angulo, Trinidad Cabañas, Enrique Rivas, Gerardo Barrios, Pedro Molina, with his sons Felipe and José, and his son-in-law Manuel Irungaray, Antonio and Bernardo Rivera Cabezas, José M. Silva, Máximo, Tomás and Indalecio Cordero, Antonio Lazo, and others. Pedro Molina refused to go at first, but was prevailed on by his sons and son-in-law, who saw that his fate would be sealed if he remained. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 484.

[VII-62] Pedro Molina and his sons Felipe and José, Manuel Irungaray, Isidro Menendez, Gen. Enrique Rivas, Doroteo Vasconcelos, Gerardo Barrios, Indalecio Cordero, José Prado, Dámaso Lonza, and others. They were made afterward the objects of abuse on the part of Carrillo and his coarse wife, Froilana Carranza. Id., iii. 600-1.

[VII-63] July 16, 1841. He details the acts of the serviles, enemies of their country's independence and freedom. Carrera's career of crime is also fully discussed. Morazan, Manif., in Id., 585-96; Id., in Cent. Am. Pap., no. 3.

[VII-64] The serviles had said that they waged war, not against Salvador, but against Morazan.

[VII-65] The embassy brought an escort of 200 men, and Salvador had to pay all the expense. See the note of Minister Manuel Barberena to the minister-general of Guatemala, dated May 18, 1840. Carrera was lodged in one of the best houses of Salvador, and his deportment clearly indicated what his early training had been. His first diplomatic utterances were threats, and the general conduct of himself and his soldiers was so abusive that the people of the liberal district of Calvario in San Salvador finally resolved to fall upon and annihilate them. Cañas saw the danger, and called to it the attention of Duran, who prevailed on his colleague to leave the state with his troops. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 487-8, 492.

[VII-66] The convention was signed by Joaquin Duran, secretary of the sup. gov., and Lieut-gen. Rafael Carrera, on the part of Guatemala, and by Manuel Barberena and Juan Lacayo for Salvador. Under art. 1st Salvador was not to have in office any man who had coöperated with Morazan. Art. 2d required of Salvador to surrender to Guatemala a number of persons, named in a list furnished, to be retained until Salvador should be fully reorganized. Art. 3d forbids Salvador to permit the return to its territory of any of the persons who went away with Morazan. Should any return, they must be given up to Guatemala, as prescribed in the 2d article. Art. 4th and 7th refer to the return of certain armament and of prisoners of war taken in the action of 18th and 19th of March last. Art. 5th says that the constituent assembly of Salvador having been called, her government must see at once to the appointment of deputies to the convention which was to organize the republic. Under art. 6th Salvador agreed that Guatemala and the other states should appoint agents, who, together with her own, were to have in their charge the archives and other effects of the federation. Id., 489-91.

[VIII-1] Guat. Recop. Leyes, i. 42, 62-9, 178.

[VIII-2] The title given the chief magistrate was that of jefe. That of president was not decreed till Nov. 29, 1839. Marure, Efem., 51.

[VIII-3] He is represented as a man of excitable temperament and harsh manners. He was a brother of José Francisco Barrundia.

[VIII-4] The prelate of the order was summoned to the palace of the federal government, and a compromise was agreed to. Meantime the mob had assembled, shouting, 'Mision queremos! Viva la religion! Muera la herejía! Mueran los que no quieren misiones!' Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 182-3.

[VIII-5] It was solemnly promulgated Dec. 26, 1825. This constitution was in full force till the meeting of a second constituent assembly, when it ceased to rule. Marure, Efem., 15; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 201-2.

[VIII-6] Vera Paz with Peten; Chiquimula, Guatemala, and Escuintla; Sacatepequez with Chimaltenango; Suchitepequez with Sololá; Quezaltenango and Soconusco; Totonicapan and Huehuetenango. Id., 463-70.

[VIII-7] Barrundia induced seven of the deputies to abandon their seats, and to protest against resolutions enacted by the legislature after they had quitted it. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 242.

[VIII-8] This step was taken Sept. 6, 1826. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 260; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 53-4. A demand from the fed. gov. to muster out the troops was refused in round terms.

[VIII-9] He had once been a resident there, and knew it to be the most bigoted place in all Cent. Am. Liberal ideas had not taken much root there, and fanaticism ruled.

[VIII-10] He afterward attempted to recover his office, but the course events had taken impeded it. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 57-8.

[VIII-11] A creole from Sto Domingo, who had been formerly a federal officer; but having been arbitrarily removed from the position, he joined the state cause.

[VIII-12] Near Quezaltenango he endeavored to capture his former command, now under Manuel Montúfar, but the latter escaped. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 55-6. He had been forewarned by some serviles of Quezaltenango of the ambuscade prepared for him. Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 262.

[VIII-13] Abandoning the plan he had formed of attacking the federals under Francisco Cáscaras.

[VIII-14] He allowed four hours for the surrender: 'si en el término de cuatro horas, no efectúan Vds. lo referido, la hermosa ciudad de Quezaltenango desaparecerá.' Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 288; Id., Efem., 18; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 57-8.

[VIII-15] Among them, one of Oct. 19, 1826, to punish attempts at propagating sedition among the soldiers; another, of Oct. 25th, to impose the penalty of death on all Guatemalans taking up arms against the state government. Gaz. de Méx., Dec. 14, 1826; El Indicador de Guat., of same year, no. 106; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 248-50.

[VIII-16] Afraid of falling into the hands of the federal troops then marching toward Los Altos, he retired to Retalhuleu, where he lived till 1829.

[VIII-17] Oct. 28, 1826. Cáscaras' vainglorious report is in Guat., Gac. Gob., Nov. 2, 1826, and Méx. Gac. Gob., Dec. 14, 1826; Marure, Efem., 18; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 59-60.

[VIII-18] All persons affording them aid were declared, on the 5th of March, guilty of high treason. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 250-4. Decree reiterated March 28, 1827; Marure, Efem., 19.

[VIII-19] All authorities agree that the execution was effected upon the mere order of Aycinena, the then jefe of Guat., and without legal formalities. Arce, Mem., 68; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 70; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 16; Squier's Travels, ii. 397. This last-named writer severely condemns the affected piety of Aycinena, who made confession before a priest and took the communion before signing the death-warrant. In 1829 the liberal party awarded extraordinary honors to Pierzon's memory, ordering that his name should be placed by the side of Cirilo Flores, with this inscription, 'Viva el ilustre Coronel Pierzon en el corazon de los buenos patriotas.' Marure, Efem., 19.

[VIII-20] Aycinena retained his position uninterruptedly till the 12th of Apr., 1829, when he was deposed by Morazan. A legislative act expatriated him, and he was in exile till early in 1836, when he returned to the bosom of his family; but a second legislative order compelled him to leave the country again. Finally, an amnesty decree of July 25, 1838, restored him to his country in Sept. Marure, Efem., 18, 61. Mariano Córdoba was chosen, in March 1827, vice-jefe, and when he resigned the office, Manuel Montúfar was called to succeed him. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 60.

[VIII-21] It was the first of its class in Cent. Am., but by no means the last.

[VIII-22] Lieut Isidro Velazquez was executed March 30, 1827.

[VIII-23] Leniency toward the proscribed Antonio Rivera Cabezas, whose death-penalty he had commuted to exile, and prohibition of certain books, pursuant to decrees of the ecclesiastical authorities, were among the chief causes which alienated him many of his former supporters. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 236; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 114. On the 6th of December, 1828, he ordered such books to be burned. Marure, Efem., 22.

[VIII-24] It purposed with this measure, which turned out to be unavailing, to remove one of the obstacles to the termination of the war by means of a peaceful arrangement.

[VIII-25] They were reëlected, though succeeding events prevented the counting of the votes. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 115.

[VIII-26] A revolt at Quezaltenango, Nov. 5, 1828, had been summarily suppressed. Marure, Efem., 22.

[VIII-27] The districts of Sacatepequez and Escuintla recognized the authorities that were installed in La Antigua.

[VIII-28] His brother José Francisco having been made acting president, he resigned for the second time the office of jefe, urging obvious reasons, but he was required by the assembly to continue discharging his duties till the election should have been effected. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 167-9.

[VIII-29] The dispersed representative council of 1826 had been reorganized at La Antigua Feb. 11, 1829, and its senior member, Mariano Zenteno, recognized as acting jefe of the state.

[VIII-30] This body voted Morazan a gold medal, and declared him a benemérito. It also decreed that his portrait should be placed in the hall of sessions. This, however, was a spark of enthusiasm which died out.

[VIII-31] Nicolás Espinosa presided, as he had done at the last sitting at San Martin Jilotepec, Sept. 26, 1826.

[VIII-32] Cayetano de la Cerda was the administrador de recursos, and he acted without restriction. Mariano Galvez, Barrundia's secretary of state, is credited with the invention of the financial schemes by the author of Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 136-7.

[VIII-33] Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 131-3, 143-51.

[VIII-34] Antonio Rivera Cabezas was chosen vice-jefe in March 1830. He was succeeded by Gregorio Marquez in Feb. 1831; Francisco X. Flores was consejero Aug. 1831.

[VIII-35] Molina was impeached on trivial and inconsistent charges by the legislative body. Twice tried and twice acquitted; but meantime the term for which he was chosen had expired, and new elections were ordered. Marure, Efem., 61. Full details of the trials in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 205-17, 229-33.

[VIII-36] Rivera Cabezas wielded a powerful pen, and in a playful way ridiculed the servile party. His Don Meliton dialogues did it more harm than José del Valle with his grave and erudite speeches in congress. He won himself the bitter hatred of that party. The political change of 1839 placed him in the hands of his enemies, and he lost much of his property. He left the country, but family affairs necessitated his return some years after. In his last years his intellectual faculties declined, and the serviles no longer feared him, but their hatred remained, and their insults and abuse hastened his death. His portrait is also given. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 235-7, 246.

[VIII-37] The most violent felt since 1773. Marure, Efem., 26.

[VIII-38] Several buildings were damaged, among them the churches of Santa Teresa, San Francisco, and Recoletos. Since the end of March shocks had been experienced in the vicinity of the Pacaya volcano, several villages being almost entirely reduced to ruins. Id.

[VIII-39] The nun Teresa called them the effects of God's displeasure for the banishment of the archbishop and friars. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 225-6.

[VIII-40] The liberals were certain that with Morazan at the head of the federal government, and Barrundia as chief of Guatemala, there would be no disagreements. Barrundia now made a cession for the benefit of public instruction of nearly $7,000—due him for salaries during the time he acted as president. This was a generous act on the part of a man who had no private fortune. He later ceded one half of his senatorial pay for the same purpose. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 273-6.

[VIII-41] Galvez was reëlected Feb. 9, 1835, and held the position till Feb. 2, 1838, when he was forced to resign it. During his first term Simon Vasconcelos was vice-jefe, and Juan Ant. Martinez consejero; during the second, Pedro J. Valenzuela, who superseded him; Mariano Sanchez de Leon was consejero in 1836, and Mariano Rivera Paz in July 1838. The latter also held the executive office. Salv., Gac., Oct. 12, 1854; Marure, Efem., 43, 45, 61-2.

[VIII-42] Galvez was not in league with the clergy or aristocracy, on one side; nor with Barrundia or Morazan, on the other. He wanted to form a party of which he should be the sole chief. This prompted him to oppose all parties, and brought upon him many reproaches.

[VIII-43] In July 1832 tithes were abolished. On the 16th of Sept. an academy of sciences, to take the place of the old university, was established, and to it were attached the colegio de abogados, and the protomedicato. This academy was suppressed March 6, 1840, and the university of old was restored. Marure, Efem., 32. Among other measures were the reduction of holidays to seven, aside from Sundays, and the prohibition of religious processions in the streets on working days. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 307-19, ii. 76-84.

[VIII-44] Even the offspring of priests were to be reputed as legitimate in cases of inheritance, where the father had died intestate. Id., ii. 346-7.

[VIII-45] This blow at the church was not favorably received by the people, and in July 1838 the resolution was suspended.

[VIII-46] They made the Indians believe that the cholera was the effect of Galvez and his friends having poisoned the springs, 'para destruir hombres que detestaba y poblaciones que aborrecia.' Id., ii. 349.

[VIII-47] It was constantly brought forward that while other states had seceded from the confederation, Guatemala alone had contributed to the common budget, and furnished the national executive arms and money to wage war against the rebellious states.

[VIII-48] Martial law was proclaimed Jan. 16, 1838, in the departments of Sacatepequez and Guatemala. Two days later La Antigua rebelled, appointing a provisional government, and subsequently Chiquimula and Salamá followed the movement. Marure, Efem., 42-3; Squier's Travels, ii. 431; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 858-9.

[VIII-49] The provisional government was placed in charge of Marcelo Molina, José M. Galvez, and José A. Aguilar. The assembly of Guatemala simply referred the matter to the federal congress, which recognized the new state. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 9-23; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 43.

[VIII-50] Marure, Efem., 47.

[VIII-51] The state comprised, on the north, the districts of Huehuetenango, Sacapulas, Malacatan, Tejutla, Cuilco, Jacaltenango, and Sololá, together with all the territory between the river Pasion and Chiapas, to where it touched the undefined boundaries of Tabasco and Yucatan; on the west, Ostuncalco and San Márcos; on the south, Cuyotenango and Mazatenango; on the east, Atitlan, Sololá, Joyabaj, Quiché; and in the centre, Totonicapan and Quezaltenango. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 391-3.

[VIII-52] Dated July 12, 1839. Id., 394-7.

[VIII-53] Galvez, José F. and Juan Barrundia, Simon Vasconcelos, and others.

[VIII-54] On the 28th of Jan. a body of Quezaltec troops, under Colonel Corzo, was defeated by the Guatemalans, under Gen. Monterrosa. It had been stationed in the hacienda of Bejucal, with the double object of guarding on the coast side the territory of Los Altos, and of forming a combination with the men of Salvador, who were about to invade Guatemala from the river Paz frontier. The treatment of the fugitives by the Indians was shocking. Corzo and Lieut-col Córdoba perished at their hands. Carrera, after defeating, on the 29th of Jan., the Quezaltec troops that attempted to check him on the heights of Sololá, entered Quezaltenango unresisted, and put an end to that state. Its towns were taken under Guatemalan protection, on the fiction of their voluntary annexation, by decree of Feb. 26, 1840. Marure, Efem., 52; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 43-50.

[VIII-55] It was claimed that Carrera could not prevent these abuses, which were committed by the very people of Los Altos who rose against the partisans of the government. The fact is, they were savage Indians under Carrera's protection. This chief returned in triumph to Guatemala, and was received amid the plaudits of his clerico-aristocratic supporters and the rabble. His victorious army brought in the rear the armament and spoils of Quezaltenango, and upwards of 100 prisoners, among them Guzman, Mariscal, and Soto. The first named was wounded, and tied to a mule. The rabble made him the special object of their scoff. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 439-41.

[VIII-56] Deprived of the office Jan. 30, 1839; restored Apr. 13th of the same year; held it till Dec. 13, 1841. May 14, 1842, he assumed for the third time the executive office, with the title of president of the state. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 175; Marure, Efem., 61-2. Stephens, who saw Rivera Paz in 1840, speaks well of him, saying that 'in all the trying positions in which he was afterward placed, he exhibited more than ordinary prudence and judgment.' Cent. Am., i. 201.

[VIII-57] The 3d and last art. contained these words: 'Un olvido general sobre todos los acontecimientos políticos desde el quince de Setiembre de mil ochocientos veintiuno hasta la fecha; y se prohiba rigurosamente removerlos con ningun motivo.' Further than this, José F. Barrundia had moved that the initiative should be made urgent, and voted on without being referred to a committee. Montúfar, who gives full details on this affair, blames Barrundia for his excessive generosity and abnegation, which, he declares, always turned to the prejudice of that statesman and his party. He wanted his enemies pardoned, and to enjoy all personal guarantees, but there was no spirit of reciprocity on their part. When the serviles assumed the reins of power, they invariably abused and persecuted Barrundia. He was not only sent into exile, but insulted there in publications they would forward him. Reseña Hist., iii. 188-90.

[VIII-58] The executive was authorized to support the petition of the clergy in order that the diocese should have a bishop, and permitted that he should appropriate a portion of the public funds to that end. No mention was made of the person who was to be bishop. The idea was to flatter the several clergymen who were with Carrera hoping to earn a mitre. July 25th the people were called to elect a constituent assembly, of not less than fifty members, to reform, add to, or retain in whole or in part the constitution of Guatemala. This decree was supported by the liberals, who foolishly believed that their party would have the power to reconstitute the state. The serviles hailed it, being sure of controlling the situation with Rivera Paz at the head of the government, and three servile wings as his counsellors. Reactionary deputies would be plentiful in the constitutional convention. The capitation tax was reduced to four reales. The assembly, now converted into a law-maker by steam, on the 26th of July revoked the laws establishing civil marriage and divorce, freedom to bequeath property, reduction of the number of holidays, and the further admission of religious vows. Id., 190-2.

[VIII-59] He ruled 2½ months, at the end of which he had to seek safety in flight, on Carrera occupying the capital. Marure, Efem., 48, 62.

[VIII-60] The former political order of affairs now came to an end, and a new era began under Carrera's auspices. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 207.

[VIII-61] The texts of the several treaties may be seen in Convencion, in Cent. Am. Constituciones, 5-25, 28-31; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 382-95.

[VIII-62] Honors were paid to Carrera and Rivera Paz. Their portraits were to be placed in the hall of sessions. Marure, Efem., 53. A few days later the 19th of March was decreed a civic feast-day. Guat., Recop. Leyes, iii. 348.

[VIII-63] Act of Nov. 9, 1840. Id., 286.

[VIII-64] Not at Aguanqueterique, as the federal congress had decreed. Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 13; Marure, Efem., 10. The last named, in his Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., 148, gives the name as Leypateric.

[VIII-65] Comayagua, Tegucigalpa, Gracias, Santa Bárbara, Olancho, Yoro, and Choluteca.

[VIII-66] Irias excommunicated Herrera, and the latter had him arrested. Both had many adherents.

[VIII-67] Arce claims that Gracias had called for the protection. Mem., 64-5; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 61. The truth is, he had no right to exercise jurisdiction there, the place not being on the frontier nor on the coast. Morazan, Apuntes, MS., 6.

[VIII-68] Herrera had a force to defeat Milla, but refrained from using it, in order that Honduras should not be accused of beginning hostilities against the national government. Id., 7.

[VIII-69] Marure, Efem., 19, gives the 10th as the date. Dunlop, Cent. Am., 169, gives March 10th. Morazan attributes the surrender to the commander's treachery. Apuntes, MS., 8.

[VIII-70] Cleto Bendaña was made jefe provisional in Sept. 1827, Francisco Morazan being consejero in Nov. of that year. Marure, Efem., 63.

[VIII-71] See his Apuntes, MS., 9-10.

[VIII-72] There was a sedition of the serviles, headed by Father Rivas and others, which was concluded by a peaceable arrangement with Morazan. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 191-3, 196.

[VIII-73] Martinez and Cori, implicated in a plot with negroes of Belize and Bacalar, and others were executed May 25, 1833. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 132.

[VIII-74] They mostly affected the clergy. Marure, Efem., 23-7, 35-6.

[VIII-75] Resulting from various causes. A law providing for a provisional currency checked foreign trade. In the interior it was at 50 per ct discount. A decree establishing a single tax never could be carried out. The abolition of tithes was a measure which caused trouble. Timid or fanatical rulers were afraid of 'cuatro canónigos viejos de Comayagua que amenazaban con el salmo 108 y las penas del infierno,' and fanaticism soon brought about the restoration of the tithes. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 277.

[VIII-76] This was the second constituent assembly, and its first president was José Santiago Buezo. The town of Tegucigalpa demanded absolute independence, declaring itself seceded and under the protection of Nicaragua until it should be declared. This was the work of the returned reactionists. Id., 279-82.

[VIII-77] 'Art. Único. El estado de Honduras es libre, soberano, é independiente.' It was published by the acting jefe, Leon Alvarado. The declaration being deemed insufficient by the secessionists, another act was passed on the 5th of Nov., to say that Honduras was independent of the late federal government, of the governments of the other states of Cent. Am., and of any other government or foreign power. Id., 282; Marure, Efem., 47.

[VIII-78] Tegucigalpa had been twice taken, and Comayagua once, by the federal forces. Id., 50-1.

[VIII-79] Gerónimo Zelaya, primer jefe, June 1828. His authority was never recognized outside of Santa Bárbara. His election was finally declared null, like all others effected pursuant to the convention by the president of the republic. Diego Vijil, vice-jefe, Apr. 1829. Juan Angel Arias, consejero, Dec. 1829. José Santos del Valle, consejero, July 1830. José Ant. Marquez, jefe, March 1831. Francisco Milla, consejero, March 1832. Joaquin Rivera, jefe, Jan. 1833 to Dec. 31, 1836. During his term, owing to illness, the executive was temporarily in charge of F. Ferrera, the vice-jefe, in Sept. 1833, and of J. M. Bustillo, consejero, in Sept. 1835. The latter was again in power as acting president in Aug. 1839. Ferrera again held the executive in Jan. 1841, with the title of president of the state. J. M. Martinez, consejero, Jan. 1837. Justo José Herrera, jefe, May 1837. Leon Alvarado, consejero, Oct. 1838. Felipe Medina, José Alvarado, and Lino Matute are also mentioned as having had charge of the executive in Nov. 1838; the last named till Jan. 1839. Juan F. Molina, consejero, Jan. 1839. José M. Guerrero, consejero, May 1839. Francisco Zelaya, consejero, Sept. 1839. Id., 63; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 133-6, 325-31; iii. 282-3.

[IX-1] March 5, 1824, the local constituent assembly met, and on the 4th of July, the state constitution, decreed on the 12th of June, was published, and its support sworn to. Marure, Efem., 10-11.

[IX-2] Sonsonate had always belonged to Guatemala, but was annexed to Salvador on the return of the auxiliary force that was despatched to the former in 1823 to quell Ariza's revolt, of which I have given an account. By intrigue and force, the inhabitants were made to declare in favor of Salvador. The region was later attached to the latter, though the change of jurisdiction has never been formally acknowledged by Guatemala. Some time after there was a plan of creating, with Sonsonate and Santa Ana, a separate state, but the federal congress did not sanction it. Marure, Bosq. Hist., i. 149.

[IX-3] He assumed his office Dec. 13, 1824. During the period of organization the executive was in charge of Juan Manuel Rodriguez, who bore the title of director. Id., Efem., 13, 62; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 32.

[IX-4] At this time Salvador became the asylum of the liberal party.

[IX-5] Arce alleged that Molina and others had induced Villacorta to believe he was the only man who could right political wrongs; but he found he could not do this, and so resigned. Mem., 60-1.

[IX-6] Convents were abolished March 1, 1830. A college was established in July of the following year; and the state seemed to have recovered from the losses of the late war.

[IX-7] Cornejo could not be in accord with the federal authorities; he was a servile, and in league with their enemies. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 334.

[IX-8] The executive authority was held for a while by Morazan himself. Marure, Efem., 30, 62.

[IX-9] To accept the position he resigned the vice-presidency of the republic. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 6.

[IX-10] Tithes had been suppressed and trial by jury introduced.

[IX-11] The public archives and artillery were to be also removed. The comandante-general was to remain behind with four cannons and 200 muskets.

[IX-12] He had lost his wearing apparel, and in his smallclothes, and with a travelling cloak on, he took charge of the government. Id., 20. He was chosen by the assembly first jefe on the 1st of July, 1833. In June 1834 he was removed from office and expelled. Marure, Efem., 36, 62; Guat., Gaceta, Dec. 22, 1854, 7.

[IX-13] Aquino was a perfect savage, and invoked religion, as did Carrera somewhat later. He once entered San Vicente with the crown of an image of St Joseph on his head. His mode of sentencing prisoners to death was expeditious. The victim was placed before a group of his men, who were told he was their enemy. 'Shoot him,' they would say, and the thing was done. Aquino was in league with the serviles, but as they could not manage him, they persecuted their crowned ally. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 21.

[IX-14] Crowe, Gospel, 135, and Squier, Travels, ii. 420-1, erroneously place it in 1832.

[IX-15] The defeat of San Martin by Gen. Espinosa was at Jiquilisco. Guat., Boletin Ofic., 507-9. San Martin was now forsaken by Galvez, the jefe of Guatemala. In his old age he used to complain of 'las inconsecuencias del Doctor Galvez.' Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 27.

[IX-16] The latter ruled only from July to Oct., when he was temporarily succeeded, first by the consejero, Joaquin Escolan, and then by the vice-jefe, José M. Silva, the same month. Nicolás Espinosa became jefe in Apr. 1835, and was driven away in the following November, being accused of promoting a war of races, the consejero Francisco Gomez being his successor on the 13th of Nov. The next rulers were: Diego Vijil, Apr. 1836; Timoteo Menendez, vice-jefe, Sept. 1836; Antonio J. Cañas, consejero, May 1839. Marure, Efem., 62; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 193.

[IX-17] Carrera contemplated becoming the ruler of Central America, but had to abandon his plan on Nicaragua and Honduras forming a league against him. His Indians were not so efficient when off from their native ground. _Squier's Travels_, ii. 441-2.

[IX-18] Sept. 23, 1840. He had ruled since Apr. 8th of the same year. Salv., Diario Ofic., Feb. 14, 1875. The revolutionary movement of Sept. 20th for his removal was promoted by Francisco Malespin, Carrera's tool, and a man who wielded a fatal influence in Salvador till Gen. Joaquin E. Guzman rid the country of him. Malespin was then acting for Carrera, who feared that a revolution of the Calvario ward of San Salvador would upset Cañas, who was without influence, and could no longer be useful to the aristocrats of Guat. Such a revolution would create a liberal government, and might bring back Morazan. Cañas was put out of the way that his place might be occupied by a servile tool. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 499.

[IX-19] He held the position only to the end of 1840. His successors with the same title were Juan Lindo, Jan. 1841; Pedro Arce, Apr. 1841; Senator Escolástico Marin, Feb. 1842. Marure, Efem., 62.

[IX-20] 'En la ulterior contienda de los partidos políticos de esta Provincia, pues, no se encuentran mas que pasiones; las calificaciones de realistas, imperialistas, ó serviles solo servian para autorizar la persecucion.' Ayon, Ap., 25.

[IX-21] April 17, 1823.

[IX-22] This movement was the precursor of the great calamities that were to befall Nicaragua. Marure, Efem., 9.

[IX-23] The troops and the mob in Leon, on the 4th of May, deposed him, and placed his office in charge of the alcalde, Pablo Melendez, who in his turn was overthrown a few days later by another sedition headed by Ordoñez.

[IX-24] The villas of Managua and Nicaragua refused to recognize the revolutionary government at the capital, and established a junta gubernativa at the first-named town.

[IX-25] It was formed with the chief men of the 'partido de Managua.'

[IX-26] By order of Gen. Manuel José Arce, who afterward entered Leon. Details of battles and actions during this unhappy period of Nicaraguan history may be found in Marure, Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am., i. 151-6; Id., Efem., 11-12, 75; Ayon, Apuntes, 28-36; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 160-2.

[IX-27] In the previous year Martin Arzú had been sent as a commissioner to restore peace in Nicaragua. He was ordered to use gentle means, but to employ force against parties opposing him. To support him, 500 Hondurans were stationed at Choluteca. He arrived after the siege of Leon had begun, and endeavored on the spot to bring about an arrangement between the belligerents; but he was treated disrespectfully by the besiegers, and even arrested and threatened with death by Salas. He afterward declared the junta at El Viejo revolutionary, and that its commands should be disregarded. After that he conducted the defence of Leon. Marure, Bosq., i. 157-9.

[IX-28] In the latter part of 1828 he was shot, under the sentence of a court-martial convened by order of the vice-jefe Argüello. Id., Efem., 63-4.

[IX-29] Its support was sworn to on the last day of that month.

[IX-30] The first representative council, or senate, was inaugurated at the same place on the 26th of Oct., 1826. Id., 18.

[IX-31] Cerda would not, however, lay down his power, and continued exercising it at Managua. Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 43.

[IX-32] The dissolution was 'á consecuencia de una sedicion promovida por el Vice-jefe del mismo Estado Sr Juan Argüello.' Marure, Efem., 18.

[IX-33] On the 14th of Sept., 1827. This was his third or fourth effort; all fruitless, however. Id., 20.

[IX-34] He foretold at the time that 'muy luego vería el congreso arder otra vez la tea de la discordia en aquel Estado.' Arce, Mem., 17.

[IX-35] Their project involved the annexation of Nicaragua to Colombia. Los Anales, 1872, 54.

[IX-36] He now proposed to surrender the government to Argüello or some one else. His friends dissuaded him, and he was finally the victim of treachery.

[IX-37] His friends had obtained that the trial should be at Granada, but the mob at Rivas opposed his removal at the moment of departure. Id., 63.

[IX-38] Nov. 29, 1828. It is said that the vice-jefe, Argüello, decreed a suspension of the sentence; but purposely delayed the courier, so that the reprieve arrived too late at Rivas. A full biography of Cerda, with scattered historical items, is given in Id., 29-72, passim.

[IX-39] The installation of the assembly was on Nov. 1, 1829. The elections had been decreed by the vice-jefe, Argüello, and his act, as well as the elections effected under it, were on the 23d of May, 1830, declared to be legitimate. Rocha, Cód. Nic., i. 80. Herrera had been inducted in office on the 12th of May. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 199-203.

[IX-40] The services of the Nicaraguans were recognized by both the federal president and the state assembly. Honors were decreed to the survivors, and pensions to the wounded, and to the widows and orphans of the dead. Rocha, Cód. Nic., i. 214-15.

[IX-41] This last action was attributed by the revolutionists to Herrera's machinations and Morazan's influence; but the truth was, that the people recognized Herrera's services as the pacificator, and his good qualifications as a ruler. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 31-2.

[IX-42] A detailed account of this revolt is given in the Centro Americano, 89-97. It is said that a number of medals were found of tortoise-shell, gold, and other metals, with the image of Fernando VII., and bearing the inscription 'Viva Fernando VII. Rey de España y de las Indias, Año de 1828,' which gave rise to the supposition that the revolt had been in his interests. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 36-8. Herrera issued a proclamation calling on the people to stand by the government. Marure, Efem., 33-4.

[IX-43] The assembly, installed on the 21st of Aug., 1833, at Leon, approved all of Herrera's acts.

[IX-44] On the southern coast of Nicaragua, 12 leagues distant from Leon.

[IX-45] A dense yellow cloud rose suddenly, accompanied by a strong smell of sulphur and a shower of fine white dust. The alarmed inhabitants closed their doors and windows, but the dust could not be kept out. Breathing became difficult. This lasted nearly three days. On the 23d, at 1 A. M., a loud detonation, followed by heavy shocks of earthquake, rain of sand, and total darkness, rendered the terror of the people complete. Flocks of birds fell dead to the ground, and wild animals sought refuge in buildings. The frightened inhabitants ran to their yards, or hurried to the churches to implore divine mercy. Forty-three hours passed before the earth became quiet, when a strong wind cleared the atmosphere, enabling the people to ascertain the damage. The ashes in the vicinity of the volcano were several feet deep. The river Chiquito had been wholly dried up, and two new islands were formed. A large number of animals had perished, and the living ones were in a state of starvation. Such had been the force of the convulsion that the detonations and the rain of ashes had reached a distance of hundreds of leagues, as far as Oajaca, Jamaica, and Bogotá in Colombia. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 145-50, in giving an account of the event, adds that the priests called it a punishment from heaven because tithes had been abolished, freedom of conscience proclaimed, and the decrees of 1829 and 1830 upheld. The parish priests in several towns, during the prevailing darkness, preached from their pulpits that this shaking of the earth was a manifestation of God's wrath for the crimes of the liberals. Squier, Trav., ii. 110-11, says that the superintendent of Belize, on hearing the explosions, mustered his troops, thinking that a battle was being fought somewhere near the coast. Stephens, Cent. Am., ii. 38, relates a similar incident of the military commander of Guatemala.

[IX-46] Accounts of the catastrophe, differing more or less in details, according to the various points where it was observed, are given in Marure, Efem., 36-7; Stephens' Cent. Am., ii. 35-8; Squier's Trav., ii. 110-14, 162-3, with a view of the volcano; Byam's Wild Life, 32-7; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 15-17; Lond. Geog. Soc. Journ., v. 387-92; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 23; Wells' Hond., 230-1; Cor. Atlánt., May 9, 1835, 10; Dicc. Univ. Hist. Geog., x. 919-20.

[IX-47] Not in 1836, as Dunlop has it. Cent. Am., 191-2.

[IX-48] His minister-general for a time was J. N. Gonzalez, and on his resigning, Hermenegildo Zepeda, one of the first lawyers in the state, succeeded. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 302.

[IX-49] On the 25th of Jan. Marure, Efem., 39, 64; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 306-10, gives the official documents describing the occurrences.

[IX-50] Father Solis, the president, and others attributed to Morazan and the constitution of 1824 the evils Nicaragua had suffered from, forgetting those preceding Morazan and the constitution.

[IX-51] Ratified by the executive Nov. 17th. Given in full in Nic., Constit., in Cent. Am. Constitutions, 1-39. A brief synopsis in Squier's Travels, ii. 211-13. See also Niles' Reg., 1839, lvi. 49.

[IX-52] During Herrera's term the following held the executive authority for short periods: Cárlos Ruiz y Bolaños, Aug. 1831; Benito Morales, Feb. 1834; José Nuñez, March 1834. I find that the government was also provisionally in charge of Gregorio Juarez, May 1835; F. X. Rubio, Jan. 1838; José Nuñez, as jefe, March 12, 1838; Evaristo Rocha, May 1838; Joaquin Cosio, June 1838; Patricio Rivas, director, June 1839; Joaquin Cosio, July 1839; Hilario Ulloa, Oct. 1839; Tomás Valladares, Nov. 1839. In 1840 he became director del estado; Pablo Buitrago, director, Apr. 1841. Marure, Efem., 64.

[IX-53] Sept. 6, 1824. Molina, Costa Rica, 95, followed by Wagner, Costa R., 545, gives it as May 6th, which is evidently a mistake. Marure, Efem., 11, has it Sept. 6th, and that Agustin Gutierrez Lizaurzábal was its first president.

[IX-54] Costa Rica, Ley Fundam. (San Salv., 1825), 24 mo, 26 pp.; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 32; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 13; Molina, Costa R., 18. This last-named author, on his p. 95, gives the date as Jan. 22d, evidently following Marure, Efem., 13. Squier, Travels, ii. 388, makes it Jan. 2d.

[IX-55] Mariano Montealegre became the vice-jefe. Mora was reëlected in March 1829, and ruled till toward the end of 1832. Marure, Efem., 64; Id., Bosq., 149; Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 32.

[IX-56] Personal enmity between Pedro Muñoz, an influential man in Guanacaste, and Cerda was the main reason. Los Anales, 1872, 54.

[IX-57] The approval was merely provisional. The other four are Cartago, San José, Heredia, and Alajuela. Molina, Costa R., 5-6.

[IX-58] Nic. y Hond., Doc., 101-12; Ayon, _Consid. Límites_, 20-4; Frisch, Mex., 73.

[IX-59] Marure, Efem., 16, and Bosq., i. 232-3, following El Indicador, 1826, no. 75, and El Semanario, 1826, no. 86, gives the date as Jan. 29th. Molina, Costa R., 96, places it on the 28th.

[IX-60] He confessed to have acted under a commission from the court of Spain, and as a lieut-col in its service. Seventeen of his partisans were sent out of the country.

[IX-61] A detailed account of that mission may be seen in Mem. Rev. Cent. Am., 112-14; Molina, Costa R., 96-7.

[IX-62] 'Ocupa este lugar el ciudadano Ex-gefe Juan Mora, por sus virtudes, y le ocuparán sucesivamente, los que, en el mismo destino, se hagan dignos de él.' Marure, Efem., 33. Mora was born in San José in 1784, and had filled several important trusts before his election to the chief magistracy. After his retirement he again held other offices till his exile in 1838. Returning to his country in 1842, he took a prominent part in public affairs. In Nov. 1848 he was declared a benemérito de la patria, and given a pension for life. In May 1850 he became president of the supreme court. Honesty and integrity were the prominent traits of his character, united with ability and liberal ideas, but free from exaggerations. Molina, Costa R., 75-6, 98, 119-21.

[IX-63] Costa Rica had never been under the sway of bishops, clergymen, or monks. That fanaticism which has been so baneful to other states of Spanish America never existed here. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 305.

[IX-64] Guat., Boletin Ofic., 1833, no. 34, 376; Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 4-5. Gallegos was an honorable man and father of a family, as well as a wealthy property owner. But he was not conversant with state affairs, nor with the intrigues of politicians. His chief aim was economy; he wished to see the public treasury full of money; he cared less to apply that money in the development of the country.

[IX-65] In proof of which were the newspapers El Noticioso Universal, La Tertulia, El Correo de Costa Rica, and the number of sheets that were constantly issued.

[IX-66] By the assembly and council, and published by the executive, Apr. 3, 1834. Id., 198-201; Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 110-12, 120-1.

[IX-67] Juan José Lara became jefe provisorio, and in his turn was succeeded in June of the same year by the vice-jefe Agustin G. Lizaurzábal, who ruled till March 1835, when, because of ill health, he delivered the government to Manuel Fernandez, who had it till the regularly elected jefe assumed his duties. Marure, Efem., 64; Molina, Costa R., 99; Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 134-5, 159-60.

[IX-68] He was born in Cartago in 1800, and studied in the university of Leon, Nicaragua. He had never been out of Cent. Am., and consequently his mind had never had the expanding influence of travel. He was accordingly full of petty prejudices. He could, however, appreciate men of merit, and avail himself of their abilities; but if he mistrusted a man, he proved a relentless foe. He rarely placed any trust in any one. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 208; Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 206-7; Molina, Costa R., 68 et seq.; Wagner, Costa Rica, 201-3.

[IX-69] Law of Apr. 11 and Aug. 25, 1835; Costa R., _Col. Leyes_, iv. 196-9, 235-9; Salv., Diario Ofic., May 25, 1875.

[IX-70] Government issued a proclamation against the rebels on the 6th of Oct., 1835. Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 273-80.

[IX-71] The decisive action occurred on the 28th of Oct. About 50 persons perished. Details on those troubles appear in Molina, Costa R., 99-100; Marure, Efem., 38. The authors of the rebellion were mulcted in sums ranging from $2,000 down to $30. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 208-27, 237-47.

[IX-72] Two thousand men came upon the invaders at the hacienda of Santa Rosa. Quijano escaped to Nicaragua. The government, by a decree of July 2, 1836, declared him and others outlawed, and one of them was executed. Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 325-30, 349-58. Guanacaste, later known as Liberia, and Nicoya, for their loyalty, were rewarded, the former being made a city, and the latter a villa. Molina, Costa R., 100; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 230-6.

[IX-73] Carrillo held the executive office till March 1837, when, his term having expired, he surrendered it to Joaquin Mora, a brother of the former jefe, Juan Mora, who ruled only one month, and began his administration by opposing some of Carrillo's measures. Id., 312.

[IX-74] Aguilar had political enemies who accused him of friendship for Cartago, Heredia, and Alajuela, thereby exposing San José to new assaults. With this pretext a plan was formed to assault the barracks at San José on the night of Aug. 26th. Id., 318-20.

[IX-75] Carrillo was recognized as jefe by a special decree of the assembly on the 26th of June, and remained at the head of affairs till 1842, when he was overthrown in his turn. Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 241; Marure, Efem., 64; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 322-3. Miguel Carranza, Carrillo's father-in-law, became vice-jefe. Stephens, Cent. Am., i. 359.

[IX-76] He established a reign of despotism, in which his will was law, restricting the press and punishing his political opponents with expatriation and otherwise, though they were pardoned in 1838. Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 320-1, v. 96-100, 193-4. His course made him many enemies, whom he treated with the utmost harshness. His change from a liberal ruler to an arbitrary one was quite marked. He was known by the sobriquet of Sapo de Loza. A number of charges against him appear in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 561-79. During his former administration, in 1836, he restored the tithes and the excessive number of holidays of the church.

[IX-77] The assembly had, in April 1838, passed a resolution inviting the federal congress to call a national convention for the exclusive purpose of reforming the federal institutions. Costa R., Col. Leyes, v. 196-8.

[IX-78] Carrillo could not rule with the liberal constitution of 1825. To do away with this obstacle he used as a pretext the decree of the federal congress of May 30, 1838, empowering the states to reconstitute themselves. The assembly of Costa Rica accepted the decree on the 16th of July, 1838, and Carrillo seized the opportunity to get rid of a fundamental law that did not suit him. It was at his suggestion that the assembly, by decree of July 14, 1838, called the constituent convention. Costa R., Col. Leyes, iv. 248-51, 279-84; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 266-7.

[IX-79] A treaty of friendship and alliance was concluded July 1, 1839, with Honduras; another of the same character one month later with Guatemala. Both are given in Convencion, in Cent. Am. Constitutions, 13-14, 23-5.

[IX-80] The coat of arms was a star with rays, placed in the centre of a sky-blue circle, and had at the circumference the inscription 'Estado de Costa Rica.' The flag consisted of three horizontal stripes, the uppermost and lowest white, and the central one sky-blue, with the coat of arms on the latter. The flag of the mercantile marine was not to have the coat of arms, but instead of it, in silver letters on the centre stripe, the inscription 'Estado de Costa Rica.' Costa R., Col. Leyes, vi. 316-20.

[IX-81] President Morazan's decree of April 20, 1842, restored the flag, arms, and coins as before the promulgation of Carrillo's.

[X-1] Articles 8th and 9th of this treaty stipulated that the ports of both states were to be closed to British trade until Great Britain should restore to Central America the island of Roatan, the seizure of which, together with its consequences, is treated of in another part of this volume. Chatfield, who had been favoring the views of Guatemala against Los Altos, declared to the latter that these articles were offensive to his government. The government of the new state, being anxious to avert any interruption of friendly relations, by its minister, Aguilar, assured the consul, on the 18th of Jan., 1840, that the objectionable articles would be rescinded.

[X-2] The state assembly passed a decree to that end April 17, 1841, and appointed the deputies to represent it, the appointees being Francisco Castellon, Gregorio Juarez, Benito Rosales, Ex-jefe José Nuñez, and Hermenegildo Zepeda. The last named was represented by Sebastian Salinas. Castellon's selection by the assembly was a blow at Buitrago, the two being bitter opponents.

[X-3] In the protest they set forth the machinations brought to bear to defeat them. Nicaragua and Salvador had asked Guatemala and Costa Rica to enter the convention. Ferrera, the executive of Honduras, played a double game. He had representatives in the convention, while he was leagued with the aristocrats of Guatemala, who spurned the idea of reorganization. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 144.

[X-4] Meantime the convention named the supreme delegate and the members of the council. The duties of the executive officer were multifarious, involving foreign and internal affairs. Among the foreign affairs was the negotiating of a concordat with the pope, and of a treaty with Spain for her recognition of Central American independence. He was also to procure the reassembling of the American diet. Squier's Trav., ii. 444-5; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 147-8; Reichardt, Nic., 73-4; Salv., Diario Ofic., Feb. 14, 1875.

[X-5] Act of the constituent assembly, dated July 20, 1842. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 304-5.

[X-6] The act consisted of 77 articles, and was an amplification of the former act. Art. 4 said that the confederate states recognized the principle of non-intervention by one or more states in the internal affairs of the others. They bound themselves never to resort to arms for the settlement of disputed points, nor to permit the annexation of towns of alien jurisdiction without the express assent of their sovereign. The other states of the late union were granted the privilege of joining the confederacy with equal rights and representation. Art. 14 prescribed that the government was to be exercised through delegates for the general objects of common benefit expressly set forth in the instrument. Art. 15. The executive authority was to be in charge of a supremo delegado, with a consultive council formed with one member from each state. Art. 16. The judicial power was intrusted to a court composed of members chosen by the state legislatures. The delegates who subscribed the act were: J. Nuñez, G. Juarez, Francisco Castellon, Pedro Zeledon, and Sebastian Salinas for Nicaragua; Manuel Barberena, and José M. Cornejo for Salvador; Manuel E. Vazquez, Mónico Bueso, and Jacobo Rosa for Honduras. Cent. Am., Pacto de Confed., 1-12; Niles' Reg., lxiv. 2; La Union, June 15, 1850; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 266-82; Pabellon Nac., Oct. 19, 1844, 27; Froebel's Cent. Am., 143.

[X-7] An act was passed by the constituent assembly on the 28th of July, 1841, purporting to have in view a restoration of the union. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 454-5.

[X-8] Costa R., Col. Leyes, viii. 28-36. This treaty was called by the nobles 'tratado de union.' Carcache produced a note of June 17, 1843. from Aycinena reiterating his government's protest against the expediency and practicability of establishing in Central America 'una forma de gobierno unitario,' which in its opinion would entail upon the country still greater misfortunes. Castellon, for the Nicaragua executive, replied on the 5th of Aug., denying that any offence had been committed by entertaining opinions favorable to the late government. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 151-2.

[X-9] Rivera Paz' decree, in Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 46-8.

[X-10] Costa Rica appointed delegates to the diet. Costa R., Col. Leyes, viii. 57-9, 92-8, 188-9. The minister of Guat. had proposed to Costa Rica a convention of commissioners from all the states, appointed in the manner he suggested, namely, all the commissioners were to be of Guatemala, and directed by him to review the compact of Chinandega. The proposition was rejected. The reports of the committees in the assemblies of Guatemala and Costa Rica are given in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 283-97, 380, 407-9.

[X-11] This would save them from such blows as the lieut-gen. inflicted on them at Pinula and Villa de Guadalupe, early in 1844.

[X-12] They were to be paid for by the confederate states.

[X-13] These facts appear in the official report to the state government on May 6, 1844.

[X-14] José Antonio Azmitia became minister of the treasury, and Manuel Ubico under-sec.-gen.

[X-15] He could not deny Arce's invasion of Salvador, but pretended that no prominent man of the govt or of the aristocratic party had any knowledge of his intention to invade, or of the source from which he obtained his supplies. Pavon knew well enough, but prevarication was convenient. The fact is, Juan A. Alvarado, Guatemalan agent in San Salvador, had given his government timely information of the intended invasion. Arce's departure was open. In order to put an innocent appearance on the affair, the govt decreed, May 12, 1844, that Arce should leave the city within 24 hours, and the state within 20 days. In an address to the people on the 2d of June, Rivera Paz says that Salvador emissaries had been detected trying to rouse the people of Los Altos to insurrection, and that the plan was intended to avenge the defeat of 1840. This is hardly true; for Malespin had been then on Carrera's side against Morazan, and his tool in Salvador ever since. The aristocrats had, when it suited their purposes, published letters of liberal leaders falling in their hands; and yet they never brought out those said to have been taken from the emissaries at Los Altos.

[X-16] The two notes are given in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 531-41.

[X-17] Col. Vicente Cruz, commanding the advance force of Carrera's army, attributed the defeat to fear, which was not altogether devoid of truth.

[X-18] The commissioners were: José D. Dieguez, Luis Batres, and José M. Urruela for Guat.; Bishop Viteri and Narciso Monterey for the sup. del.

[X-19] Art. 2 stipulated that all property removed from Guat. to Salv. by the latter's forces should be restored, or its value made good. This article was a hard one for Malespin, and yet Viteri accepted it. This arrangement was completed in May 1846. Id., v. 18; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 408-15; Crowe's Gospel, 159; La Abeja, Oct. 18, 1844; Defensor Integ. Nac., Nov. 2, 1844; El Constituc., Apr. 23, 1844; Pabellon Nac., Oct. 19, 29, 1844.

[X-20] He insisted on certain amendments, his commissioners having exceeded their instructions, and humiliated Salvador, which was irresponsible for the movement on Jutiapa. And yet Guatemala declared the convention to be obligatory.

[X-21] The object then in view was to unite Malespin and Ferrera for a dash upon Nicaragua. With the Guatemalan commissioners went Viteri, and he had a princely reception.

[X-22] He added that by sacrificing a great portion of her rights Salv. had obtained peace.

[X-23] The commissioners who negotiated it were: Cayetano Bosque for Salvador; Canon Doroteo Alvarenga and Juan Lindo for Honduras. The object of the arrangement was evidently a league against Nicaragua, though it cannot be said to have been against the party called 'coquimbos,' for generals Saget and Espinosa were now serving with Malespin. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 567-8, 581-2.

[X-24] The confederate executive had ordered a force of Nicaragüenses to come into Salvador through the department of Choluteca, Lieut-col Aguado being charged with their transportation.

[X-25] The troops could not come by sea, the port of La Union being then blockaded by a British frigate. Copy of Aguilar's note, dated Aug. 11, 1844, in Id., 569-71.

[X-26] Muñoz' report sets the enemy's loss at 156 killed, besides many prisoners, and over 200 muskets, etc.

[X-27] The place was defended by upwards of 700 men under Juan Morales.

[X-28] Guzman could not grant such authority, as it was of the exclusive province of the state congress. It was, besides, unnecessary, as neither Salvador nor Honduras was invaded.

[X-29] For his own security, in his absence, he placed his brother, Calixto Malespin, as comandante general, near Vice-president Guzman. This man used to open Guzman's correspondence, and deliver him only such despatches as he thought expedient. See circular of Jimenez, Guzman's minister, to governors of departments, of Feb. 12, 1845, in Id., 717-18.

[X-30] He was the constitutional chief. Ayon, Apuntes, 4; Semanario Nic., Apr. 24, 1873.

[X-31] A pompous title, which rendered him ridiculous in the eyes of many, while it excited jealousy on the part of others. Squier's Trav., ii. 449. Fonseca is represented as a drunkard, ignorant, and the most brutal tyrant Nicaragua ever had. Life and property were subject to his nod. Dunlop's Cent. Am., 224-5; Wells' Hond., 494.

[X-32] It should be known that Chamorro had not been a Morazanista, or even a liberal. He was the chief of the conservative party in Nic. On March 29, 1845, his term having expired, and there being no legal successor, he decreed that the office of supremo delegado ceased to exist, and communicated the fact to the governments of the several states. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 122.

[X-33] Oct. 31, 1844. The object of the war, he said, was to avenge the insult inflicted by Nic. on Hond., and it was to be waged till a lasting peace could be secured.

[X-34] Here the invaders were joined by Gen. Manuel Quijano and 64 dragoons who had deserted from Leon.

[X-35] The commissioners were Hermenegildo Zepeda and Gerónimo Carcache. Malespin himself acted for Salv. and Hond. Art. 1 required Nic. to pay Salv. and Hond. all the expenses of the present war, and to Salv. those incurred in the war of April last against Guat., because Nic. had failed to furnish her contingent of troops. This last payment was waived by Salv. in art. 6. Art. 2 calls for the surrender by Nic. of all arms within her territory belonging to the allies. Art. 3 made it the duty of Nic. to deliver to the allied forces the 'facciosos' Joaquin Rivera, Máximo Orellana, Miguel Álvarez, Trinidad Cabañas, Gerardo Barrios, Diego and Ramon Vijil, if found in the state, and if they were out of it, not to allow them to reside therein without the consent of the allied governments. Art. 7 throws upon Nic. the expense of supporting the allied troops from the date of the ratification of the treaty till they should have reached their quarters in their respective states. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 592-4.

[X-36] Guardiola became intoxicated and abused the deserters; whereupon half of them abandoned the allied camp, and he was placed under arrest.

[X-37] Among the slain was Cruz Guardiola, a brother of the general.

[X-38] It will be well to record here that Muñoz, to whom Leon owed her present tribulation, was a Nicaraguan by birth.

[X-39] The negotiators for Nic. were Canon Desiderio Cortés and Anselmo Alarcon; for Salv. and Hond., Gen. Nicolás Espinosa and J. T. Muñoz. Under this capitulation the terms agreed to in the former one at Zatoca were to be enforced as regarded payment of war expenses and surrender of arms. Nic. bound herself to expel from the state Casto Fonseca, Cabañas, Rivera, Orellana, Barrios, Álvarez, Diego, Ramon and José Antonio Vijil, Domingo Asturias, José Antonio Milla, and José Antonio Ruiz; and furthermore, to deliver to Malespin some Salvadorans who revolted against him at San Miguel on the 5th of Sept., 1844.

[X-40] Granada took Malespin's side, and was followed by Rivas and other places. It seemed as if all the actas had been written by the same hand. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 600, 635-6.

[X-41] The most humiliating part of this arrangement was the 3d clause, wherein the eastern and southern departments recognize Malespin as 'protector de los Nicaragüenses,' and general-in-chief of the united armies, including one organized by those departments, till the end of the war. Id., iv. 600-2; Nic., Registro Ofic., 12, 14, 55-6, 65, 69, 110-15; Sandoval, Rev. Polít., 9, 15-18.

[X-42] Several officers were shot, among them a number taken by Saget, on the vessel Carolina. Malespin issued stringent orders against rendering aid to the besieged. An official report from Nagarote of Jan. 23d, to the comandante at Managua, speaks of a defeat of troops of the govt at Leon, with the loss of 200 killed, 300 wounded, and many prisoners, together with 3 pieces of cannon and other arms, etc. Nic., Registro Ofic., 4.

[X-43] It is related that Pedro Zeledon, a Costa Rican residing in Chichigalpa, Nic., wrote Muñoz, depicting the horrors of the war and the need of peace. Malespin made Muñoz invite Zeledon to a conference, and when he had him in his power, demanded a ransom of $1,000, but did not get anything, and Zeledon obtained his liberty.

[X-44] The only house exempted from plunder was Manning's. Many houses were razed to the ground, or burned purposely.

[X-45] On the first day the acting director, Emiliano Madrid, Crescencio Navas, cols Francisco Lacayo and Balmaceda, Capt. Valle, José M. Oseguera, and Father Crespin were shot. Crespin's offence was to have begged the infamous Manuel Quijano, at the door of the hospital for the wounded, to spare them. Canon Cortés was put to death afterward. Casto Fonseca, captured on the coast, was tried by court-martial and shot. An eye-witness declared that 24 persons were executed by Malespin in Leon. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv., table no. 5, 636; Sandoval, Revista Polít., 7-15; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 227, 230-3; Nic., Registro Ofic., 4-6, 14; Crowe's Gospel, 159-61; Niles' Reg., lxviii. 193. Bustamante, Mem. Hist. Mex., MS., ii. 77, speaks of Malespin's acts of horrible cruelty, adding that according to the newspapers of Guat. Malespin had caused to be assassinated over 1,000 persons.

[X-46] Eighty-five prisoners were released from the jail, many of whom had been confined there for alleged political offenses.

[X-47] He was a son-in-law of Vice-president Guzman. They differed in politics, but Barrios fully believed that Guzman was the person to overthrow Malespin, and must be aided with some bold stroke.

[X-48] He called a large number of his friends to his house and armed them with pistols—he had not a single musket at his command. He then called the comandante general, and the mayor de plaza, Antonino Arévalo, and made prisoners of them without resistance. The two escaped afterward, but Malespin was recaptured, with a wound.

[X-49] Acta of the capital on Feb. 2, 1845. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 719-24; Monit. Constit. Indep., May 2, 1845; La Minerva, May 22, 1845.

[X-50] Costa R. had heard of it by a vessel from Acajutla, and sent her recognition before the circular reached her. The govt of Nic., created by Malespin, recognized Guzman. The nobles of Guat. had to do the same; and believing themselves endowed with extraordinary good sense, added their advice with all the gravity of pedagogues. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 678.

[X-51] On the ground of unconstitutionality, he being in command of the state forces at the time the election took place. Circular Feb. 24, 1845, in Id., 725; El Salvador Regenerado, no. 2.

[X-52] Guzman was a Costa Rican by birth, but had lived many years in San Miguel, Salv. He entertained liberal ideas from his earliest political life. His military service, under Morazan, began soon after the battle of Gualcho, and he was present as a captain in the actions of San Miguel and Las Charcas. He accompanied that leader to Guat. In the invasion of Cent. Am. from Mex. by Arce in 1832, Guzman did gallant service at Jocoro, and entered San Salvador with Morazan. Again during San Martin's rebellion he served under his chief as a lieut-col. The chambers of Salvador, on the 19th of May, 1845, declared Guzman a 'benemérito de la patria,' and awarded him a gold medal, at the same time promoting him to general of division. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 693-4; Salv., Diario Ofic., May 21, 1875. Dunlop, Cent. Am., 116, says of him: He was 'more remarkable for cunning than honor or courage. His manners are gentlemanly; he has no mixture of colored blood, and is rather good-looking, though he appears to possess but little talent or education.' I am inclined to think that Dunlop misrepresented Guzman's character, for Guzman proved himself a good and pure ruler, and his name is revered in the state and throughout Cent. Am. by all lovers of freedom and enlightenment.

[X-53] On the 23d of Feb., 1845, grounded on the execution of priests at Leon. The decree forbids the faithful of the diocese to have any intercourse, verbal or written, with Malespin, or to uphold or defend him in any manner. Full text in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 679-81; Bustamante, Mem. Hist. Mex., MS., ii. 78.

[X-54] They were Cayetano A. Molina and Juan Antonio Alvarado. They asked not merely for Carrera's neutrality, but for his active aid, and were referred to the ministers, by whom they were dealt with as children. The ministers pretended that their request could not be acceded to without an express sanction of the legislature, which was not then in session for lack of a quorum. The plea was a ridiculous one, when we consider that Carrera had never before consulted the wishes of the assembly to act his own will.

[X-55] Malespin had been acting there as president, under Hond. support; but on Guzman's approach his troops disbanded, and he fled.

[X-56] In March 1845 the president of Hond. took Malespin and his companions under the protection of his govt. Nic., Registro Ofic., 53-4.

[X-57] The commissioners of Hond. were Sebastian Salinas and Leonardo Romero; those of Salv., José Félix Quiroz and Nicolás Angulo. The treaty was ratified by Salv., but rejected by the other contracting party. Text of the treaty and Dueñas' additional clause, in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 726-32.

[X-58] Concluded by Cayetano A. Molina and Juan A. Alvarado for Salv., and Alejandro Marure and José M. de Urruela for Guat., April 4, 1845; approved by the constituent congress of Guat. on the 23d of the same month, and published by Acting President Duran the next day. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 415-19; Guat., Gaceta, July 8, 1853; _Monit. Constit. Ind._, May 21, 1845; La Minerva, May 22, 1845.

[X-59] Dueñas was then considered a liberal, though he was a Dominican friar when the convents were closed in 1839, for which reason the government of Guat. would not trust him. It was deceiving him. He was, however, the one most likely to succeed in keeping Carrera from aiding Hond. in the present emergency. Hond. had sent Felipe Jáuregui and Pablo Orellana to Guat. The former was Ferrera's mentor, and in the councils of Pavon, Aycinena, and Batres. At first he was alarmed at the liberalism of the constituent congress, which had voted assistance to Salv. But he received assurances that no aid would be sent except to quell revolts in the interior; and, moreover, that the foes of Hond. would be stricken from the Salvador administration. Jáuregui now understood the game, and wrote his government that the vote of aid by congress practically amounted to nothing. A note containing these assurances was published in Comayagua. Guat. concluded a treaty of friendship and alliance with Hond. on the 19th of July, 1845. Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 419-23.

[X-60] Dr Aguilar and Father Monterey. Nic., Registro Ofic., 61-2, 123-34. Gen. Muñoz, who so efficiently aided Malespin at Leon, was now the com. gen. and most prominent man in Nic.

[X-61] Ferrera claimed another victory on the 7th at Santa Rosa, but it was unfounded. Id., 83, 88; _Monitor Constit. Ind._, May 21, 1845; Crowe's Gospel, 166-7.

[X-62] He demanded on the 11th of July, as compensation for alleged damages to Hond. by the invasion of Cabañas and Cordero, that Salv. should cede to Hond. all the arms and other war material deposited in the latter state by Malespin, and pay, besides, $100,000 in specie, to be collected by Hond. in instalments at the port of La Union, which, until the payments should be completed, was to be held by Hond.; or, in lieu of that sum, cede to the latter the department of San Miguel, or that portion of the department of Cuscatlan lying outside of the territory enclosed by the Lempa on the south and south-west. He also required the exile from Cent. Am. of a number of persons. This note was published in Guat., Gaceta Ofic., no. 15, Aug. 28, 1845. In July a project was entertained of a confederation of Hond. with Nic., Guat., and Salv. Nic., Registro Ofic., 93-5, 102-8, 118-21, 136-8.

[X-63] One house containing British property was spared. The houses of two French merchants, whose nation's flag was flying over them, were plundered. Dunlop's Cent. Am., 239.

[X-64] In his report he tried to cover up this serious disaster. But the fact was, that he escaped with only about 300 men, leaving on the field upward of 300 muskets, and a large number of slain, wounded, and prisoners. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 700-1.

[X-65] Hond. troops entered Salv. after that and were defeated. Guardiola with 350 men attacked Carballo, who had only 39, and murdered them. It is said that this act was commended by Ferrera in his report to the chambers of Hond.

[X-66] Guzman then returned to Hond. a number of prisoners who had been represented by his enemies as murdered.

[X-67] So long as they remained in Hond. the latter was to compel them to live at a great distance from the Salv. frontier. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 736-8; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 239-43; Nic., Registro Ofic., 132, 172, 221-2; El Tiempo, March 12, 1846.

[X-68] Each of the contracting parties was to appoint two commissioners to meet at Sonsonate on the 30th of Aug., and was to urge upon the other three states a consideration of the lamentable state the republic was in, suggesting how best to do away with such a condition of affairs; and proposing therefor the convocation and assembling of a constituent power, or such other measure as it might deem conducive to the desired end. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 30-1.

[X-69] Duran well understood the policy of his government. Padilla did not, and volunteered to represent in San Salvador the ardent wishes of Guat. for the restoration of the union. He did so in a patriotic speech that gave him a good name in Salv. and a bad one in Guat., where the Gaceta rebuked him.

[X-70] 'Un delirio de imaginaciones enfermas,' it was pronounced to be. Delegates from Costa R., Salv., and Guat. were at Sonsonate on the 17th of Feb., 1846, and fixed the 15th to the 20th of April for conferences, but they did not take place. On the 15th of June Costa R., Hond., and Salv. only were represented. Nic. and Costa R. signified their willingness to meet the other states at any place they might select, Hond. having suggested Nacaome, as Sonsonate was no longer deemed safe. The whole plan failed at last because of the action of Guat. Much interesting information on the subject and official correspondence appear in Guat., Gac. Ofic., no. 26; Costa R., Col. Leyes, ix. 51-3, 58, 203-4, 212-14, 345-6; x. 115-17, 123-4; Nic., Reg. Ofic., 236-350, passim; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 316-18, 334-5; Froebel's Cent. Am., 143; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 253-4; Niles' Reg., lxix. 34.

[X-71] Signed by Rafael Carrera, and countersigned by José Antonio Azmitia, minister of relations. Guat., _Recop. Leyes_, i. 73-6; Costa R., Informe Relaciones, etc., 1848, 4; El Universal, June 8, 1849; Niles' Reg., lxxii. 208; The Californian, S. F., Nov. 24, 1847, ii. 3.

[X-72] The document bore Carrera's name, but it was no production of his own mind. The authorship was attributed to Alejandro Marure; that is to say, he drew it up from the materials that had been collecting for years. La Revista, the organ of the Sociedad Económica, declared it the offspring of long meditation, and indeed it was, for the aristocrats of Guat. had been planning it since 1828. The full text is given in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 196-207.

[X-73] Manuel Pineda de Mont, compiler of Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 453, claims, however, that Guat. was the last of the five states to set aside the federal govt, the last to secede, the last to continue bearing the general burdens of the system, especially the pecuniary ones to sustain even the semblance of authority; and that she only adopted the resolution of March 21, 1847, after exhausting every effort, and losing all hope of seeing her wishes realized. The reader will judge between his statements and the facts as they have been fairly given by me.

[X-74] Joaquin Bernardo Calvo and Juan Antonio Alvarado. The ruler of Costa Rica, Dr Castro, was, however, of the opinion that the five Central American states would be better off as separate nations. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 266-7; Nacaome, Dictamen, in Cent. Am. Pamph., no. 5; Froebel's Cent. Am., 143.

[X-75] Among them was the deputy Nazario Toledo, an intimate friend of the president. Felipe Molina was another, and his opinions are clearly defined in his Bosq. Costa R., 108-9.

[X-76] The decree bears the signatures of Juan Rafael Reyes, vice-president, and Nazario Toledo and Santiago Fernandez, deputies and secretaries of congress. Costa R., Col. Leyes, x. 336-8; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 526-7.

[X-77] The arrangement looked to a consolidation for the purpose of conducting foreign relations, and to an early union on the plan of a federation. Cent. Am. Miscel. Doc., 46; Costa R., Gac. Gob., March 2, Apr. 20, 1850; Hond., Gac. Ofic., Aug. 31, 1850; El Siglo, Apr. 22, 1851; Nic., Corr. Ist., Dec. 16, 1849, March 21, Oct. 3, 1850; La Union, Jan. 1, 15, 1850; Guat., Gac., Nov. 30, 1849; Salv., Gac., Dec. 7, 1849.

[X-78] Consul-gen. Chatfield was officially advised of the new organization on the 21st Jan., 1851, and ignored Sec. Buitrago's note. On being reminded of it, May 22d, he returned an insulting reply July 13th, refusing his recognition, when the government decreed, on the 24th of July, to cancel his exequatur as consul-gen. in the states belonging to the confederation, and to inform his govt of the cause. Cent. Am. Docs., 1-6. The British officials also resorted to other means to defeat what they called Am. policy. Squier's Cent. Am., ii. 135; El Universal, Feb. 19, March 26, 1850; Salv., Gac., Dec. 21, 1849; Dem. Rev., Nov. 1850, 452.

[X-79] Guat. and Costa R. had refused to join. Salv. Gac., March 8, 22, 1850, Oct. 12, 1854; Nic., Corr. Ist., Jan. 16, 30, 1851.

[X-80] The act of installation was accompanied with religious and civic ceremonies, the govt of Hond., at whose head was Trinidad Cabañas, heartily joining them. Congratulatory messages came from all friends of the union. El Siglo, S. Salv., Oct. 29, 30, Nov. 1, 4, 10, 14, 16, 19, 1852; Hond., Gac. Ofic., Oct. 30, Nov. 15, 1852; Perez, Mem. Hist. Revol. Nic., 17; El Porvenir, nos. 6, 7.

[X-81] The assembly also elected a vice-jefe and four substitute councillors to fill the executive chair, in the event of the jefe or members of the executive council dying or becoming disabled.

[X-82] It set forth the duties of the jefe supremo and councillors, the independence between the federal and state authorities, the rights of citizens, responsibilities of public officials, and organization of the federal judiciary. Hond., Gac. Ofic., Nov. 30, 1852.

[X-83] Salv. on the 21st of March, and Nic. on the 30th of April. The congress, acting too precipitately, overstepped the bounds of its powers. Perez, Mem. Hist. Revol. Nic., 17-18.

[X-84] More details on the confederation scheme are contained in Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 110-16; El Nacional, Nov. 27, Dec. 25, 1858; Nic., Bol. Ofic., July 30, 1869; Id., Gac., March 2, 9, 1872; Id., Seman. Nicar., Nov. 21, Dec. 12, 1872, Feb. 6, Oct. 16, 1873; Los Anales, Dec. 1, 1872; Mex., Diario Ofic., Nov. 2, 1871; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 42d Cong. 2d Sess., i., pt 1, 680-3; Costa R., Inf. Rel., 1876, 12-14; Salv., Gac. Ofic., June 10, July 6, Aug. 19, Oct. 26, 27, 1876; Id., _Diario Ofic._, March 17, Oct. 5, 13, 1875, Jan. 27, 30, Feb. 2-6, 1876; Pan. Star and Herald, March 2, 1876; Caicedo, Lat. Am., 60-2; Cent. Am., Contest. al Voto, 1-23; Chamorro, Cuestion Nacional, 1-7; _Harper's Monthly Mag._, xvii. 691.

Further authorities for the preceding chapters are: Montúfar, Reseña Hist., vols i.-iv., passim; Id., Discurso, 1-12; Guat., Recop. Leyes, i. 1-72, 96-100, 164-79, 185-6, 197-202, 207, 217-73, 382-95, 453-5, 461-75, 592-600, 858-9, 877-8; ii. 83-260, 632-7; iii. 286, 338-48; Id., Bolet. Ofic., 1831, no. 2; 1832, nos. 17, 20; 1833, no. 34; 1834, nos. 34, 56, July 15, Oct. 15; 1836, no. 84; 1837, no. 10; 1838, no. 53; Fernando VII., Documentos, 264-76, 281-5, 292-311, 337-49; Id., Decretos, 4-10, 15-26, 33-73, 105-10, 120-34, 149-82, 194-201, 220-3, 243-81; Ayon, Consid. Límites, 20-4. Id., Apuntes, passim; Astaburuaga, C. Amer., 12-32, 79-80; Arce, Mem., passim; Reichardt, Nic., 76-9; Id., _Cent. Am._, 37-44, 114-17, 133-4, 139-45, 208-11; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 38, 56, 58-61; Gac. Imp. Mex., i. 162-3, 445-8, 477-9, 489-91, 503-5; ii. 554-61, 635, 657-9, 677-9, 735, 747-52; Gac. de Méx., 1823, no. 3, 11-12, 1826, July 4, Sept. 16, Oct. 31, Dec. 14; 1826, Jan. 25, March 1, 31, April 26; Ocios Españ. Emig., v. 307-11, 405-13, 487-505; vi. 8-21, 107-17, 302-13, 383-4; vii. 3-7; Rocha, _Cód. Nic._, i. 19-23, 56-64, 72-92, 214-16; ii. 22-56, 163-4; Morazan y Carrera, Apuntes, MS., 1-18; Molina, _Coup d'œil Costa R._, 4-5, 9-12; Id., Costa R. y N. Granada, 9-10, 16-29; Id., Bosq. Costa R., passim; _Integ. Cent. Am._, Dec. 11, 1849; El Rol, Oct. 13, 1854; Zebadúa, Manif., 1-40; Juarros, Guat., ii. 103-4; Id., _Stat. and Com. Hist. Guat._, 74; Squier's Guat., 581-2; Id., States C. A., 360-1, 414-16, 466, 482, 493, 575-88, 627-8, 641-3, 663; Id., Travels C. Am., ii., passim; Id., Comp. Hist. C. A., 18-191; Wells' Honduras, 116, 120, 230-1, 472-83; Jordan's Dangers to Foreigners, 50-2; Cuevas, Porv. Méx., 252-7; Costa R., Mem. Relac., 1884, 2-34, and docs. 1 and 2; Annals Brit. Legis., i. 60; ii. 192, 365; Hernandez y Dávalos, Col. Doc., ii. 81-2, 130-1; Herrera, Discurso, 1-12; _Suarez y Navarro_, Hist. Méj., 386, 407-14; Sur America, _Sobre las Perturbaciones de Guat._, 1-52; Lafond, _Voy. autour du Monde_, i. 367, 373-8; Laferrière, De Paris à Guat., 58-64, 256-8; Puydt et Binckum, Colonisation, 116-24; Rivera, Hist. Jalapa, ii. 305; Urrueta, Inglaterra, 7-12; Zamacois, Hist. Méj., ix. 9-10; Aznero Plata, Informe, 1-19; Espir. Públ., Dec. 13, 20, 1828; Jan. 18, Feb. 14, 1829; Wappäus, Mex. und C. Amer., 258-64, 271-4, 360-3; Trollope's W. Ind., 335; Dunn's Guatemala, 13-29, 150-1, 167-88, 205; Atleta, 149-50, 199-200, 477; Guat., Mem. contenant au Aperçu, 4, 126, 146-58; Id., Memoria, 1837, 12-22; Robertson's Hist. Am., ii. 1138-9; El Progreso, April 11, 18, 25, 1850; Tribune Almanac, 1851, 36; Holinski, La Californie, 305-31; _Huston's Journey in Hond._, 11; Niles' Register, xxii. 65; xxiii. 406; xxvii. 355; xxviii. 37, 114-15, 304; xxix. 39, 192, 382; xxx. 439-40; xxxi. 160, 172-6; xxxii. 80, 201, 232, 282, 375; xxxiii. 38; xxxiv. 8, 36, 123; xxxv. 41, 155, 349; xxxvi. 321; xxxviii. 369, 395; xliii. 268; xlv. 210; liv. 289; lvi. 49, 210, 243, 385; lvii. 34, 280; lix. 191; _Emigrado Observ._, 1828, 5-24, 122, in Ocios de España; Pineda, Descrip. Geog., 14-16; Byam's Wild Life, 32-7; _Nouv. Annales Voy._, xcii. 59-60, 75-7; c. 51-60, 64-6; _Young's Mosq. Shore_, 15-21, 26-33, 42-3, 53-89, 106-14, 122-38, 156, 166; Overland Monthly, xiv. 159-67; Larrainzar, Soconusco, 80, 132,168, 178; Repertorio Americano, i. 273-89; Eastern Coast C. Am., 8-25; Strangeways' Mosq., 4-5, 59-68, 119-33, 144-8, 237-338; Dunlop's Cent. Am., passim; Henderson's Account of Br. Hond., 28-105, 165-211; D'Orbigny, Voy. deux Ameríques, 398-406; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, 314; Nuevo Viajero Univ., iii. 609-10; Larenaudière, Mex. et Guat., 295-308; _Poinsett's Notes on Mex._, app. 64; Anderson's Commerce, iv. 449; _Dunbar's Mex. Papers_, 234-5; Regil, in Soc. Mex. Geog., iii. 239, 315; Ancona, Hist. Yuc., iv. 221-35; Boletin Ofic. (Méx.), no. 14, 2; Diputados, Lista de; _Doc. Hist. Cal._, iv. 807-8; Suarez, Informe, 182; _Dicc. Univ. Hist. Geog._, x. 919-20, 971; Findlay's Directory, i. 223, 240; Peralta, Repúb. de Costa Rica, 4-8; Polynesian, iv. 166; North Am. Rev., xiv. 420-46; xxvi. 136-8, 143-5; Osborne's Guide to W. Ind., 234, 261-2; Wagner, _Costa Rica_, 201-3, 231, 543-51, 568; Crowe's Gospel in C. 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[XI-1] Molina, who denies that Carrillo was disposed to be tyrannical, but on the contrary anxious for the good of his country, adding that he was 'severo y sencillo en su conducta, y que paliaba su arbitrariedad con el ejercicio de las virtudes mas relevantes en un mandatario,' confesses that on the present occasion this great man committed a grave error. Bosq. Costa R., 103; Costa R., Dec. de garan. y bases, 24 mo.; Id., Col. Ley., viii. 15-36, 41-2; Salv., Diario Ofic., May 25, 1875.

[XI-2] The former was constituted with as many members as there were departments, namely, four. The latter was composed of a president, two relatores fiscales, and four justices.

[XI-3] He insulted them, however, by providing that they should be under the surveillance of the authorities. Costa R., Col. Ley., vii. 42.

[XI-4] He was married to a niece of Carrillo. Bonilla was faithful to him in life, and to his memory after death.

[XI-5] According to Col Bernardo Rivera Cabezas. Barrundia makes the force only 300. He had at first landed at La Union, in Salvador, with 22 officers of all ranks, and marched upon San Miguel, where he recruited 200 men, and then returned to La Union. He next visited Acajutla and Sonsonate, where he ascertained the state of public affairs in Salvador and Guatemala, after holding some correspondence with the chiefs of the former state and Nicaragua. The latter answered very offensively. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 47-55, 145. Entertaining a favorable idea of the invitation sent him by the Costa Ricans, he sailed for the isle of Martin Perez, in the gulf of Fonseca, where he finally organized his expedition and embarked it on the vessels Cruzador, Asuncion Granadina, Josefa, Isabel II., and Cosmopolita.

[XI-6] Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 55-6; Salv., _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875.

[XI-7] Costa R., Col. Ley., vii. 248-50.

[XI-8] Among them were Vicente Aguilar, Francisco and Mariano Montealegre, and Rafael Barroeta.

[XI-9] It is understood that Rafael Barroeta was the sole exception.

[XI-10] Carrillo was to leave the country with a full pledge of safety to his family and property. The convention was signed by Morazan, Villaseñor, generals Saget, Saravia, and Rascon, 5 colonels, and the other assenting officers of all ranks, including 5 Texiguas.

[XI-11] Carrillo left the state from Puntarenas. Bonilla was also guaranteed security. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 615-19; Niles' Reg., lxii., 275. Both Carrillo and Aguilar died out of Costa R.; the former was killed, and his murderer executed. Funeral honors were paid in Costa R. to Aguilar, Aug. 25, 1846. Costa R., Col. Ley., ix. 289-90. The remains of both ex-chiefs were brought home by Presid. Castro's decree of Nov. 5, 1848. Id., x. 365-8; El Salvador Regenerado, June 4, 1842.

[XI-12] Dated April 14, 1842. Id., vii. 250-1.

[XI-13] A general order was given to prevent any interference with the elections on the part of the troops. Copies of Morazan's decrees to undo the evils of his predecessor, and to prepare for the reorganization of the state on liberal principles, are furnished in Id., 236-342, passim; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 621-31.

[XI-14] Again on the 30th of Aug. it authorized the continuation of his government till a new constitution should be framed. The same day it reaffirmed Morazan's extraordinary powers, and on the 2d of Sept. adjourned to reassemble April 1, 1843. Among the most noted acts of this convention were the following: A vote of thanks and other honors to Morazan and Villaseñor, the latter being awarded a gold medal with an honorable inscription. Morazan was given the title of Libertador de Costa Rica; and on his refusing to publish the decree, the assembly specially requested him to do so. The army that brought about the change was honored with the name of Division Libertadora de Costa Rica. The assembly also made a formal declaration on the 20th of July, in favor of a federal republic. Costa R., Col. Ley., vii. 342-51, 379-82, 403.

[XI-15] It was strictly in accordance with the military code. His brother Felipe, in relating the occurrence, says that a disappointment in love, and his removal from the comandancia of the department, preyed upon his mind, 'le sobrevino una fiebre, perdió la razon, y se hizo criminal.' But he subsequently declared his loyalty to Morazan, and while lying on a bed of sickness was arrested. Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 104.

[XI-16] Molina did not hear of his son's fate till after the 15th of Sept. Greatly agitated, and shedding tears for Morazan's end, his son-in-law, Irungaray, told him not to bewail the fate of Morazan, for he had spilled the blood of Manuel Ángel. These words so shocked the aged patriot that he fell senseless to the ground.

[XI-17] He was a Portuguese who came to Costa Rica while still young. In his early years he had been in the naval service, and acquired some skill as an artilleryman. He married into a respectable family of San José, and had numerous descendants. By the cultivation of coffee he made himself wealthy, and this together with his connection with the Carrillo family enabled him to attain the position of comandante general, and to link his name with some important events. At his house the worst enemies of Morazan had always been welcomed. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 647-8.

[XI-18] There were two barracks in San José; one his guard occupied; in the other were 150 men from Cartago who had no ammunition. El Siglo, Aug. 16, 1852.

[XI-19] Morazan tried to save his wife; but in traversing the street to reach the house of the Escalantes, amidst the deadly fire, she was taken by the enemy and conveyed to the house of Father Blanco, a brother of Luz Blanco, one of Morazan's mortal foes.

[XI-20] He would have met with no difficulty in obtaining security for Saravia, who was much esteemed by all. But the case was different with others, especially Villaseñor, against whom much animosity was felt.

[XI-21] Herrera was a student when he gained this unenviable notoriety. He afterward went to Guatemala to complete his studies, and was well treated and much aided by Juan José Aycinena and Manuel F. Pavon; and he became their most humble henchman. Returning to Costa Rica as a lawyer, he was appointed after a while a justice of the supreme court. On many occasions he proved himself unprincipled, treacherous, and contemptible.

[XI-22] Over 100 killed and 200 wounded.

[XI-23] He had wanted to go to Tárcoles, expecting to find Saget there, but was dissuaded by Villaseñor and others.

[XI-24] The Spaniard Espinach, a reactionist of some standing who acted as a commissioner of the revolutionists, fearing that Morazan's popularity in Cartago might bring on a counter-movement, and in order to avert it, asked Morazan to instruct Cabañas to lay down his arms, and to command Saget to deliver those he had in Puntarenas. He assured Morazan his life was in no peril. His next step was to meet Cabañas at Chomogo, telling him Morazan was leaving the state by the Matina road with sufficient money, and advising him to disband his men. Cabañas was deceived, and went alone to Matina, where he was taken prisoner.

[XI-25] Marure, Efem., 56. Saravia was a son of Miguel Gonzalez Saravia, the governor of Nicaragua, who attached that province to Iturbide's empire, and a grandson of General Saravia, president and captain-general of Guatemala, who had been appointed viceroy of Mexico, and was shot by Morelos in Oajaca. Young Saravia's mother, Concepcion Nájera y Batres, was of the leaders of Guatemalan society, for which reason the aristocratic party expected much from him. But after completing his education, with evidences of extraordinary talents, he often gave expression to the most liberal ideas. Before being admitted to the bar in 1834 he had served in the office of the secretary of the senate, and later as a chief of bureau in the department of foreign affairs. He afterward held a judicial appointment, being at all times noted for ability and eloquence, as well as for his writings in El Semanario, which attracted the attention of Morazan, who made him auditor de guerra of the federal army. From that time Saravia followed Morazan's fortunes, taking part in several actions of war, and thus attaining the rank of general. He was also this leader's aide-de-camp, private secretary, and minister-general, both in Salvador and Costa Rica. A portrait of the young general gives him quite a distinguished air.

[XI-26] Among them were Mariano Montealegre, Juan de los Santos Madriz, and José M. Castro.

[XI-27] The most virulent were Luz Blanco and Herrera. They even worked upon the feelings of Pinto's family, and it is said that his daughter Petronila imagined that she saw her father sent to the scaffold by Morazan, and fell in a convulsion.

[XI-28] Morazan had demanded a trial. He also desired to address a circular to the governments of the states, but it was not permitted him.

[XI-29] He declared that he had expended the whole of his own and his wife's estate, besides $18,000 due to Gen. Bermudez, in endowing Costa Rica with a government of laws. This was his sole offence, for which he had been condemned to lose his life, which was further aggravated by a broken pledge, for he had been assured by Espinach that his life would be spared. The forces he had organized were originally intended to defend Guanacaste against an expected attack from Nicaragua. Subsequently a number of volunteers were detached for the pacification of the republic. He reiterated his love for Central America, urging upon the youth of the land to imitate his example, and fight to redeem her. He finally disclaimed any enmity or rancor toward his murderers, forgiving them and wishing them every possible happiness. In that instrument, says Barrundia, 'se ve diáfana el alma, noble, tranquila, y generosa del héroe que descendia á la tumba.'

[XI-30] The remains lay in Costa Rica till, under a decree of Pres. Castro, Nov. 6, 1848, they were exhumed on the 27th, and after paying honors on the 4th of Dec., were surrendered, according to Morazan's wishes, to Salvador, by whose authorities they were received with high military and civic honors. Costa R., Col. Ley., x. 368-9. Carrera afterward treated them with indignity. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 656; iv. 219-20, 250-3; v. 650-2, 665-6; Testam., in Cent. Am. Pap., No. 2. Further particulars on Morazan's rule in Costa Rica, and on his death and interment, may be found in Nic., Correo Ist., May 1, 1849; Niles' Reg., lxiii., 19, 176; Nic., Registro Ofic., No. 2, 7; Squier's Trav., ii. 444-9; Wappäus, Mex. und Cent. Am., 361; Reichardt, Cent. Am., 142; El Progreso, Oct. 3, 1850; Crowe's Gospel, 152-3; Wagner, Costa R., 203-5; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 217-22; Belly, Nic., i. 73-4; Wells' Hond., 484-93; Salv., Diario Ofic., Feb. 14, 1875; Robert Glascow Dunlop, Travels in Central America, London, 1847, 8°, 358 pp. and map, is a work purporting to be a journal of nearly three years' residence in Central America, and giving a sketch of the history of the republic, together with an account of the physical peculiarities, agriculture, commerce, and state of society. Much of the information therein is correct; but on historical and social topics the author, who was a Scotchman, displayed narrow-mindedness, and a judgment warped by British prejudices.

[XI-31] In the latter—his native state—his last will was published in the official journal in the column of varieties with offensive remarks. These notes, and indeed the whole conduct of the authorities, were disgraceful. El Redactor, Ofic. de Hond., Sept. 15, 1843.

[XI-32] The priest Juan José Aycinena, who was the minister of state, hated Morazan with a deadly hatred from the day that his brother was defeated at San Antonio. This animosity became more intensified, if possible, upon Morazan contemptuously rejecting the dictatorship that was tendered him. Morazan said in his last will that his death was an assassination, as he had not been allowed any form of trial. But the worthy padre and his accomplice in iniquity, Carrera, attributed the crime to heaven, and made Rivera Paz, chief of state, accuse providence of aiding Vicente Herrera and Luz Blanco in its perpetration.

[XI-33] Honors were paid to his memory in the city of Guatemala in 1876; a statue was erected to him by Honduras in 1883. La Regeneracion, July 10, 1876; Costa R., Mem. Relaciones, 1884, 2-3, and doc. 1, 2.

[XI-34] Every abusive epithet was applied to him in the official press; tyrant, bandit, monster, were among the mildest. The aim was to make him appear in the eyes of the ignorant as the only obstacle to peace and reorganization; and the masses believed that he was the author of all the evils under the sun. Gac. de Guat., Oct. 28, 1842.

[XI-35] The subscribing commissioners were Manuel F. Pavon, for Guatemala; Pedro Nolasco Arriaga, for Honduras; and Joaquin Duran, for the other two states. Inasmuch as Arriaga and Duran were Aycinena's and Pavon's humble satellites, the treaties might just as well have been signed Pavon, Pavon, Pavon. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 129-33; Guat., Recop. Leg., i. 395-408.

[XI-36] It is asserted that the Guatemalan government said that Costa Rica should appoint as her commissioner a resident of Guatemala. But José M. Castro, the young Costa Rican minister, thought differently.

[XI-37] They had led the revolt on the 11th and the following days. Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 105.

[XI-38] So says Marure, now a confirmed 'conservador,' adding, 'y celebrados con entusiasmo en toda la república.' Efem., 56.

[XI-39] The expeditionary force of 300 to 500 under Saget, on hearing of the trouble at San José, went on board their ships at Puntarenas, thence menacing the government. Subsequently arrangements were made for the surrender of the arms and disbandment of the men, but owing to misunderstanding were not carried out, and the expedition departed for La Libertad in Salv. on the Coquimbo. Costa R. afterward claimed the armament and ship, but Salv. invariably refused to return them, on the plea that they belonged to Morazan's family, 'como ganadas en ley de guerra por aquel caudillo.' Much indignation was felt in Guatemala and Honduras, and somewhat less in Nicaragua, against Salvador, because the latter, notwithstanding the treaties of 1840 and 1842, and the protest to the contrary, had allowed Saget, Cabañas, Barrios, and their companions, to reside in the state under the protection of its laws. The first two named governments saw that for all they had manœuvred to make of the executive of Salvador a mere submissive agent of the aristocracy, he had now emancipated himself from its control. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 4-5, 115-33; Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 105-6.

[XI-40] Costa R., Col. Ley., vii. 404-16.

[XI-41] Art. 3 stated that the idea was not yet entertained, which later was formed, of declaring the state to be a sovereign and independent republic. Art. 5 resolved the question of boundaries with Colombia and Nicaragua upon the principles sustained by Costa Rica. Arts. 4 and 10 established a fourth power under the name of Conservador, composed of no less than three councillors chosen by the people. Art. 9 places the legislative authority in an assembly of not less than 15 members. It does not establish two chambers. Art. 11 says that the executive office is to be exercised by a tribune, out of four to be chosen by the electors. Art. 13 was condemned by the fanatics, though it merely allows religious toleration. The Gaceta de Guat. exclaimed, 'Ya volvemos á las andadas.' Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 383, 391-3, 417-18; Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 106.

[XI-42] All these acts, dated respectively June 7-8, Sept. 13, 19, 1843, appear in Costa R., Col. Ley., viii. 45-50, 63-7.

[XI-43] By the second jefe, Oreamuno, then in charge of the executive.

[XI-44] The govt was supported by the people and troops. Quiroz was promoted to gen. of brigade. Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 106; El Mentor Costaricense gave an extensive account of the affair.

[XI-45] Pinto was an uncle-in-law of Castro, secretary-general, who under the circumstances surrounding the govt could not restore him to his office.

[XI-46] To give an idea of the situation: Cartago's deputies were three clergymen, Peralta, Campo, and Carazo. Heredia also sent the priest Flores. If the senators must be still more grave and circumspect, where could they be procured? Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 173.

[XI-47] His successor was Juan Mora.

[XI-48] Costa R., Col. L., viii. 352-3, 384-5.

[XI-49] He was a native of Cartago; a man of elegant manners, cultured without affectation, well informed on general subjects, and a highly respected citizen. Though not a member of the bar, he knew enough of law to successfully oppose the lawyers who constantly took advantage of the confusion existing in the old Spanish laws.

[XI-50] The chamber of deputies censured him, but his purpose of getting rid of the executive office was accomplished. Costa R., Col. Ley., viii. 392-3; ix. 23-4.

[XI-51] A wealthy man and head of a large family which gave him much social importance. During his short administration he improved the public roads. Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 107. He also gave impulse to education, though under the old ecclesiastical system. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 175.

[XI-52] Correspond. on the subject in Id., 184-6.

[XI-53] Fault was found with the clause requiring the election by the people of all public functionaries, including the ministers of state and judges. It was said the people should not be molested with so many elections.

[XI-54] The manifesto issued by the leaders comprised the abolition of the constitution, and the framing of another better suited to the needs of the country, the immediate election of a new vice-jefe, who must be a native of Costa Rica, not under 25 years of age, married, or a widower with children, and possess property to the value of no less than $10,000; one who had never been criminally punished, except by a pecuniary fine, nor attached for debts contracted in the state; he must have served in other public offices without taint, and must be in favor of independence and a separate government for the state. A new legislative chamber was to be immediately convoked, and the manner of election fixed by the chief; meantime, the present assembly was to continue its sittings. The chief was to select a good port on the north coast, and make a road from it to the capital with funds of the treasury. Costa R., Pap. Sueltos, nos. 1, 2; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 252-3.

[XI-55] His removal from the executive seat resulted from the intrigues of a few who knew that he could not be made a convenient tool.

[XI-56] It was divided into 14 sections, placed the executive in a president, and created a vice-president. The legislative authority was vested in a congress of a single chamber, presided over by the vice-president. The Roman catholic religion was the only one permitted, and it remained as that of the state and under its protection. Costa R., Constit., 1847, 1-24; Id., Constit. Polít., 1847, 1-118; Id., Col. Ley., x. 1-56; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 46-9.

[XI-57] Nov. 22, 1848, and promulgated by the executive on the 30th. A law regulating the election of the supreme authorities was passed Dec. 20th. Costa R., Constit. Polít. (ed. of 1850, 8°), 1-38; Costa R., Col. Ley., x. 347-408, 422-52; El Universal, June 8, 1849.

[XI-58] El Arco Iris, Oct. 14, 1847. Alfaro was not pleased at being lowered to the second place, even though he had ex-officio the presidency of congress. He resigned on the 1st of Oct. of the same year, and Juan Rafael Mora became his successor. Costa R., Informe Relaciones, ap.; Id., Col. Ley., x. 86-7, 160-1, 187-8.

[XI-59] Castro had enemies in San José. He was accused of bringing about Gallegos' dismissal. This assertion was repeated from mouth to mouth, and came to be believed by many. Moreover, some men that he looked on as his friends suggested to him unwise measures, with the view of damaging his administration. Unfortunately, congress began to show aristocratic tendencies, restoring the abolished compellations without opposition on Castro's part. The title of Excellency was voted to itself, the president, and the supreme court.

[XI-60] Castro and Mora differed on many points. The president's circle considered Mora a dangerous competitor. Congress treated Mora with marked indifference, though he had restored peace in Alajuela with only 200 men. He resigned the vice-presidency. An election being ordered, at the second attempt Manuel José Carazo, a friend of Castro, was chosen. Carazo was an able and well-informed man. He resigned the office on the 24th of Aug., but was reëlected Sept. 22d. Id., 190, 306-7, 310-12, 327-9.

[XI-61] Costa R., Inf. Relaciones, 10-12, 23-5. In Nov. of the same year all political offenders were pardoned, and a war tax which had been levied on Alajuela was ordered refunded. Costa R., Col. Ley., x. 269-90, 374-6, 410; Id., Pap. Sueltos, nos. 3-5; Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 107-8.

[XI-62] Congress took into consideration a number of petitions from influential sources highly commendatory of Castro's acts. Castro on the 16th of Nov. had been made a general of division. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 525-6, 530-8, 543-51.

[XI-63] The flag had five horizontal stripes, of which the centre one occupied one third the width of the flag, and the others one sixth each. The centre stripe was red, the one above and the one underneath it were white, and the other two blue. Costa R., Col. Ley., x. 354-6.

[XI-64] France sent in April 1847 the corvette Le Génie to make demands on behalf of her subject Thierriat, which Costa Rica settled by paying $10,000.

[XI-65] Full particulars on the foreign relations are given in Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 9-10, 61-2, 112-19; Id., Coup d'œil Costa R., 3; Costa R., Col. Ley., x. 339-47; xii. 5-18, 94, 202-7; xv. 225; xvi. 195-6; xviii. 95-6, 171-88; xix. 107-9; xx. 24-8; xxiii. 184-200; xxiv. 171-97; Id., de 1869, 216-22; Id., de 1879, 61-3; Id., Gac. de Gob., Jan. 12, 26, Feb. 23, March 9, 1850; Id., Bol. Ofic., Dec. 8, 22, 26-7, 29, 1853; Jan. 5, Apr. 20, 1854; Id., Informes y Mem., Relaciones, 1850-80; Salv., Diario, Nov. 5, 1875; Cong. Globe, 1860-1; Smithsonian Rept, 1863, 54; Colombia, Diario Ofic., Feb. 14, 1874; U. S. Govt Doc., 36th cong. 2d sess., sen. i., 19 vol. i.; Id., 39th cong. 2d sess., For. Aff. (Mess. and Doc., Dept of St., pt ii.), 430-45; Id., 40th cong. 2d sess., For. Aff. (Mess. and Doc., Dept of St., pt ii.), 277-80; Id., 42d cong. 2d sess., H. Ex. Doc., 1 For. Rel., p. 7 (249-52); Id., 42d cong. 3d sess., For. Rel., p. xxxv. (158-61); Pan. Gac., Apr. 16, 1876, and numerous other works in various languages.

[XI-66] Nic. argued that the constitution of Costa R. of 1825 declared her boundary to be at El Salto, not at La Flor; to which Costa R. replied that the instrument alluded to was anterior to the federal decree, and therefore could not embrace Nicoya in Costa Rican territory; but after this decree the fundamental laws of Costa R. did take it in.

[XI-67] Nic. had demanded the restoration in 1843, which led to the making of a voluminous protocol, without any definitive result. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 229-31; iv. 382-3; Costa R., Col. Ley., viii. 3-4.

[XI-68] The treaty was made at San José, Costa R., on the 15th of Apr., 1858, and signed by José M. Cañas and Máximo Jerez, plenipotentiaries respectively of Costa R. and Nic., and by Pedro Rómulo Negrete, mediator on the part of Salv. The signatures of the secretaries of the three legations also appear to the instrument. The ratifications were made in due form, and exchanged by the two govts on the 26th of April, the same year. The treaty was approved by the Nicaraguan constituent congress May 28th, and published by President Tomás Martinez and his secretary of state, June 4th. Under its 2d article the dividing line was to be as follows: Starting from the Atlantic Ocean, the line to begin at the extreme end of Punta de Castilla, at the mouth of the River San Juan, and continue on the right bank of that stream to a point in waters below the Castillo Viejo, at three English miles from the outer fortifications. Thence a curve was to commence, whose centre should be those works, and distant therefrom in all its course three English miles, and terminating at a point distant two miles from the bank of the river in waters above the fort. Thence the line should continue in the direction of Sapoá River, which empties into Lake Nicaragua, following a course invariably two miles distant from the right margin of the San Juan River, with its curves to its source in the lake, and from the right margin of the same lake to the said Sapoá River, where this line, parallel to said margins, ends. From the point where it may coincide with the Sapoá River, which must of course be two miles from the lake, an astronomical line should be drawn to the central point of the bay of Salinas on the Pacific Ocean, where the delimitation of the two contracting powers will terminate. The 6th art. gives Nic. the exclusive control over the waters of the San Juan River from its source in Lake Nicaragua to the point where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean; Costa R. retaining the right of navigation in said waters for trading purposes from the mouth of the river to a distance of three English miles from the Castillo Viejo. Rocha, Cód. Nic., i. 137-41; Costa R., Col. Ley., xv. 75-6, 182-8; Id., Informe Gob., 1858, 12-13; Id., Inf. Rel., 1860, 6; Salv., Gaceta Ofic., June 7, 1877, 513-14; El Nacional, June 26, 1858, 10; Peralta, Rio S. Juan, 24-5; Belly, Le Nic., i. 359-62.

[XI-69] The treaty, after being completed and published in the official journal of Nic., was communicated by both govts to the foreign diplomatic corps accredited near them, as well as to their own representatives abroad. All friendly nations came to look on it as an accomplished fact.

[XI-70] Ayon did not pretend to deny that the treaty had been concluded by his govt, and duly ratified by the legislative authority of the two republics. He alleged that the fundamental law of Nic. established the limits of the state, embracing within them the territory of Guanacaste; and that the treaty in question ignored the Nicaraguan constitution, which prescribed that an amendment of it by one legislature must be submitted to the next for ratification; and this not having been done, there was a radical nullity. Costa R. replied that the legislative ratification in Nic. had been, not by an ordinary legislature, but by a constituent assembly fully empowered to amend the constitution or frame a new one. It had been called to make a new fundamental law, and therefore had a right to establish new boundaries. Moreover, that even if that assembly had not possessed constituent authority, but had been a merely ordinary congress, the fact still remained that a number of Nicaraguan legislatures had held the treaty to be valid and unobjectionable. Some attempts have been made in administration circles of Costa R., much against public opinion, to annul the treaty, in order to have for a boundary line the whole right bank of the San Juan, from Greytown or San Juan del Norte to San Cárlos, and Lake Nicaragua to La Flor. Were this supported, and the treaty set aside, the questions between Costa R. and Nic. would assume a serious aspect. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 231-4; Ayon, Cuestion de Límites, 1-26; Id., Consid. sobre Límites, 1-26.

[XI-71] Details may be found in Nic., Mem. Relaciones, 1871, 10-16, 29-39; Id., Gaceta, Oct. 3, 1868, May 4, 11, 1872, June 7, 1873; Id., Seman. Nic., June 6, 1872; Id., Correspond., 1872, 1-24; Id., _Continuacion de la Correspond._, 1872, 1-16; U. S. Govt Doc., H. Ex. Doc., 43d cong. 1st sess., pt 2, 732, 735, 739, 743; 44th cong. 1st sess., pt 1, 157, 168; Costa R., Informe Rel., 1873, 1-6; Id., Pap. Sueltos, Doc. no. 15; Salv., Gaceta Ofic., May 22, 1876; Peralta, Rio S. Juan.

[XI-72] Antonio Zambrana for Costa R., and Francisco Álvarez for Nic. Pan. Star and Herald, March 5, 1883; Costa R., Gaceta, Feb. 3, 1885; U. S. Govt Doc., 48th cong. 1st sess., H. Ex. Doc., pt 1, 59-61.

[XI-73] An extract of that treaty is given in Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 289-90.

[XI-74] The royal commission of Diego de Artieda Cherino, governor, captain-general of Costa R., issued in 1573, fixed the boundaries of the province from the 'embocadura del Desaguadero ó rio San Juan de Nicaragua hasta la frontera de Veraguas en el Mar Atlántico, y desde los linderos de Nicoya hasta los valles de Chiriquí en el Pacífico.' Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 14; Id., Costa R. y Nueva Granada, 9-10, 16-35. Felipe Molina being in the service of Costa R., and intrusted with the defence of her interests, his assertions might be by some deemed biassed; but the testimony of Juarros, the historian of Guatemala, who wrote with the official docs before him, is not open to the same objection. He says, speaking of Costa R., 'sus términos por el mar del norte, son desde la boca del rio San Juan hasta el Escudo de Veraguas; y por el sur, desde el rio de Alvarado, raya divisoria de la provincia de Nicaragua, hasta el rio de Boruca, término del reino de Tierra Firme.' Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 230.

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