XII. QUESTIONS
ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.
PART SECOND, ETYMOLOGY.
[Fist] [The following questions refer almost wholly to the main text of the Etymology of this work, and are such as every student should be able to answer with readiness and accuracy, before he proceeds to any subsequent part of the study or the exercises of English grammar.]
LESSON I.--PARTS OF SPEECH.
1. Of what does Etymology treat? 2. What is meant by the term, "Parts of Speech?" 3. What are Classes, under the parts of speech? 4. What are Modifications? 5. How many and what are the parts of speech? 6. What is an article? 7. What is a noun? 8. What is an adjective? 9. What is a pronoun? 10. What is a verb? 11. What is a participle? 12. What is an adverb? 13. What is a conjunction? 14. What is a preposition? 15. What is an interjection?
LESSON II.--PARSING.
1. What is Parsing? and what relation does it bear to grammar? 2. What is a Praxis? and what is said of the word? 3. What is required of the pupil in the FIRST PRAXIS? 4. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 5. How is the following example parsed? "The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the First Chapter, or the First Praxis.]
LESSON III.--ARTICLES.
1. What is an ARTICLE? 2. Are an and a different articles, or the same? 3. When ought an to be used, and what are the examples? 4. When should a be used, and what are the examples? 5. What form of the article do the sounds of w and y require? 6. Can you repeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter? 7. Will you name the ten parts of speech, with an or a before each name? 8. When does a common noun not admit an article? 9. How is the sense of nouns commonly made indefinitely partitive? 10. Does the mere being of a thing demand the use of articles? 11. Can articles ever be used when we mean to speak of a whole species? 12. But how does an or a commonly limit the sense? 13. And how does the commonly limit the sense? 14. Which number does the limit, the singular or the plural? 15. When is the required before adjectives? 16. Why is an or a not applicable to plurals? 17. What is said of an or a before an adjective of number? 18. When, or how often, should articles be inserted? 19. What is said of needless articles? 20. What is the effect of putting one article for the other, and how shall we know which to choose? 21. How are the two articles distinguished in grammar? 22. Which is the definite article, and what does it denote? 23. Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote? 24. What modifications have the articles?
LESSON IV.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SECOND PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Second Chapter, or the Second Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the five lessons of bad English, with which the Second Chapter concludes.]
LESSON V.--NOUNS.
1. What is a NOUN, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what general classes are nouns divided? 3. What is a proper noun? 4. What is a common noun? 5. What particular classes are included among common nouns? 6. What is a collective noun? 7. What is an abstract noun? 8. What is a verbal or participial noun? 9. What modifications have nouns? 10. What are Persons, in grammar? 11. How many persons are there, and what are they called? 12. What is the first person? 13. What is the second person? 14. What is the third person? 15. What are Numbers, in grammar? 16. How many numbers are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the singular number? 18. What is the plural number? 19. How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed? 20. How is the regular plural formed without increase of syllables? 21. How is the regular plural formed when the word gains a syllable? LESSON VI--NOUNS.
1. What are Genders, in grammar? 2. How many genders are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the masculine gender? 4. What is the feminine gender? 5. What is the neuter gender? 6. What nouns, then, are masculine? what, feminine? and what, neuter? 7. What inflection of English nouns regularly changes their gender? 8. On what are the different genders founded, and to what parts of speech do they belong? 9. When the noun is such as may be applied to either sex, how is the gender usually determined? 10. What principle of universal grammar determines the gender when both sexes are taken together? 11. What is said of the gender of nouns of multitude? 12. Under what circumstances is it common to disregard the distinction of sex? 13. In how many ways are the sexes distinguished in grammar? 14. When the gender is figurative, how is it indicated? 15. What are Cases, in grammar? 16. How many cases are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the nominative case? 18. What is the subject of a verb? 19. What is the possessive case? 20. How is the possessive case of nouns formed? 21. What is the objective case? 22. What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition? 23. What two cases of nouns are alike in form, and how are they distinguished? 24. What is the declension of a noun? 25. How do you decline the nouns, friend, man, fox, and fly?
LESSON VII--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the THIRD PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example to be parsed? "The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praise-worthy than Scott's."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Third Chapter, or the Third Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Third Chapter concludes.]
LESSON VIII.--ADJECTIVES.
1. What is an ADJECTIVE, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what classes may adjectives be divided? 3. What is a common adjective? 4. What is a proper adjective? 5. What is a numeral adjective? 6. What is a pronominal adjective? 7. What is a participial adjective? 8. What is a compound adjective? 9. What modifications have adjectives? 10. What is comparison, in grammar? 11. How many and what are the degrees of comparison? 12. What is the positive degree? 13. What is the comparative degree? 14. What is the superlative degree? 15. What adjectives cannot be compared? 16. What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs? 17. How are adjectives regularly compared? 18. What principles of spelling must be observed in the comparing of adjectives? 19. To what adjectives is the regular method of comparison, by er and est, applicable? 20. Is there any other method of expressing the degrees of comparison? 21. How are the degrees of diminution, or inferiority, expressed? 22. Has the regular method of comparison any degrees of this kind? 23. Do we ever compare by adverbs those adjectives which can be compared by er and est? 24. How do you compare good? bad, evil, or ill? little? much? many? 25. How do you compare far? near? fore? hind? in? out? up? low? late? 26. What words want the positive? 27. What words want the comparative?
LESSON IX.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the FOURTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The best and most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least fond: teach learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Fourth Chapter, or the Fourth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lesons of bad English, with which the Fourth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON X.--PRONOUNS.
1. What is a PRONOUN, and what is the example given? 2. How many pronouns are there? 3. How are pronouns divided? 4. What is a personal pronoun? 5. How many and what are the simple personal pronouns? 6. How many and what are the compound personal pronouns? 7. What is a relative pronoun? 8. Which are the relative pronouns? 9. What peculiarity has the relative what? 10. What is an interrogative pronoun? 11. Which are the interrogative pronouns? 12. Do who, which, and what, all ask the same question? 13. What modifications have pronouns? 14. Why are not these things defined under the head of pronouns? 15. What is the declension of a pronoun? 16. How do you decline the pronoun I? Thou? He? She? It? 17. What is said of the compound personal pronouns? 18. How do you decline the pronoun Myself? Thyself? Himself? Herself? Itself? 19. Are the interrogative pronouns declined like the simple relatives? 20. How do you decline Who? Which? What? That? As? 21. Have the compound relative pronouns any declension? 22. How do you decline Whoever? Whosoever? Whichever? Whichsoever? Whatever? Whatsoever?
LESSON XI.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the FIFTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus?"
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Fifth Chapter, or the Fifth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Fifth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XII.--VERBS.
1. What is a VERB, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are verbs called by that name? 3. Respecting an English verb, what things are to be sought in the first place? 4. What is the Present? 5. What is the Preterit? 6. What is the Imperfect Participle? 7. What is the Perfect Participle? 8. How are verbs divided, with respect to their form? 9. What is a regular verb? 10. What is an irregular verb? 11. What is a redundant verb? 12. What is a defective verb? 13. How are verbs divided, with respect to their signification? 14. What is an active-transitive verb? 15. What is an active-intransitive verb? 16. What is a passive verb? 17. What is a neuter verb? 18. What modifications have verbs? 19. What are Moods, in grammar? 20. How many moods are there, and what are they called? 21. What is the infinitive mood? 22. What is the indicative mood? 23. What is the potential mood? 24. What is the subjunctive mood? 25. What is the imperative mood?
LESSON XIII.--VERBS.
1. What are Tenses, in grammar? 2. How many tenses are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the present tense? 4. What is the imperfect tense? 5. What is the perfect tense? 6. What is the pluperfect tense? 7. What is the first-future tense? 8. What is the second-future tense? 9. What are the Person and Number of a verb? 10. How many persons and numbers belong to verbs? 11. Why are not these things defined under the head of verbs? 12. How are the second and third persons singular distinctively formed? 13. How are the person and number of a verb ascertained, where no peculiar ending is employed to mark them? 14. What is the conjugation of a verb? 15. What are the PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of a verb? 16. What is a verb called which wants some of these parts? 17. What is an auxiliary, in grammar? 18. What verbs are used as auxiliaries? 19. What are the inflections of the verb do, in its simple tenses? 20. What are the inflections of the verb be, in its simple tenses? 21. What are the inflections of the verb have, in its simple tenses? 22. What are the inflections and uses of shall and will? 23. What are the inflections and uses of may? 24. What are the inflections and uses of can? 25. What are the uses of must, which is uninflected? 26. To what style is the inflecting of shall, will, may, can, should, would, might, and could, now restricted?
LESSON XIV.--VERBS.
1. What is the simplest form of an English conjugation? 2. What is the first example of conjugation? 3. What are the principal parts of the verb LOVE? 4. How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood?--the indicative?--the potential?--the subjunctive?--the imperative? 9. What is the verb LOVE in the Infinitive, present?--perfect?-- Indicative, present?--imperfect?--perfect?--pluperfect?--first-future?-- second-future?--Potential, present?--imperfect?--perfect?--pluperfect?-- Subjunctive, present?--imperfect?--Imperative, present? 24. What are its participles?
LESSON XV.--VERBS.
1. What is the synopsis of the verb LOVE, in the first person singular?--second person singular, solemn style?--third person singular?--first person plural?--second person plural?--third person plural? 7. If the second person singular of this verb be used familiarly, how should it be formed?
LESSON XVI.--VERBS.
1. What is the second example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb SEE conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb see, with the pronoun I? thou? he? we? you? they?
LESSON XVII.--VERBS.
1. What is the third example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb BE conjugated? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb be, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the man? the men?
LESSON XVIII.--VERBS.
1. What is the compound form of conjugating active or neuter verbs? 2. What peculiar meaning does this form convey? 3. What is the fourth example of conjugation? 4. What are the principal parts of the simple verb READ? 5. How is the verb READ conjugated in the compound form? 6. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE READING, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the boy? the boys?
LESSON XIX.--VERBS.
1. How are passive verbs formed? 2. What is the fifth example of conjugation? 3. How is the passive verb BE LOVED conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE LOVED, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the child? the children?
LESSON XX.--VERBS.
1. How is a verb conjugated negatively? 2. How is the form of negation exemplified by the verb love in the first person singular? 3. What is the form of negation for the solemn style, second person singular? 4. What is the form for the familiar style? 5. What is the negative form of the verb love with the pronoun he? 6. How is the verb conjugated interrogatively? 7. What is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun I? 8. What is the form of question in the solemn style, with this verb in the second person singular? 9. How are such questions asked in the familiar style? 10. What is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun he? 11. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively? 12. How is the negative question exemplified in the first person plural? 13. How is the negative question exemplified in the second person plural? 14. How is the like synopsis formed in the third person plural?
LESSON XXI.--VERBS.
1. What is an irregular verb? 2. How many simple irregular verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Arise, be, bear, beat, begin, behold, beset, bestead, bid, bind, bite, bleed, break, breed, bring, buy, cast, chide, choose, cleave, cling, come, cost, cut, do, draw, drink, drive, eat, fall, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forbear, forsake, get, give, go, grow, have, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, keep, know, lead, leave, lend, let, lie, lose, make, meet, outdo, put, read, rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, run, say, see, seek, sell, send, set, shed, shoe, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, sing, sink, sit, slay, sling, slink, smite, speak, spend, spin, spit, spread, spring, stand, steal, stick, sting, stink, stride, strike, swear, swim, swing, take, teach, tear, tell, think, thrust, tread, wear, win, write?
LESSON XXII.--VERBS.
1. What is a redundant verb? 2. How many redundant verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Abide, awake, belay, bend, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, blend, bless, blow, build, burn, burst, catch, clothe, creep, crow, curse, dare, deal, dig, dive, dream, dress, dwell, freeze, geld, gild, gird, grave, grind, hang, heave, hew, kneel, knit, lade, lay, lean, leap, learn, light, mean, mow, mulet, pass, pay, pen, plead, prove, quit, rap, reave, rive, roast, saw, seethe, shake, shape, shave, shear, shine, show, sleep, slide, slit, smell, sow, speed, spell, spill, split, spoil, stave, stay, string, strive, strow, sweat, sweep, swell, thrive, throw, wake, wax, weave, wed, weep, wet, whet, wind, wont, work, wring? 4. What is a defective verb? 5. What verbs are defective?
LESSON XXIII.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SIXTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness; because, properly speaking, that is not our own which is imposed upon us."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Sixth Chapter, or the Sixth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Sixth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXIV.--PARTICIPLES.
1. What is a PARTICIPLE, and how is it generally formed? 2. How many kinds of participles are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the imperfect participle? 4. What is the perfect participle? 5. What is the preperfect participle? 6. How is the first or imperfect participle formed? 7. How is the second or perfect participle formed? 8. How is the third or preperfect participle formed? 9. What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest form of conjugation: Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear, approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive?
LESSON XXV.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SEVENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed: "Religion, rightly understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending it."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Seventh Chapter, or the Seventh Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Seventh Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXVI.--ADVERBS.
1. What is an ADVERB, and what is the example given? 2. To what general classes may adverbs be reduced? 3. What are adverbs of time? 4. What are adverbs of place? 5. What are adverbs of degree? 6. What are adverbs of manner? 1. What are conjunctive adverbs? 8. Are all the conjunctive adverbs included in the first four classes? 9. How may the adverbs of time be subdivided? 10. How may the adverbs of place be subdivided? 11. How may the adverbs of degree be subdivided? 12. How may the adverbs of manner be subdivided? 13. What modifications have adverbs? 14. How do we compare well, badly or ill, little, much, far, and forth? 15. Of what degree is the adverb rather? 16. What is said of the comparison of adverbs by more and most, less and least?
LESSON XXVII.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the EIGHTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?"
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Eighth Chapter, or the Eighth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Eighth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXVIII.--CONJUNCTIONS.
1. What is a CONJUNCTION, and what is the example given? 2. Have we any connective words besides the conjunctions? 3. How do relative pronouns differ from other connectives? 4. How do conjunctive adverbs differ from other connectives? 5. How do conjunctions differ from other connectives? 6. How do prepositions differ from other connectives? 7. How are the conjunctions divided? 8. What is a copulative conjunction? 9. What is a disjunctive conjunction? 10. What are corresponsive conjunctions? 11. Which are the copulative conjunctions? 12. Which are the disjunctive conjunctions? 13. Which are the corresponsive conjunctions?
LESSON XXIX.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the NINTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Ninth Chapter, or the Ninth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Ninth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXX.--PREPOSITIONS.
1. What is a PREPOSITION, and what is the example given? 2. Are the prepositions divided into classes? 3. Have prepositions any grammatical modifications? 4. How are the prepositions arranged in the list? 5. What are the prepositions beginning with a?--with b?--with c?--with d?--with e?--with f?--with i?--with m?--with n?--with o?--with p?--with r?--with s?--with t?--with u?--with w? 21. Does this list contain all the words that are ever used in English as prepositions?
LESSON XXXI.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the TENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil?"
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Tenth Chapter, or the Tenth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Tenth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXXII.--INTERJECTIONS.
1. What is an INTERJECTION, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are interjections so called? 3. How are the interjections arranged in the list? 4. What are the interjections of joy?--of praise?--of sorrow?--of wonder?--of wishing or earnestness?--of pain or fear?--of contempt?--of aversion?--of calling aloud?--of exultation?--of laughter?--of salutation?--of calling to attention?--of calling to silence?--of surprise or horror?--of languor?--of stopping?--of parting?--of knowing or detecting?--of interrogating?
LESSON XXXIII.--PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the ELEVENTH PRAXIS? How many definitions are here given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!"
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Eleventh Chapter, or the Eleventh Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Eleventh Chapter concludes.]
XIII. FOR WRITING
EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY.
[When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech, and their classes and modifications, and has been sufficiently exercised in etymological parsing and correcting, he should write out the following exercises; for speech and writing afford us different modes of testing the proficiency of students, and exercises in both are necessary to a complete course of English Grammar.]
EXERCISE I.--ARTICLES.
1. Prefix the definite article to each of the following nouns: path, paths; loss, losses; name, names; page, pages; want, wants; doubt, doubts; votary, votaries.
2. Prefix the indefinite article to each of the following nouns: age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, quail, raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, herald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour.
3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases: George Second--fair appearance--part first--reasons most obvious--good man--wide circle--man of honour--man of world--old books--common people--same person--smaller piece--rich and poor--first and last--all time--great excess--nine muses--how rich reward--so small number--all ancient writers--in nature of things--much better course.
4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases: new name--very quick motion--other sheep--such power--what instance--great weight--such worthy cause--to great difference--high honour--humble station--universal law--what strange event--so deep interest--as firm hope--so great wit--humorous story--such person--few dollars--little reflection.
EXERCISE II.--NOUNS.
1. Write the plurals of the following nouns: town, country, case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, mouse, penny, ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in-law, pailful, man-servant, fellow-citizen.
2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following nouns: earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, lion, arbiter, tutor, songster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, son, landgrave.
3. Write the possessive case singular, of the following nouns: table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, calf, sheep, wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court-martial, precipice, countess, lordship.
4. Write the possessive case plural, of the following nouns: priest, tutor, scholar, mountain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, woman, servant, writer, grandmother.
5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, of the following nouns: body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nuncio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, distaff, hero, thief, wretch.
EXERCISE III.--ADJECTIVES.
1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives, without repeating any word: good, great, tall, wise, strong, dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy, disastrous, terrible, necessary. Thus--good manners, &c.
2. Place a suitable adjective before each of the following nouns, without repeating any word: man, son, merchant, work, fence, fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, actions. Thus--wise man, &c.
3. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared by inflection, or change of form: black, bright, short, white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, little, much, many, far, true, just, vast.
4. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the adverbs of increase: delightful, comfortable, agreeable, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, poignant, excellent, sincere, honest, correct.
5. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the comparative adverbs of inferiority or diminution: objectionable, formidable, forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent, imprudent, imperfect, pleasant, unpleasant.
EXERCISE IV.--PRONOUNS.
1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as.
2. Write the objective singular of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as.
3. Write the following words in their customary and proper forms: he's, her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, myself, hisself, theirselves.
4. Write together in declension the following pronouns, according to the agreement of each two: I myself, thou thyself, he himself, she herself it itself.
5. Rewrite the following sentences, and make them good English: "Nor is the criminal binding any thing: but was, his self, being bound."--Wrights Gram., p. 193. "The writer surely did not mean, that the work was preparing its self."--Ib. "May, or can, in its self, denotes possibility."--Ib., p. 216. "Consequently those in connection with the remaining pronouns respectively, should be written,--he, his self;--she, her self;--ye or you, your selves; they, their selves."--Ib., p. 154. "Lest their beacons be lost to the view, and their selves wrecked on the shoals of destruction."--Ib., p. 155. "In the regal style, as generally in the second person, the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun, ourself."--Churchill's Gram., p. 78. "Each has it's peculiar advantages."--Ib., p. 283. "Who his ownself bare our sins in his own body on the tree."--The Friend, iv, 302. "It is difficult to look inwardly on oneself."--Journal of N. Y. Lit. Convention. p. 287.
EXERCISE V.--VERBS.
1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following verbs: slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, obey, delay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, huzza, pretend, deliver, arrest.
2. Write the following preterits, each in its appropriate form: exprest, stript, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, linkt, propt, fixt, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, confest, snapt, skipt, kist, discust, tackt.
3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, second person singular: move, strive, please, reach, confess, fix, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, lose, pursue, defend, surpass, conquer, deliver, enlighten, protect, polish.
4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, third person singular: leave, seem, search, impeach, fear, redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, allure, rely, beset, release, be, bias, compel, degrade, efface, garnish, handle, induce.
5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, present tense, in the three persons singular: serve, shun, turn, learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, allow, pretend, expose, alarm, deprive, transgress.
EXERCISE VI.--VERBS.
1. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb amuse, conjugated affirmatively.
2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of the neuter verb sit, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style.
3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active verb speak, conjugated affirmatively in the compound form.
4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive verb be reduced, conjugated affirmatively.
5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active verb lose, conjugated negatively.
6. Write a synopsis of the third person plural of the neuter verb stand, conjugated interrogatively.
7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb derive, conjugated interrogatively and negatively.
EXERCISE VII.--PARTICIPLES.
1. Write the simple imperfect participles of the following verbs: belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember.
2. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs: turn, burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, sweep, tear, thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist.
3. Write the preperfect participles of the following verbs: depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, sit, lay, mix, speak, sleep, allot.
4. Write the following participles each in its appropriate form: dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astonisht, tost, embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt.
5. Write the regular participles which are now generally preferred to the following irregular ones: blent, blest, clad, curst, diven, drest, graven, hoven, hewn, knelt, leant, leapt, learnt, lit, mown, mulct, past, pent, quit, riven, roast, sawn, sodden, shaven, shorn, sown, striven, strown, sweat, swollen, thriven, waxen.
6. Write the irregular participles which are commonly preferred to the following regular ones: abided, bended, builded, bursted, catched, creeped, dealed, digged, dwelled, freezed, grinded, knitted, layed, meaned, payed, reaved, slided, speeded, splitted, stringed, sweeped, throwed, weaved, weeped, winded.
EXERCISE VIII.--ADVERBS, &c.
1. Compare the following adverbs: soon, often, long, fast, near, early, well, badly or ill, little, much, far, forth.
2. Place the comparative adverbs of increase before each of the following adverbs: purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, patiently, completely, fortunately, profitably, easily.
3. Place the comparative adverbs of diminution before each of the following adverbs: secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, powerfully, solemnly.
4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following dashes: Love--fidelity are inseparable. Be shy of parties--factions. Do well--boast not. Improve time--it flies. There would be few paupers--no time were lost. Be not proud--thou art human. I saw--it was necessary. Wisdom is better--wealth. Neither he--I can do it. Wisdom--folly governs us. Take care--thou fall. Though I should boast--am I nothing.
5. Insert suitable prepositions in place of the following dashes: Plead--the dumb. Qualify thyself--action--study. Think often--the worth--time. Live--peace--all men. Keep--compass. Jest not--serious subjects. Take no part--slander. Guilt starts--its own shadow. Grudge not--giving. Go not--sleep--malice. Debate not--temptation. Depend not--the stores--others. Contend not--trifles. Many fall--grasping--things--their reach. Be deaf--detraction.
6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the interjections to the emotions expressed by the other words: Aha! aha! I am undone. Hey! io! I am tired. Ho! be still. Avaunt! this way. Ah! what nonsense. Heigh-ho! I am delighted. Hist! it is contemptible. Oh! for that sympathetic glow! Ah! what withering phantoms glare!
III. SYNTAX
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences. The relation of words is their reference to other words, or their dependence according to the sense.
The agreement of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form.
The government of words is that power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification.
The arrangement of words is their collocation, or relative position, in a sentence.
I. SENTENCES
A Sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb; as, "Reward sweetens labour."
The principal parts of a sentence are usually three; namely, the SUBJECT, or nominative,--the attribute, or finite VERB,--and the case put after, or the OBJECT[322] governed by the verb: as, "Crimes deserve punishment."
The other or subordinate parts depend upon these, either as primary or as secondary adjuncts; as, "High crimes justly deserve very severe punishments."
Sentences are usually said to be of two kinds, simple and compound.[323]
A simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one single assertion, supposition, command, question, or exclamation; as, "David and Jonathan loved each other."--"If thine enemy hunger."--"Do violence to no man."--"Am I not an apostle?"--1 Cor., ix, 1. "What immortal glory shall I have acquired!"--HOOKE: Mur. Seq., p. 71.
A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected; as, "Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon, whose surname is Peter; who shall tell thee words, whereby thou and all thy house shall be saved."--Acts, xi, 13. "The more the works of Cowper are read, the more his readers will find reason to admire the variety and the extent, the graces and the energy, of his literary talents."--HAYLEY: Mur. Seq., p. 250.
A clause, or member, is a subdivision of a compound sentence; and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound: as, "If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty, give him water to drink."--Prov., xxv, 21.[324]
A phrase is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas, but no entire proposition; as, "By the means appointed."--"To be plain with you."--"Having loved his own."
Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction, (and only such,) must be supplied in parsing.
The leading principles to be observed in the construction of sentences, are embraced in the following twenty-four rules, which are arranged, as nearly as possible, in the order of the parts of speech.
THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
RULE I.--ARTICLES.
Articles relate to the nouns which they limit.
RULE II.--NOMINATIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.
RULE III.--APPOSITION. A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case.
RULE IV.--POSSESSIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed.
RULE V.--OBJECTIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case.
RULE VI.--SAME CASES.
A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing.
RULE VII.--OBJECTIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case.
RULE VIII.--NOM. ABSOLUTE.
A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word.
RULE IX.--ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns.
RULE X.--PRONOUNS.
A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender.
RULE XI--PRONOUNS.
When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number.
RULE XII.--PRONOUNS.
When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together.
RULE XIII.--PRONOUNS.
When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.
RULE XIV.--FINITE VERBS.
Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number.
RULE XV.--FINITE VERBS.
When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number.
RULE XVI.--FINITE VERBS.
When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together.
RULE XVII.--FINITE VERBS.
When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.
RULE XVIII.--INFINITIVES.
The Infinitive Mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb.
RULE XIX.--INFINITIVES.
The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition TO.
RULE XX.--PARTICIPLES.
Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions.
RULE XXI.--ADVERBS.
Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs.
RULE XXII.--CONJUNCTIONS.
Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences.
RULE XXIII.--PREPOSITIONS.
Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them.
RULE XXIV.--INTERJECTIONS.
Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words.
GENERAL OR CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SYNTAX.
OBS. 1.--An explanation of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences, constitutes that part of grammar which we call Syntax. But many grammarians, representing this branch of their subject as consisting of two parts only, "concord and government" say little or nothing of the relation and arrangement of words, except as these are involved in the others. The four things are essentially different in their nature, as may be seen by the definitions given above, yet not so distinct in practice that they can well be made the basis of any perfect division of the rules of syntax. I have therefore, on this occasion, preferred the order of the parts of speech; each of which will form a chapter in the Syntax of this work, as each forms a chapter in the Etymology.
OBS. 2.--Agreement and concord are one and the same thing. Relation and agreement, though different, may yet coincide, and be taken together. The latter is moreover naturally allied to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech are, with a few exceptions, incapable of any agreement; of these the relation and use must be explained in parsing; and all requisite agreement between any of the rest, is confined to words that relate to each other. For one word may relate to an other and not agree with it; but there is never any necessary agreement between words that have not a relation one to the other, or a connexion according to the sense. Any similarity happening between unconnected words, is no syntactical concord, though it may rank the terms in the same class etymologically.
OBS. 3.--From these observations it may be seen, that the most important and most comprehensive principle of English syntax, is the simple Relation of words, according to the sense. To this head alone, ought to be referred all the rules of construction by which our articles, our nominatives, our adjectives, our participles, our adverbs, our conjunctions, our prepositions, and our interjections, are to be parsed. To the ordinary syntactical use of any of these, no rules of concord, government, or position, can at all apply. Yet so defective and erroneous are the schemes of syntax which are commonly found in our English grammars, that no rules of simple relation, none by which any of the above-named parts of speech can be consistently parsed, are in general to be found in them. If there are any exceptions to this censure, they are very few, and in treatises still marked with glaring defects in regard to the syntax of some of these parts of speech.
OBS. 4.--Grammarians, of course, do not utter falsehoods intentionally; but it is lamentable to see how often they pervert doctrine by untruths uttered ignorantly. It is the design of this pandect, to make every one who reads it, an intelligent judge of the perversions, as well as of the true doctrines, of English grammar. The following citations will show him the scope and parts which have commonly been assigned to our syntax: "The construction of sentences depends principally upon the concord or agreement, and the regimen or government, of words."--Lowth's Gram., p. 68; Churchill's, 120. "Words in sentences have a twofold relation to one another; namely, that of Concord or Agreement; and that of Government or Influence."--Dr. Adam's Latin and English Grammar, p. 151. "The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence."--E. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book, p. 15. "Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Government."--Murray's Gram., p. 142; Ingersoll's, 170; Alger's, 51; R. C. Smith's, 119; and many others. "Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and Government."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 175; Wright's, 124. "The Rules of Syntax may all be included under three heads, Concord, Government, and Position."--Bullions's E. Gram., p. 87. "Position means the place which a word occupies in a sentence."--Ib. "These rules may be mostly ranked under the two heads of agreement and government; the remainder may be termed miscellaneous."--Nutting's Gram., p. 92. "Syntax treats of the agreement, government and proper arrangement of words in a sentence."--Frost's El. of Gram., p. 43. This last-named author, in touching the text of my books, has often corrupted it, as he does here; but my definitions of the tenses he copied without marring them much. The borrowing occurred as early as 1828, and I add this notice now, lest any should suppose me the plagiarist.
OBS. 5.--Most of our English grammars have more rules of syntax than are needed, and yet are very deficient in such as are needed. To say, as some do, that articles, adjectives, and participles, agree with nouns, is to teach Greek or Latin syntax, and not English. To throw, as Nutting does, the whole syntax of adverbs into a remark on such a rule of agreement, is to choose disorder for its own sake. To say, with Frost, Hall, Smith, Perley, Kirkham, Sanborn, Rand, and others, "The nominative case governs the verb in number and person," and again, "A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person," is to confound the meaning of government and agreement, to say the same thing in different words, and to leave the subject of a verb still without a rule: for rules of government are applicable only to the words governed, and nothing ever agrees with that which governs it.[325] To say, with Murray and others, "Participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived," is to say nothing by which either verbs or participles may be parsed, or any of their errors corrected: those many grammarians, therefore, who make this their only rule for participles, leave them all without any syntax. To say, with Murray, Alger, and others, "Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, &c., require an appropriate situation in the sentence," is to squander words at random, and leave the important question unanswered, "To what do adverbs relate?" To say again, with the same gentlemen, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is to put an ungrammatical, obscure, and useless assertion, in the place of an important rule. To say merely, "Prepositions govern the objective case," is to rest all the syntax of prepositions on a rule that never applies to them, but which is meant only for one of the constructions of the objective case. To say, as many do, "Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them, and the nominative case of the second," is to tell what is utterly false as the words stand, and by no means true in the sense which the authors intend. Finally, to suppose, with Murray, that, "the Interjection does not require a distinct, appropriate rule," is in admirable keeping with all the foregoing quotations, and especially with his notion of what it does require; namely, "the objective case of the first person:" but who dares deny that the following exclamation is good English?
"O wretched we! why were we hurried down This lubric and adulterate age!"--Dryden.
OBS. 6.--The truth of any doctrine in science, can be nothing else than its conformity to facts, or to the nature of things; and chiefly by what he knows of the things themselves, must any one judge of what others say concerning them. Erroneous or inadequate views, confused or inconsistent statements, are the peculiar property of those who advance them; they have, in reality, no relationship to science itself, because they originate in ignorance; but all science is knowledge--it is knowledge methodized. What general rules are requisite for the syntactical parsing of the several parts of speech in English, may be seen at once by any one who will consider for a moment the usual construction of each. The correction of false syntax, in its various forms, will require more--yes, five times as many; but such of these as answer only the latter purpose, are, I think, better reserved for notes under the principal rules. The doctrines which I conceive most worthy to form the leading canons of our syntax, are those which are expressed in the twenty-four rules above. If other authors prefer more, or fewer, or different principles for their chief rules, I must suppose, it is because they have studied the subject less. Biased, as we may be, both by our knowledge and by our ignorance, it is easy for men to differ respecting matters of expediency; but that clearness, order, and consistency, are both expedient, and requisite, in didactic compositions, is what none can doubt.
OBS. 7.--Those English grammarians who tell us, as above, that syntax is divided into parts, or included under a certain number of heads, have almost universally contradicted themselves by treating the subject without any regard to such a division; and, at the same time, not a few have somehow been led into the gross error of supposing broad principles of concord or government where no such things exist. For example, they have invented general RULES like these: "The adjective agrees with its noun in number, case, and gender."--Bingham's English Gram., p. 40. "Interjections govern the nominative case, and sometimes the objective: as, 'O thou! alas me!'"--Ib., p. 43. "Adjectives agree with their nouns in number."--Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 22. "Participles agree with their nouns in number."--Ib., p. 23. "Every adjective agrees in number with some substantive expressed or understood."-- Hiley's Gram., Rule 8th, p. 77. "The article THE agrees with nouns in either number: as, The wood, the woods."--Bucke's Classical Grammar of the English Language, p. 84. "O! oh! ah! require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first person after them: as 'Ah me!' But when the second person is used, it requires a nominative case: as, 'O thou!'"--Ib., p. 87. "Two or more Nominatives in the singular number, connected by the Conjunction or, nor, EITHER, NEITHER, govern a singular Verb. But Pronouns singular, of different persons, joined by or, EITHER, nor, NEITHER, govern a plural Verb."--Ib., p. 94. "One Nominative frequently governs many Verbs."--Ib., p. 95. "Participles are sometimes governed by the article."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 192. "An adverb, an adjective, or a participle, may involve in itself the force of a preposition, and govern the objective case."--Nutting's Gram., p. 99. "The nominative case governs the verb." [326]--Greenleaf's Gram., p. 32; Kirkham's, 176; and others. "The nominative case comes before the verb."--Bingham's Gram., p. 38; Wilbur and Livingston's, 23. "The Verb TO BE, always governs a Nominative, unless it be of the Infinitive Mood."--Buchanan's Syntax, p. 94. "A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 187. Or, (as a substitute for the foregoing rule,) say, according to this author: "A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor."--Ib., p. 188. Now what does he know of English grammar, who supposes any of these rules to be worthy of the place which they hold, or have held, in the halls of instruction?
OBS. 8.--It is a very common fault with the compilers of English grammars, to join together in the same rule the syntax of different parts of speech, uniting laws that must ever be applied separately in parsing. For example: "RULE XI. Articles and adjectives relate to nouns expressed or understood; and the adjectives this, that, one, two, must agree in number with the nouns to which they relate."--Comly's Gram., p. 87. Now, in parsing an article, why should the learner have to tell all this story about adjectives? Such a mode of expressing the rule, is certainly in bad taste; and, after all, the syntax of adjectives is not here comprised, for they often relate to pronouns. "RULE III. Every adjective and participle belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood."--Frost's El. of Gram., p. 44. Here a compiler who in his etymology supposes participles to be verbs, allows them no other construction than that of adjectives. His rule implicitly denies that they can either be parts of their verbs in the formation of tenses, or be governed by prepositions in the character of gerunds. To suppose that a noun may govern the objective case, is both absurd in itself, and contrary to all authority; yet, among his forty-nine rules, this author has the following: "RULE XXV. A participial noun is sometimes governed by a preposition, and may govern an objective case; as, 'George is too fond of wasting time in trifles.'"--Frost's El. of Gram., p. 47. Here again is the fault of which I am speaking, two rules in one; and this fault is combined with an other still worse. Wasting is a participle, governed by of; and time is a noun, governed by wasting. The latter is a declinable word, and found in the objective case; the former is indeclinable, and found in no case. It is an error to suppose that cases are the only things which are susceptible of being governed; nor is the brief rule, "Prepositions govern the objective case," so very clear a maxim as never to be misapprehended. If the learner infer from it, that all prepositions must necessarily govern the objective case, or that the objective case is always governed by a preposition, he will be led into a great mistake.
OBS. 9.--This error of crowding things together, is still more conspicuous in the following examples: "RULE IV. Every article, adjective, and participle, must qualify some noun, or pronoun, either expressed or understood."--Nutting's Gram., p. 94. "RULE IX. The objective case is governed by a transitive verb or a preposition, usually coming before it."--Ib., p. 98. Here an author who separates participles from verbs, has attempted first to compress the entire syntax of three different parts of speech into one short rule; and, secondly, to embrace all the forms of dependence, incident to objective nouns and pronouns, in an other as short. This brevity is a poor exchange for the order and distribution which it prevents--especially as none of its objects are here reached. Articles do not relate to pronouns, unless the obsolete phrase the which is to be revived;[327] participles have other constructions than those which adjectives admit; there are exceptions to the rules which tie articles to nouns, and adjectives to nouns or pronouns; and the objective case may not only be governed by a participle, but may be put in apposition with an other objective. The objective case in English usually stands for the Latin genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative; hence any rule that shall embrace the whole construction of this one case, will be the sole counterpart to four fifths of all the rules in any code of Latin syntax. For I imagine the construction of these four oblique cases, will be found to occupy at least that proportion of the syntactical rules and notes in any Latin grammar that can be found. Such rules, however, are often placed under false or equivocal titles;[328] as if they contained the construction of the governing words, rather than that of the governed. And this latter error, again, has been transferred to most of our English grammars, to the exclusion of any rule for the proper construction of participles, of adverbs, of conjunctions, of prepositions, or of interjections. See the syntax of Murray and his copyists, whose treatment of these parts of speech is noticed in the fifth observation above.
OBS. 10.--It is doubtless most convenient, that, in all rules for the construction of cases, nouns and pronouns be taken together; because the very same doctrines apply equally well to both, and a case is as distinct a thing in the mind, as a part of speech. This method, therefore, I have myself pursued; and it has indeed the authority of all grammarians--not excepting those who violate its principles by adopting two special rules for the relative pronoun, which are not needed. These special rules, which I shall notice again hereafter, may be seen in Murray's Rule 6th, which is double, and contains them both. The most complex rule that I have admitted, is that which embraces the government of objectives by verbs and participles. The regimen by verbs, and the regimen by participles, may not improperly be reckoned distinct principles; but the near alliance of participles to their verbs, seems to be a sufficient reason for preferring one rule to two, in this instance.
OBS. 11.--An other common fault in the treatment of this part of grammar, is the practice of making many of the rules double, or even triple, in their form. Of L. Murray's twenty-two rules, for instance, there are six which severally consist of two distinct paragraphs; and one is composed of three such parts, with examples under each. Five others, though simple in their form, are complex in their doctrine, and liable to the objections which have been urged above against this characteristic. These twelve, therefore, I either reject entirely from my catalogue, or divide and simplify to fit them for their purpose. In short, by comparing the twenty-two rules which were adopted by this popular grammarian, with the twenty-four which are given in this work, the reader may see, that twelve of the former have pleased me too little to have any place at all among the latter, and that none of the remaining ten have been thought worthy to be copied without considerable alteration. Nor are the rules which I adopt, more nearly coincident with those of any other writer. I do not proffer to the schools the second-hand instructions of a mere compiler. In his twenty-two rules, independently of their examples, Hurray has used six hundred and seventeen words, thus giving an average of twenty-eight to each rule; whereas in the twenty-four rules which are presented above, the words are but four hundred and thirty-six, making the average less than nineteen. And yet I have not only divided some of his propositions and extended others, but, by rejecting what was useless or erroneous, and filling up the deficiencies which mark his code, I have delivered twice the amount of doctrine in two thirds of the space, and furnished eleven important rules which are not contained in his grammar. Thus much, in this place, to those who so frequently ask, "Wherein does your book differ from Murray's?"
OBS. 12.--Of all the systems of syntax, or of grammar, which it has been my fortune to examine, a book which was first published by Robinson and Franklin of New York in 1839, a fair-looking duodecimo volume of 384 pages, under the brief but rather ostentatious title, "THE GRAMMAR of the English Language" is, I think, the most faulty,--the most remarkable for the magnitude, multitude, and variety, of its strange errors, inconsistencies, and defects. This singular performance is the work of Oliver B. Peirce, an itinerant lecturer on grammar, who dates his preface at "Rome, N. Y., December 29th, 1838." Its leading characteristic is boastful innovation; it being fall of acknowledged "contempt for the works of other writers."--P. 379. It lays "claim to singularity" as a merit, and boasts of a new thing under the sun--"in a theory RADICALLY NEW, a Grammar of the English Language; something which I believe," says the author, "has NEVER BEFORE BEEN FOUND."--P. 9. The old scholastic notion, that because Custom is the arbitress of speech, novelty is excluded from grammar, this hopeful reformer thoroughly condemns; "repudiating this sentiment to the full extent of it," (ib.) and "writing his theory as though he had never seen a book, entitled an English Grammar."--Ib. And, for all the ends of good learning, it would have been as well or better, if he never had. His passion for novelty has led him not only to abandon or misapply, in an unprecedented degree, the usual terms of the art, but to disregard in many instances its most unquestionable principles, universal as well as particular. His parts of speech are the following ten: "Names, Substitutes, Asserters, Adnames, Modifiers, Relatives, Connectives, Interrogatives, Repliers, and Exclamations."--The Gram., p. 20. His names are nouns; his substitutes are pronouns, and any adjectives whose nouns are not expressed; his asserters are verbs and participles, though the latter assert nothing; his adnames are articles, adjectives whose nouns or pronouns are expressed, and adverbs that relate to adjectives; his modifiers are such adverbs as "modify the sense or sound of a whole sentence;" his relatives are prepositions, some of which govern no object; his connectives are conjunctions, with certain adverbs and phrases; his interrogatives and repliers are new parts of speech, very lamely explained; his exclamations are interjections, and "phrases used independently; as, O hapless choice!"--The Gram., p. 22. In parsing, he finds a world of "accommodatives;" as, "John is more than five years older than William."--Ib. p. 202. Here he calls the whole phrase "more than five years" "a secondary adname" i. e., adjective. But, in the phrase, "more than five years afterwards," he would call the same words "a secondary modifier;" i. e., adverb.--Ib., p. 203. And, in the phrase, "more than five years before the war," he would call them "a secondary relative;" i. e., preposition.--Ib., p. 204. And so of other phrases innumerable. His cases are five, two of which are new, "the Independent" and "the Twofold case." His "independent case" is sometimes the nominative in form, as "thou" and "she;" (p. 62;) sometimes the objective, as, "me" and "him;" (p. 62 and p. 199;) sometimes erroneously supposed to be the subject of a finite verb; while his nominative is sometimes as erroneously said to have no verb. His code of syntax has two sorts of rules, Analytical and Synthetical. The former are professedly seventeen in number; but, many of them consisting of two, three, or four distinct parts, their real number is more properly thirty-four. The latter are reckoned forty-five; but if we count their separate parts, they are fifty-six: and these with the others make ninety. I shall not particularize their faults. All of them are whimsically conceived and badly written. In short, had the author artfully designed to turn English grammar into a subject of contempt and ridicule, by as ugly a caricature of it as he could possibly invent, he could never have hit the mark more exactly than he has done in this "new theory"--this rash production, on which he so sincerely prides himself. Alone as he is, in well-nigh all his opinions, behold how prettily he talks of "COMMON SENSE, the only sure foundation of any theory!" and says, "On this imperishable foundation--this rock of eternal endurance--I rear my superstructure, the edifice of scientific truth, the temple of Grammatical consistency!"--Peirce's Preface, p. 7.
OBS. 13.--For the teaching of different languages, it has been thought very desirable to have "a Series of grammars, Greek, Latin, English, &c., all, so far as general principles are concerned, upon the same plan, and as nearly in the same words as the genius of the languages would permit."--See Bullions's Principles of E. Gram., 2d Ed., pp. iv and vi. This scheme necessarily demands a minute comparison not only of the several languages themselves, but also of the various grammars in which their principles, whether general or particular, are developed. For by no other means can it be ascertained to what extent uniformity of this kind will be either profitable to the learner, or consistent with truth. Some books have been published, which, it is pretended, are thus accommodated to one an other, and to the languages of which they treat. But, in view of the fact, that the Latin or the Greek grammars now extant, (to say nothing of the French, Spanish, and others,) are almost as various and as faulty as the English, I am apprehensive that this is a desideratum not soon to be realized,--a design more plausible in the prospectus, than feasible in the attempt. At any rate, the grammars of different languages must needs differ as much as do the languages themselves, otherwise some of their principles will of course be false; and we have already seen that the nonobservance of this has been a fruitful source of error in respect to English syntax. The achievement, however, is not altogether impossible, if a man of competent learning will devote to it a sufficient degree of labour. But the mere revising or altering of some one grammar in each language, can scarcely amount to any thing more than a pretence of improvement. Waiving the pettiness of compiling upon the basis of an other man's compilation, the foundation of a good grammar for any language, must be both deeper and broader than all the works which Professor Bullions has selected to build upon: for the Greek, than Dr. Moor's "Elementa Linguæ, Græcæ;" for the Latin, than Dr. Adam's "Rudiments of Latin and English Grammar;" for the English, than Murray's "English Grammar," or Lennie's "Principles of English Grammar;" which last work, in fact, the learned gentleman preferred, though he pretends to have mended the code of Murray. But, certainly, Lennie never supposed himself a copyist of Murray; nor was he to much extent an imitator of him, either in method or in style.
OBS. 14.--We have, then, in this new American form of "The Principles of English Grammar," Lennie's very compact little book, altered, enlarged, and bearing on its title-page (which is otherwise in the very words of Lennie) an other author's name, and, in its early editions, the false and self-accusing inscription, "(ON THE PLAN OF MURRAY'S GRAMMAR.)" And this work, claiming to have been approved "by the most competent judges," now challenges the praise not only of being "better adapted to the use of academies and schools than any yet published" but of so presenting "the rules and principles of general grammar, as that they may apply to, and be in perfect harmony with, the grammars of the dead languages"-- Recommendations, p. iv. These are admirable professions for a critical author to publish; especially, as every rule or principle of General Grammar, condemning as it must whoever violates it, cannot but "be in perfect harmony with" every thing that is true. In this model for all grammars, Latin, Greek, &c., the doctrines of punctuation, of abbreviations, and of capital letters, and also sections on the rhetorical divisions of a discourse, the different kinds of composition, the different kinds of prose composition, and the different kinds of poetry, are made parts of the Syntax; while his hints for correct and elegant writing, and his section on the composition of letters and themes, which other writers suppose to belong rather to syntax, are here subjoined as parts of Prosody. In the exercises for parsing appended to his Etymology, the Doctor furnishes twenty-five Rules of Syntax, which, he says, "are not intended to be committed to memory, but to be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them."--E. Gram., p. 75. Then, for his syntax proper, he copies from Lennie, with some alterations, thirty-four other rules, nine of which are double, and all are jumbled together by both authors, without any regard to the distinction of concord and government, so common in the grammars of the dead languages, and even, so far as I can discover, without any principle of arrangement whatever. They profess indeed to have placed those rules first, which are eaisest [sic--KTH] to learn, and oftenest to be applied; but the syntax of articles, which even on this principle should have formed the first of the series, is placed by Lennie as the thirty-fourth rule, and by his amender as the thirty-second. To all this complexity the latter adds twenty-two Special Rules, with an abundance of "Notes" "Observations" and "Remarks" distinguished by these titles, on some principle which no one but the author can understand. Lastly, his method of syntactical parsing is not only mixed up with etymological questions and answers, but his directions for it, with their exemplification, are perplexingly at variance with his own specimen of the performance. See his book, pages 131 and 133. So much for this grand scheme.
OBS. 15.--Strictures like the foregoing, did they not involve the defence of grammar itself, so as to bear upon interests more important than the success or failure of an elementary book, might well be withheld through motives of charity, economy, and peace. There is many a grammar now extant, concerning which a truly critical reader may know more at first sight, than ever did he that made it. What such a reader will be inclined to rate beneath criticism, an other perhaps will confidently pronounce above it. If my remarks are just, let the one approve them for the other's sake. For what becomes of the teaching of grammar, when that which is received as the most excellent method, must be exempted from censure by reason of its utter worthlessness? And what becomes of Universal Syntax, when the imperfect systems of the Latin and Greek grammars, in stead of being amended, are modelled to the grossest faults of what is worthless in our own?[329]
OBS. 16.--What arrangement of Latin or Greek syntax may be best in itself, I am not now concerned to show. Lily did not divide his, as others have divided the subject since; but first stated briefly his three concords, and then proceeded to what he called the construction of the several parts of speech, taking them in their order. The three concords of Lily are the following: (1.) Of the Nominative and Verb; to which the accusative before an infinitive, and the collective noun with a plural verb, are reckoned exceptions; while the agreement of a verb or pronoun with two or more nouns, is referred to the figure syllepsis. (2.) Of the Substantive and Adjective; under which the agreement of participles, and of some pronouns, is placed in the form of a note. (3.) Of the Relative and Antecedent; after which the two special rules for the cases of relatives are given as underparts. Dr. Adam divided his syntax into two parts; of Simple Sentences, and of Compound Sentences. His three concords are the following: (1.) Of one Substantive with an Other; which construction is placed by Lily and many others among the figures of syntax, and is called apposition. (2.) Of an Adjective with a Substantive; under which principle, we are told to take adjective pronouns and participles. (3.) Of a Verb with a Nominative; under which, the collective noun with a verb of either number, is noticed in an observation. The construction of relatives, of conjunctions, of comparatives, and of words put absolute, this author reserves for the second part of his syntax; and the agreement of plural verbs or pronouns with joint nominatives or antecedents, which Ruddiman places in an observation on his four concords, is here absurdly reckoned a part of the construction of conjunctions. Various divisions and subdivisions of the Latin syntax, with special dispositions of some particular principles of it, may be seen in the elaborate grammars of Despauter, Prat, Ruddiman, Grant, and other writers. And here it may be proper to observe, that, the mixing of syntax with etymology, after the manner of Ingersoll, Kirkham, R. W. Green, R. C. Smith, Sanborn, Felton, Hazen, Parkhurst, Parker and Fox, Weld, and others, is a modern innovation, pernicious to both; either topic being sufficiently comprehensive, and sufficiently difficult, when they are treated separately; and each having, in some instances, employed the pens of able writers almost to the exclusion of the other.
OBS. 17.--The syntax of any language must needs conform to the peculiarities of its etymology, and also be consistent with itself; for all will expect better things of a scholar, than to lay down positions in one part of his grammar, that are irreconcilable with what he has stated in an other. The English language, having few inflections, has also few concords or agreements, and still fewer governments. Articles, adjectives, and participles, which in many other languages agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case, have usually, in English, no modifications in which they can agree with their nouns. Yet Lowth says, "The adjective in English, having no variation of gender and number, cannot but agree with the substantive in these respects."--Short Introd. to Gram., p. 86. What then is the agreement of words? Can it be anything else than their similarity in some common property or modification? And is it not obvious, that no two things in nature can at all agree, or be alike, except in some quality or accident which belongs to each of them? Yet how often have Murray and others, as well as Lowth, forgotten this! To give one instance out of many: "Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it."--Murray, J. Peirce, Flint, Lyon, Bacon, Russell, Fisk, Maltby, Alger, Miller, Merchant, Kirkham, and other careless copyists. Yet, according to these same gentlemen, "Gender is the distinction of nouns, with regard to sex;" and, "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender." Now, not one of these three careless assertions can possibly be reconciled with either of the others!
OBS. 18.--Government has respect only to nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, and prepositions; the other five parts of speech neither govern nor are governed. The governing words may be either nouns, or verbs, or participles, or prepositions; the words governed are either nouns, or pronouns, or verbs, or participles. In parsing, the learner must remember that the rules of government are not to be applied to the governing words, but to those which are governed; and which, for the sake of brevity, are often technically named after the particular form or modification assumed; as, possessives, objectives, infinitives, gerundives. These are the only things in English, that can properly be said to be subject to government; and these are always so, in their own names; unless we except such infinitives as stand in the place of nominatives. Gerundives are participles governed by prepositions; but, there being little or no occasion to distinguish these from other participles, we seldom use this name. The Latin Gerund differs from a participle, and the English Gerundive differs from a participial noun. The participial noun may be the subject or the object of a verb, or may govern the possessive case before it, like any other noun; but the true English gerundive, being essentially a participle, and governing an object after it, like any other participle, is itself governed only by a preposition. At least, this is its usual and allowed construction, and no other is acknowledged to be indisputably right.
OBS. 19.--The simple Relations of words in English, (or those several uses of the parts of speech which we may refer to this head,) are the following nine: (1.) Of Articles to nouns, by Rule 1st; (2.) Of Nominatives to verbs, by Rule 2d; (3.) Of Nominatives absolute or independent, by Rule 8th; (4.) Of Adjectives to nouns or pronouns, by Rule 9th; (5.) Of Participles to nouns or pronouns, by Rule 20th; (6.) Of Adverbs to verbs, participles, &c., by Rule 21st; (7.) Of Conjunctions as connecting words, phrases, or sentences, by Rule 22nd; (8.) Of Prepositions as showing the relations of things, by Rule 23d; (9.) Of Interjections as being used independently, by Rule 24th.
OBS. 20.--The syntactical Agreements in English, though actually much fewer than those which occur in Latin, Greek, or French, may easily be so reckoned as to amount to double, or even triple, the number usually spoken of by the old grammarians. The twenty-four rules above, embrace the following ten heads, which may not improperly be taken for so many distinct concords: (1.) Of a Noun or Pronoun in direct apposition with another, by Rule 3d; (2.) Of a Noun or Pronoun after a verb or participle not transitive, by Rule 6th; (3.) Of a Pronoun with its antecedent, by Rule 10th; (4.) Of a Pronoun with a collective noun, by Rule 11th; (5.) Of a Pronoun with joint antecedents, by Rule 12th; (6.) Of a Pronoun with disjunct antecedents, by Rule 13th; (7.) Of a Verb with its nominative, by Rule 14th; (8.) Of a Verb with a collective noun, by Rule 15th; (9.) Of a Verb with joint nominatives, by Rule 16th; (10.) Of a Verb with disjunct nominatives, by Rule 17th. To these may be added two other special concords, less common and less important, which will be explained in notes under the rules: (11.) Of one Verb with an other, in mood, tense, and form, when two are connected so as to agree with the same nominative; (12.) Of Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, with their nouns, in number.
OBS. 21.--Again, by a different mode of reckoning them, the concords or the general principles of agreement, in our language, may be made to be only three or four; and some of these much less general, than they are in other languages: (1.) Words in apposition agree in case, according to Rule 3d; of which principle, Rule 6th may be considered a modification. (2.) Pronouns agree, with their nouns, in person, number, and gender, according to Rule 10th; of which principle, Rules 11th, 12th, and 13th, may be reckoned modifications. (3.) Verbs agree with their nominatives, in person and number, according to Rule 14th; of which principle Rules 15th, 16th, and 17th, and the occasional agreement of one verb with an other, may be esteemed mere modifications. (4.) Some adjectives agree with their nouns in number. These make up the twelve concords above enumerated.
OBS. 22.--The rules of Government in the best Latin grammars are about sixty; and these are usually distributed (though not very properly) under three heads; "1. Of Nouns. 2. Of Verbs. 3. Of Words indeclinable."-- Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 170. "Regimen est triplex: 1. Nominum. 2. Verborum. 3. Vocum indeclinabilium."--Ruddiman's Gram., p. 138. This division of the subject brings all the titles of the rules wrong. For example, if the rule be, "Active verbs govern the accusative case," this is not properly "the government of verbs" but rather the government of the accusative by verbs. At least, such titles are equivocal, and likely to mislead the learner. The governments in English are only seven, and these are expressed, perhaps with sufficient distinctness, in six of the foregoing rules: (1.) Of Possessives by nouns, in Rule 4th; (2.) Of Objectives by verbs, in Rule 5th; (3.) Of Objectives by participles, in Rule 5th; (4.) Of Objectives by prepositions, in Rule 7th; (5.) Of Infinitives by the preposition to, in Rule 18th; (6.) Of Infinitives by the verbs bid, dare, &c., in Rule 19th; (7.) Of Participles by prepositions, in Rule 20th.
OBS. 23.--The Arrangement of words, (which will be sufficiently treated of in the observations hereafter to be made on the several rules of construction,) is an important part of syntax, in which not only the beauty but the propriety of language is intimately concerned, and to which particular attention should therefore be paid in composition. But it is to be remembered, that the mere collocation of words in a sentence never affects the method of parsing them: on the contrary, the same words, however placed, are always to be parsed in precisely the same way, so long as they express precisely the same meaning. In order to show that we have parsed any part of an inverted or difficult sentence rightly, we are at liberty to declare the meaning by any arrangement which will make the construction more obvious, provided we retain both the sense and all the words unaltered; but to drop or alter any word, is to pervert the text under pretence of resolving it, and to make a mockery of parsing. Grammar rightly learned, enables one to understand both the sense and the construction of whatsoever is rightly written; and he who reads what he does not understand, reads to little purpose. With great indignity to the muses, several pretenders to grammar have foolishly taught, that, "In parsing poetry, in order to come at the meaning of the author, the learner will find it necessary to transpose his language."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 166. See also the books of Merchant, Wilcox, O. B. Peirce, Hull, Smith, Felton, and others, to the same effect. To what purpose can he transpose the words of a sentence, who does not first see what they mean, and how to explain or parse them as they stand?
OBS. 24.--Errors innumerable have been introduced into the common modes of parsing, through a false notion of what constitutes a simple sentence. Lowth, Adam, Murray, Gould, Smith, Ingersoll, Comly, Lennie, Hiley, Bullions, Wells, and many others, say, "A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite verb: as, 'Life is short.'"--L. Murray's Gram., p. 141. In accordance with this assertion, some assume, that, "Every nominative has its own verb expressed or understood;" and that, "Every verb (except in the infinitive mood and participle) has its own nominative expressed or understood."--Bullions's E. Gram., p. 87. The adopters of these dogmas, of course think it right to supply a nominative whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every finite verb, and a verb whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every nominative. This mode of interpretation not only precludes the agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives, so as to render nugatory two of the most important rules of these very gentlemen's syntax; but, what is worse, it perverts many a plain, simple, and perfect sentence, to a form which its author did not choose, and a meaning which he never intended. Suppose, for example, the text to be, "A good constitution and good laws make good subjects."--Webster's Essays, p. 152. Does not the verb make agree with constitution and laws, taken conjointly? and is it not a perversion of the sentence to interpret it otherwise? Away then with all this needless subaudition! But while we thus deny that there can be a true ellipsis of what is not necessary to the construction, it is not to be denied that there are true ellipses, and in some men's style very many. The assumption of O. B. Peirce, that no correct sentence is elliptical, and his impracticable project of a grammar founded on this principle, are among the grossest of possible absurdities.
OBS. 25.--Dr. Wilson says, "There may be several subjects to the same verb, several verbs to the same subject, or several objects to the same verb, and the sentence be simple. But when the sentence remains simple, the same verb must be differently affected by its several adjuncts, or the sense liable to be altered by a separation. If the verb or the subject be affected in the same manner, or the sentence is resolvable into more, it is compounded. Thus, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, mixed in due proportion, produce white,' is a simple sentence, for the subject is indivisible. But, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, are refrangible rays of light,' is a compound sentence, and may be separated into seven."--Essay on Gram., p. 186. The propriety of the distinction here made, is at least questionable; and I incline to consider the second example a simple sentence, as well as the first; because what the writer calls a separation into seven, involves a change of are to is, and of rays to ray, as well as a sevenfold repetition of this altered predicate, "is a refrangible ray of light." But the parser, in interpreting the words of others, and expounding the construction of what is written, has no right to alter anything in this manner. Nor do I admit that he has a right to insert or repeat anything needlessly; for the nature of a sentence, or the syntax of some of its words, may often be altered without change of the sense, or of any word for an other: as, "'A wall seven feet high;' that is, 'A wall which is seven feet high.'"--Hiley's Gram., p. 109. "'He spoke and acted prudently;' that is, 'He spoke prudently, and he acted prudently.'"--Ibid. '"He spoke and acted wisely;' that is, 'He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely.'"--Murray's Gram., p. 219; Alger's, 70: R. C. Smith's, 183; Weld's, 192; and others. By this notion of ellipsis, the connexion or joint relation of words is destroyed.
OBS. 26.--Dr. Adam, who thought the division of sentences into simple and compound, of sufficient importance to be made the basis of a general division of syntax into two parts, has defined a simple sentence to be, "that which has but one nominative, and one finite verb;" and a compound sentence, "that which has more than one nominative, or one finite verb." And of the latter he gives the following erroneous and self-contradictory account: "A compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences or phrases, and is commonly called a Period. The parts of which a compound sentence consists, are called Members or Clauses. In every compound sentence there are either several subjects and one attribute, or several attributes and one subject, or both several subjects and several attributes; that is, there are either several nominatives applied to the same verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative, or both. Every verb marks a judgment or attribute, and every attribute must have a subject. There must, therefore, be in every sentence or period, as many propositions as there are verbs of a finite mode. Sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions; as, Happy is the man who loveth religion, and practiseth virtue."--Adam's Gram., p. 202; Gould's, 199; and others.
OBS. 27.--Now if every compound sentence consists of such parts, members, or clauses, as are in themselves sentences, either simple or compound, either elliptical or complete; it is plain, in the first place, that the term "phrases" is misapplied above, because a phrase is properly only a part of some simple sentence. And if "a simple sentence is that which has but one nominative and one finite verb," and "a compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences," it follows, since "all sentences are either simple or compound," that, in no sentence, can there be "either several nominatives applied to the same verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative." What, therefore, this author regarded as the characteristic of all compound sentences, is, according to his own previous positions, utterly impossible to any sentence. Nor is it less repugnant to his subsequent doctrine, that, "Sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions;" for, according to his notion, "A conjunction is an indeclinable word, which serves to join sentences together."--Adam's Gram., p. 149. It is assumed, that, "In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative expressed or understood."--Ib., p. 151. Now if there happen to be two nominatives to one verb, as when it was said, "Even the winds and the sea obey him;" this cannot be anything more than a simple sentence; because one single verb is a thing indivisible, and how can we suppose it to form the most essential part of two different sentences at once?
OBS. 28.--The distinction, or real difference, between those simple sentences in which two or more nominatives or verbs are taken conjointly, and those compound sentences in which there is an ellipsis of some of the nominatives or verbs, is not always easy to be known or fixed; because in many instances, a supposed ellipsis, without at all affecting the sense, may obviously change the construction, and consequently the nature of the sentence. For example: "And they all forsook him, and [they all] fled."--Mark, xiv, 50. Some will say, that the words in brackets are here understood. I may deny it, because they are needless; and nothing needless can form a true ellipsis. To the supplying of useless words, if we admit the principle, there may be no end; and the notion that conjunctions join sentences only, opens a wide door for it. For example: "And that man was perfect and upright, and one that feared God, and eschewed evil."--Job, i, 1. No additional words will make this clause any plainer, and none are really necessary to the construction; yet some grammarians will parse it with the following impletions, or more: "And that man was a perfect man, and he was an upright man, and he was one man that feared God, and that eschewed evil things." It is easy to see how this liberty of interpretation, or of interpolation, will change simple sentences to compound sentences, as well as alter the nature and relation of many particular words; and at the same time, it takes away totally those peculiarities of construction by which Dr. Adam and others would recognize a sentence as being compound. What then? are there not two kinds of sentences? Yes, truly; but these authors are wrong in their notions and definitions of both. Joint nominatives or joint verbs may occur in either; but they belong primarily to some simple sentences, and only for that reason are found in any that are compound. A sentence, too, may possibly be made compound, when a simple one would express the whole meaning as well or better; as, "And [David] smote the Philistines from Geba until thou come to Gazer."--2 Sam., v, 25. Here, if we omit the words in Italics, the sentence will become simple, not elliptical.
THE ANALYZING OF SENTENCES.
To analyze a sentence, is, to resolve it into some species of constituent parts, but most properly into words, its first significant elements, and to point out their several relations and powers in the given connexion.
The component parts of a sentence are members, clauses, phrases, or words. Some sentences, which are short and simple, can only be divided into their words; others, which are long and complex, may be resolved into parts again and again divisible.
Of analysis applicable to sentences, there are several different methods; and, so far as their difference may compatibly aid the application of different principles of the science of grammar, there may be an advantage in the occasional use of each.
FIRST METHOD OF ANALYSIS.
Sentences not simple may be reduced to their constituent members, clauses, or simple sentences; and the means by which these are united, may be shown. Thus:--
EXAMPLE ANALYZED.
"Even the Atheist, who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible--even he, who, instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties, sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism--even he, who would despoil creation of its God, cannot look upon its golden suns, and their accompanying systems, without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him."--DR. CHALMERS, Discourses on Revelation and Astronomy, p. 231.
ANALYSIS.--This is a compound sentence, consisting of three complex members, which are separated by the two dashes. The three members are united in one sentence, by a suspension of the sense at each dash, and by two virtual repetitions of the subject, "Atheist" through the pronoun "he," put in the same case, and representing this noun. The sense mainly intended is not brought out till the period ends. Each of the three members is complex, because each has not only a relative clause, commencing with "who," but also an antecedent word which makes sense with "cannot look," &c. The first of these relative clauses involves also a subordinate, supplementary clause,--"the universe is self-existent and indestructible"--introduced after the verb "tells" by the conjunction "that." The last phrase, "without the solemn impression," &c., which is subjoined by "without" to "cannot look," embraces likewise a subordinate, relative clause,--"that fixes and overpowers him,"--which has two verbs; the whole, antecedent and all, being but an adjunct of an adjunct, yet an essential element of the sentence.
SECOND METHOD OF ANALYSIS.
Simple sentences, or the simple members of compound sentences, may be resolved into their PRINCIPAL and their SUBORDINATE PARTS; the subject, the verb, and the case put after or governed by the verb, being first pointed out as THE PRINCIPAL PARTS; and the other words being then detailed as ADJUNCTS to these, according to THE SENSE, or as adjuncts to adjuncts. Thus:--
EXAMPLE ANALYZED.
"Fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive, with his utmost efforts; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course."--DR. JOHNSON, Rasselas, p. 23.
ANALYSIS.--The first period here is a simple sentence. Its principal parts are--Fear, quickens, flight; Fear being the subject, quickens the verb, and flight the object. Fear has no adjunct; naturally is an adjunct of quickens; the and of guilt are adjuncts of flight. The second period is composed of several clauses, or simple members, united. The first of these is also a simple sentence, having, three principal parts--Rasselas, could catch, and fugitive; the subject, the verb, and its object, in their order. Not is added to could catch, reversing the meaning; the is an adjunct to fugitive; with joins its phrase to could not catch; but his and utmost are adjuncts of efforts. The word but connects the two chief members as parts of one sentence. "Resolving to weary" is an adjunct to the pronoun he, which stands before pressed. "By perseverance," is an adjunct to weary. Him is governed by weary, and is the antecedent to whom. "Whom he could not surpass in speed," is a relative clause, or subordinate simple member, having three principal parts--he, could surpass, and whom. Not and in speed are adjuncts to the verb could surpass. "He pressed on" is an other simple member, or sentence, and the chief clause here used, the others being subjoined to this. Its principal parts are two, he and pressed; the latter taking the particle on as an adjunct, and being intransitive. The words dependent on the nominative he, (to wit, resolving, &c.,) have already been mentioned. Till is a conjunctive adverb of time, connecting the concluding clause to pressed on. "The foot of the mountain stopped his course," is a subordinate clause and simple member, whose principal parts are--the subject foot, the verb stopped, and the object course. The adjuncts of foot are the and of the mountain; the verb in this sentence has no adjunct but course, which is better reckoned a principal word; lastly, his is an adjunct to course, and governed by it.
THIRD METHOD OF ANALYSIS.
Sentences may be partially analyzed by a resolution into their SUBJECTS and their PREDICATES, a method which some late grammarians have borrowed from the logicians; the grammatical subject with its adjuncts, being taken for the logical subject; and the finite verb, which some call the grammatical predicate[330] being, with its subsequent case and the adjuncts of both, denominated the predicate, or the logical predicate. Thus:--
EXAMPLE ANALYZED.
"Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment, that we are always impatient of the present. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession, by disgust. Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking. From the first hint that wakens the fancy, to the hour of actual execution, all is improvement and progress, triumph and felicity."--DR. JOHNSON, Rambler.
ANALYSIS.--Here the first period is a compound sentence, containing two clauses,--which are connected by that. In the first clause, emptiness is the grammatical subject, and "the emptiness of human enjoyment" is the logical. Is some would call the grammatical predicate, and "Such is," or is such, the logical; but the latter consists, as the majority teach, of "the copula" is, and "the attribute," or "predicate," such. In the second clause, (which explains the import of "Such,") the subject is we; which is unmodified, and in which therefore the logical form and the grammatical coincide and are the same. Are may here be called the grammatical predicate; and "are always impatient of the present," the logical. The second period, too, is a compound sentence, having two clauses, which are connected by and. Attainment is the subject of the former; and, "is followed by neglect" is the predicate. In the latter, possession alone is the subject; and, "[is followed] by disgust," is the predicate; the verb is followed being understood at the comma. The third period, likewise, is a compound, having three parts, with the two connectives than and which. Here we have moments for the first grammatical subject, and Few moments for the logical; then, are for the grammatical predicate, and are more pleasing for the logical: or, if we choose to say so, for "the copula and the attribute." "Than those," is an elliptical member, meaning, "than are those moments," or, "than those moments are pleasing;" both subject and predicate are wholly suppressed, except that those is reckoned a part of the logical subject. In which is an adjunct of is concerting, and serves well to connect the members, because which represents those, i.e. those moments. Mind, or the mind, is the next subject of affirmation; and is concerting, or, "is concerting measures for a new undertaking," is the predicate or matter affirmed. Lastly, the fourth period, like the rest, is compound. The phrases commencing with From and to, describe a period of time, and are adjuncts of the verb is. The former contains a subordinate relative clause, of which that (representing hint) is the subject, and wakens, or wakens the fancy, the predicate. Of the principal clause, the word all, taken as a noun, is the subject, whether grammatical or logical; and "the copula," or "grammatical predicate," is, becomes, with its adjuncts and the nominatives following, the logical predicate.
FOURTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS.
All syntax is founded on the RELATION of words one to an other, and the CONNEXION of clauses and phrases, according to THE SENSE. Hence sentences may be, in some sort, analyzed, and perhaps profitably, by the tracing of such relation or connexion, from link to link, through a series of words, beginning and ending with such as are somewhat remote from each other, yet within the period. Thus:--
EXAMPLES ANALYZED.
1. "Swift would say, 'The thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet;' Johnson, 'The creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction.'"--MATT. HARRISON, on the English Language, p. 102. ANALYSIS.--What is the general sense of this passage? and what, the chain of connexion between the words Swift and putrefaction? The period is designed to show, that Swift preferred words of Saxon origin; and Johnson, of Latin. It has in contrast two coördinate members, tacitly connected: the verb would say being understood after Johnson, and perhaps also the particle but, after the semicolon. Swift is the subject of would say; and would say introduces the clause after it, as what would be said. The relates to thing; thing is the subject of has; has, which is qualified by not, governs life; life is qualified by the adjective enough, and by the phrase, in it; enough is the prior term of to; to governs keep; keep governs it, which stands for the thing; and it, in lieu of the thing, is qualified by sweet. The chief members are connected either by standing in contrast as members, or by but, understood before Johnson. Johnson is the subject of would say, understood: and this would say, again introduces a clause, as what would be said. The relates to creature; creature is the subject of possesses; possesses, which is qualified by not, governs vitality; vitality is qualified by sufficient; sufficient is the prior term of to; to governs preserve; preserve governs it, and is the prior term of from; and from governs putrefaction.
2. "There is one Being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing about us can give, and which nothing about us can take away."--GREENWOOD; Wells's School Gram., p. 192.[331]
ANALYSIS.--What is the general structure of this passage? and what, the chain of connexion "between the words away and is?" The period is a complex sentence, having four clauses, all connected together by relatives; the second, by whom, to the first and chief clause, "There is one Being;" the third and the fourth, to the second, by which and which; but the last two, having the same antecedent, security, and being coördinate, are also connected one to the other by and. As to "the chain of connexion," Away relates to can take; can take agrees with its nominative nothing, and governs which; which represents security; security is governed by finding; finding is governed by of; of refers back to conviction; conviction is governed by with; with refers back to can look; can look agrees with we, and is, in sense, the antecedent of to; to governs whom; whom represents Being; and Being is the subject of is.
FIFTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS.
The best and most thorough method of analysis is that of COMPLETE SYNTACTICAL PARSING; a method which, for the sake of order and brevity, should ever be kept free from all mixture of etymological definitions or reasons, but which may be preceded or followed by any of the foregoing schemes of resolution, if the teacher choose to require any such preliminary or subsidiary exposition. This method is fully illustrated in the Twelfth Praxis below.
OBSERVATIONS ON METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
OBS. 1.--The almost infinite variety in the forms of sentences, will sometimes throw difficulty in the way of the analyzer, be his scheme or his skill what it may. The last four or five observations of the preceding series have shown, that the distinction of sentences as simple or compound, which constitutes the chief point of the First Method of Analysis above, is not always plain, even to the learned. The definitions and examples which I have given, will make it generally so; and, where it is otherwise, the question or puzzle, it is presumed, cannot often be of much practical importance. If the difference be not obvious, it can hardly be a momentous error, to mistake a phrase for an elliptical clause, or to call such a clause a phrase.
OBS. 2.--The Second Method above is, I think, easier of application than any of the rest; and, if other analysis than the regular method of parsing seem desirable, this will probably be found as useful as any. There is, in many of our popular grammars, some recognition of the principles of this analysis--some mention of "the principal parts of a sentence," in accordance with what are so called above,--and also, in a few, some succinct account of the parts called "adjuncts;" but there seems to have been no prevalent practice of applying these principles, in any stated or well-digested manner. Lowth, Murray, Alger, W. Allen, Hart, Hiley, Ingersoll, Wells, and others, tell of these "PRINCIPAL PARTS;"--Lowth calling them, "the agent, the attribute, and the object;" (Gram., p. 72;)--Murray, and his copyists, Alger, Ingersoll, and others, calling them, "the subject, the attribute, and the object;"--Hiley and Hart calling them, "the subject or nominative, the attribute or verb, and the object;"--Allen calling them, "the nominative, the verb, and (if the verb is active,) the accusative governed by the verb;" and also saying, "The nominative is sometimes called the subject; the verb, the attribute; and the accusative, the object;"--Wells calling them, "the subject or nominative, the verb, and the object;" and also recognizing the "adjuncts," as a species which "embraces all the words of a simple sentence [,] except the principal parts;"--yet not more than two of them all appearing to have taken any thought, and they but little, about the formal application of their common doctrine. In Allen's English Grammar, which is one of the best, and likewise in Wells's, which is equally prized, this reduction of all connected words, or parts of speech, into "the principal parts" and "the adjuncts," is fully recognized; the adjuncts, too, are discriminated by Allen, as "either primary or secondary," nor are their more particular species or relations overlooked; but I find no method prescribed for the analysis intended, except what Wells adopted in his early editions but has since changed to an other or abandoned, and no other allusion to it by, Allen, than this Note, which, with some appearance of intrusion, is appended to his "Method of Parsing the Infinitive Mood:"--"The pupil may now begin to analyse [analyze] the sentences, by distinguishing the principal words and their adjuncts."--W. Allen's E. Gram., p. 258.
OBS. 3.--These authors in general, and many more, tell us, with some variation of words, that the agent, subject, or nominative, is that of which something is said, affirmed, or denied; that the attribute, verb, or predicate, is that which is said, affirmed, or denied, of the subject; and that the object, accusative, or case sequent, is that which is introduced by the finite verb, or affected by the action affirmed. Lowth says, "In English the nominative case, denoting the agent, usually goes before the verb, or attribution; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active."--Short Introd., p. 72. Murray copies, but not literally, thus: "The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb [,] or attribute; and the word or phrase, denoting the object, follows the verb: as, 'A wise man governs his passions.' Here, a wise man is the subject; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed; and his passions, the object."--Murray's Octavo, p. 142; Duodecimo, 116. To include thus the adjuncts with their principals, as the logicians do, is here manifestly improper; because it unites what the grammatical analyzer is chiefly concerned to separate, and tends to defeat the main purpose for which "THE PRINCIPAL PARTS" are so named and distinguished.
OBS. 4.--The Third Method of Analysis, described above, is an attempt very briefly to epitomize the chief elements of a great scheme,--to give, in a nutshell, the substance of what our grammarians have borrowed from the logicians, then mixed with something of their own, next amplified with small details, and, in some instances, branched out and extended to enormous bulk and length. Of course, they have not failed to set forth the comparative merits of this scheme in a sufficiently favourable light. The two ingenious gentlemen who seem to have been chiefly instrumental in making it popular, say in their preface, "The rules of syntax contained in this work result directly from the analysis of propositions, and of compound sentences; and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly familiar with the sections relating to subject and predicate, and should be able readily to analyze sentences, whether simple or compound, and to explain their structure and connection. * * * This exercise should always precede the more minute and subsidiary labor of parsing. If the latter be conducted, as it often is, independently of previous analysis, the principal advantage to be derived from the study of language, as an intellectual exercise, will inevitably be lost."--Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard, p. vi. N. Butler, who bestows upon this subject about a dozen duodecimo pages, says in his preface, "The rules for the analysis of sentences, which is a very useful and interesting exercise, have been taken from Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, some changes and additions being made."--Butler's Practical Gram., p. iv.[332]
OBS. 5.--Wells, in the early copies of his School Grammar, as has been hinted, adopted a method of analysis similar to the Second one prescribed above; yet referred, even from the first, to "Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar," and to "De Sacy's General Grammar," as if these were authorities for what he then inculcated. Subsequently, he changed his scheme, from that of Parts Principal and Adjuncts, to one of Subjects and Predicates, "either grammatical or logical," also "either simple or compound;"--to one resembling Andrews and Stoddard's, yet differing from it, often, as to what constitutes a "grammatical predicate;"--to one resenbling [sic--KTH] the Third Method above, yet differing from it, (as does Andrews and Stoddard's,) in taking the logical subject and predicate before the grammatical. "The chapter on Analysis," said he then, "has been Revised and enlarged with great care, and will be found to embody all the most important principles on this subject [.] which are contained in the works of De Sacy, Andrews and Stoddard, Kühner, Crosby, and Crane. It is gratifying to observe that the attention of teachers is now so generally directed to this important mode of investigating the structure of our language, in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and syntactical parsing."--Wells's School Gram., New Ed., 1850, p. iv.
OBS. 6.--In view of the fact, that Wells's chief mode of sentential analysis had just undergone an almost total metamorphosis, a change plausible perhaps, but of doubtful utility,--that, up to the date of the words just cited, and afterwards, so far and so long as any copies of his early "Thousands" remain in use, the author himself has earnestly directed attention to a method which he now means henceforth to abandon,--in this view, the praise and gratulation expressed above seem singular. If it has been found practicable, to slide "the attention of teachers," and their approbation too, adroitly over from one "important mode of investigating the structure of our language," to an other;--if "it is gratifying to observe," that the direction thus given to public opinion sustains itself so well, and "is so generally" acquiesced in;--if it is proved, that the stereotyped praise of one system of analysis may, without alteration, be so transferred to an other, as to answer the double purpose of commending and superseding;--it is not improbable that the author's next new plates will bear the stamp of yet other "most important principles" of analysis. This process is here recommended to be used "in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and syntactical parsing,"--exercises, which, in Wells's Grammar, are generally, and very improperly, commingled; and if, to these, may be profitably conjoined either his present or his former scheme of analysis, it were well, had he somewhere put them together and shown how.
OBS. 7.--But there are other passages of the School Grammar, so little suited to this notion of "connection" that one can hardly believe the word ought to be taken in what seems its only sense. "Advanced classes should attend less to the common Order of Parsing, and more to the Analysis of language."--Wells's Grammar, "3d Thousand," p. 125; "113th Thousand," p. 132. This implies, what is probably true of the etymological exercise, that parsing is more rudimental than the other forms of analysis. It also intimates, what is not so clear, that pupils rightly instructed must advance from the former to the latter, as to something more worthy of their intellectual powers. The passage is used with reference to either form of analysis adopted by the author. So the following comparison, in which Parsing is plainly disparaged, stands permanently at the head of "the chapter on Analysis," to commend first one mode, and then an other: "It is particularly desirable that pupils should pass as early as practicable from the formalities of common PARSING, to the more important exercise of ANALYZING critically the structure of language. The mechanical routine of technical parsing is peculiarly liable to become monotonous and dull, while the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence, is adapted to call the mind of the learner into constant and vigorous action, and can hardly fail of exciting the deepest interest,"--Wells's Gram., 3d Th., p. 181; 113th Th., p. 184.
OBS. 8.--An ill scheme of parsing, or an ill use of a good one, is almost as unlucky in grammar, as an ill method of ciphering, or an ill use of a good one, would be in arithmetic. From the strong contrast cited above, one might suspect that, in selecting, devising, or using, a technical process for the exercising of learners in the principles of etymology and syntax, this author had been less fortunate than the generality of his fellows. Not only is it implied, that parsing is no critical analysis, but even what is set in opposition to the "mechanical routine," may very well serve for a definition of Syntactical Parsing--"the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence!" If this "practice," well ordered, can be at once interesting and profitable to the learner, so may parsing. Nor, after all, is even this author's mode of parsing, defective though it is in several respects, less "important" to the users of his book, or less valued by teachers, than the analysis which he sets above it.
OBS. 9.--S. S. Greene, a public teacher in Boston, who, in answer to a supposed "demand for a more philosophical plan of teaching the English language," has entered in earnest upon the "Analysis of Sentences," having devoted to one method of it more than the space of two hundred duodecimo pages, speaks of analysis and of parsing, thus: "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called analysis."--Greene's Analysis, p. 14. "Parsing consists in naming a part of speech, giving its modifications, relation, agreement or dependence, and the rule for its construction. Analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence. Analysis should precede parsing."--Ib., p. 26. "A large proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words, but combinations or groups of words. These groups perform the office of the substantive, the adjective, or the adverb, and, in some one of these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. The pupil who learns to determine the elements of a sentence, must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before he separates them into the single words which compose them. This advantage is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing."--Ib., p. 3.
OBS. 10.--On these passages, it may be remarked in the first place, that the distinction attempted between analysis and parsing is by no means clear, or well drawn. Nor indeed could it be; because parsing is a species of analysis. The first assertion would be just as true as it is now, were the former word substituted for the latter: thus, "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called parsing." Next, the "Parsing" spoken of in the second sentence, is Syntactical Parsing only; and, without a limitation of the species, neither this assertion nor the one concerning precedence is sufficiently true. Again, the suggestion, that, "Analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence," has nothing distinctive in it; and, without some idea of the author's peculiar system of "elements," previously impressed upon the mind, is scarcely, if at all, intelligible. Lastly, that a pupil must understand a sentence,--or, what is the same thing, "learn the force of the words combined,"--before he can be sure of parsing each word rightly, is a very plain and certain truth; but what "advantage" over parsing this truth gives to the lesser analysis, which deals with "groups," it is not easy to discover. If the author had any clear idea of "this advantage," he has conveyed no such conception to his readers.
OBS. 11.--Greene's Analysis is the most expanded form of the Third Method above.[333] Its nucleus, or germinating kernel, was the old partition of subject and predicate, derived from the art of logic. Its chief principles may be briefly stated thus: Sentences, which are simple, or complex, or compound, are made up of words, phrases, and clauses--three grand classes of elements, called the first, the second, and the third class. From these, each sentence must have two elements; the Subject, or Substantive element, and the Predicate, or Predicative element, which are principal; and a sentence may have five, the subordinates being the Adjective element, the Objective element, and the Adverbial element. The five elements have sundry modifications and subdivisions. Each of the five may, like a sentence, be simple, or complex, or compound; and each may be of any of the three grand classes. The development of this scheme forms a volume, not small. The system is plausible, ingenious, methodical, mostly true, and somewhat elaborate; but it is neither very useful nor very accurate. It seems too much like a great tree, beautiful, symmetrical, and full of leaves, but raised or desired only for fruit, yet bearing little, and some of that little not of good quality, but knurly or bitter. The chief end of a grammar, designed for our tongue, is, to show what is, and what is not, good English. To this end, the system in question does not appear to be well adapted.
OBS. 12.--Dr. Bullions, the projector of the "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all on the same plan," inserted in his Latin Grammar, of 1841, a short sketch of the new analysis by "subjects and predicates," "grammatical and logical," the scheme used by Andrews and Stoddard; but his English Grammar, which appeared in 1834, was too early for this "new and improved method of investigating" language. In his later English Grammar, of 1849, however, paying little regard to sameness of "plan" or conformity of definitions, he carefully devoted to this matter the space of fifteen pages, placing the topic, not injudiciously, in the first part of his syntax, and referring to it thus in his Preface: "The subject of ANALYSIS, wholly omitted in the former work, is here introduced in its proper place; and to an extent in accordance with its importance."-- Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 3.
OBS. 13.--In applying any of the different methods of analysis, as a school exercise, it will in general perhaps be best to use each separately; the teacher directing which one is to be applied, and to what examples. The selections prepared for the stated praxes of this work, will be found as suitable as any. Analysis of sentences is a central and essential matter in the teaching or the study of grammar; but the truest and the most important of the sentential analyses is parsing; which, because it is a method distinguished by a technical name of its own, is not commonly denominated analysis. The relation which other methods should bear to parsing, is, as we have seen, variously stated by different authors. Etymological parsing and Syntactical are, or ought to be, distinct exercises. The former, being the most simple, the most elementary, and also requisite to be used before the pupil is prepared for the latter, should, without doubt, take precedence of all the rest, and be made familiar in the first place. Those who say, "Analysis should precede parsing," will scarcely find the application of other analysis practicable, till this is somewhat known. But Syntactical Parsing being, when complete in form, the most thorough process of grammatical resolution, it seems proper to have introduced the other methods before it, as above. It can hardly be said that any of these are necessary to this exercise, or to one an other; yet in a full course of grammatical instruction, each may at times be usefully employed.
OBS. 14.--Dr. Bullions suggests, that, "Analysis should precede Syntactical parsing, because, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole."--Analytical and Pract. Gram., p. 114. This reason is entirely fictitious and truthless; for the words of a sentence are intuitively known to be its "parts and elements;" and, to "understand their relations," is as necessary to one form of analysis as to another; but, "intelligently to combine them," is no part of the parser's duty: this belongs to the writer; and where he has not done it, he must be criticised and censured, as one that knows not well what he says. In W. Allen's Grammar, as in Wells's, Syntactical parsing and Etymological are not divided. Wells intersperses his "Exercises in Parsing," at seven points of his Syntax, and places "the chapter on Analysis," at the end of it. Allen treats first of the several parts of grammar, didactically; then presents a series of exercises adapted to the various heads of the whole. At the beginning of these, are fourteen "Methods of Parsing," which show, successively, the properties and construction of his nine parts of speech; and, at the ninth method, which resolves infinitives, it is proposed that the pupil begin to apply a method of analysis similar to the Second one above.
EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XII.--SYNTACTICAL.
_The grand clew to all syntactical parsing is THE SENSE; and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the authors meaning, so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved.
In all complete syntactical parsing, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish the different parts of speech and their classes; to mention their modifications in order; to point out their relation, agreement, or government; and to apply the Rules of Syntax. Thus_:--
EXAMPLE PARSED.
"A young man studious to know his duty, and honestly bent on doing it, will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves; but, ah! poor fallen human nature! what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit--a rebel and a traitor--exert their sway against our only saving principle!"--G. Brown.
A is the indefinite article: and relates to man, or young man; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--a man--a young man.
Young is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, young, younger, youngest: and relates to man; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--young man.
Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of will find; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--man will find.
Studious is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; studious, more studious, most studious; or, studious, less studious, least studious: and relates to man; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--man studious.
To is a preposition: and shows the relation between studious and know; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--studious to know.
Know is an irregular active-transitive verb, from know, knew, knowing, known; found in the infinitive mood, present tense--no person, or number: and is governed by to; according to Rule 18th, which says, "The infinitive mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb." Because the meaning is--to know.
His is a personal pronoun, representing man, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by duty; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--his duty;--i. e., the young man's duty.
Duty is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by know; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--to know his duty.
And is a copulative conjunction: and connects the phrase which follows it, to that which precedes; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--studious to know his duty, and honestly bent, &c.
Honestly is an adverb of manner: and relates to bent; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--honestly bent.
Bent is a perfect participle, from the redundant active-transitive verb, bend, bent or bended, bending, bent or bended: and relates to man; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--man bent. On is a preposition: and shows the relation between bent and doing; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--bent on doing.
Doing is an imperfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, do, did, doing, done: and is governed by on; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--on doing.
It is a personal pronoun, representing duty, in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the objective case, being governed by doing; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--doing it;--i. e., doing his duty.
Will find is an irregular active-transitive verb, from find, found, finding, found; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and singular number: and agrees with its nominative man; according to Rule 14th, which says, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Because the meaning is--man will find.
Himself is a compound personal pronoun, representing man, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender;" and is in the objective case, being governed by will find; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--will find himself;--i. e., his own mind or person.
Led is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, lead, led, leading, led: and relates to himself; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--himself led.
Away is an adverb of place: and relates to led; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--led away.
From is a preposition: and shows the relation between led and sin or folly; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--led from sin or folly.
The is the definite article: and relates to sin and folly; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--the sin or folly.
Sin is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by from; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--from sin.
Or is a disjunctive conjunction: and connects sin and folly; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--sin or folly.
Folly is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is connected by or to sin, and governed by the same preposition from; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--from sin or folly.
In is a preposition: and shows the relation between indulge and which; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--indulge in which--or, which they indulge in.
Which is a relative pronoun, representing sin or folly, in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 13th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together:" and is in the objective case, being governed by in; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--in which;--i. e., in which sin or folly.
The is the definite article: and relates to multitude; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--the multitude.
Multitude is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of indulge; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--multitude indulge.
Thoughtlessly is an adverb of manner: and relates to indulge; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--thoughtlessly indulge.
Indulge is a regular active-transitive verb, from indulge, indulged, indulging, indulged; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative multitude; according to Rule 15th, which says, "When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." Because the meaning is--multitude indulge.
Themselves is a compound personal pronoun, representing multitude, in the third person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 11th, which says, "When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number:" and is in the objective case, being governed by indulge; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--indulge themselves;--i. e., the individuals of the multitude indulge themselves.
But is a disjunctive conjunction: and connects what precedes and what follows; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--A young man, &c., but, ah! &c.
Ah is an interjection, indicating sorrow: and is used independently; according to Rule 24th, which says, "Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words." Because the meaning is--ah!--unconnected with the rest of the sentence.
Poor is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, poor, poorer, poorest: and relates to nature; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--poor human nature.
Fallen is a participial adjective, compared (perhaps) by adverbs: and relates to nature; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--fallen nature.
Human is a common adjective, not compared: and relates to nature; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--human nature.
Nature is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is put absolute by direct address; according to Rule 8th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Because the meaning is--poor fallen human nature!--the noun being unconnected with any verb.
What is a pronominal adjective, not compared: and relates to conflicts; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--what conflicts.
Conflicts is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of are; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--conflicts are.
Are is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative conflicts; according to Rule 14th, which says, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Because the meaning is--conflicts are.
Thy is a personal pronoun, representing nature, in the second person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by portion; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--thy portion.
Portion is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is put after are, in agreement with conflicts; according to Rule 6th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing." Because the meaning is--conflicts are thy portion.
When is a conjunctive adverb of time: and relates to the two verbs, are and exert; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit exert, &c.
Inclination is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is one of the subjects of exert; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--inclination and habit exert.
And is a copulative conjunction: and connects inclination and habit; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--inclination and habit.
Habit is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is one of the subjects of exert; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--inclination and habit exert.
A is the indefinite article: and relates to rebel; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--a rebel.
Rebel is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is put in apposition with inclination; according to Rule 3d, which says, "A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning is--inclination, a rebel.
And is a copulative conjunction: and connects rebel and traitor; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--a rebel and a traitor.
A is the indefinite article: and relates to traitor; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--a traitor.
Traitor is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is put in apposition with habit; according to Rule 3d, which says, "A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning is--habit, a traitor.
Exert is a regular active-transitive verb, from exert, exerted, exerting, exerted; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its two nominatives inclination and habit; according to Rule 16th, which says, "When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Because the meaning is--inclination and habit exert.
Their is a personal pronoun, representing inclination and habit, in the third person, plural number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 12th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by sway; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--their sway;--i. e., the sway of inclination and habit.
Sway is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by exert; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--exert sway.
Against is a preposition: and shows the relation between exert and principle; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--exert against principle.
Our is a personal pronoun, representing the speakers, in the first person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by principle; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--our principle;--i. e., the speakers' principle.
Only is a pronominal adjective, not compared: and relates to principle; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--only principle.
Saving is a participial adjective, compared by adverbs when it means frugal, but not compared in the sense here intended: and relates to principle; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--saving principle.
Principle is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by against; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--against principle.
LESSON I.--ARTICLES.
"In English heroic verse, the capital pause of every line, is determined by the sense to be after the fourth, the fifth, the sixth or the seventh syllable."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 105.
"When, in considering the structure of a tree or a plant, we observe how all the parts, the roots, the stem, the bark, and the leaves, are suited to the growth and nutriment of the whole; when we survey all the parts and members of a living animal; or when we examine any of the curious works of art--such as a clock, a ship, or any nice machine; the pleasure which we have in the survey, is wholly founded on this sense of beauty."--Blair's Rhet., p. 49.
"It never can proceed from a good taste, to make a teaspoon resemble the leaf of a tree; for such a form is inconsistent with the destination of a teaspoon."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 351.
"In an epic poem, a history, an oration, or any work of genius, we always require a fitness, or an adjustment of means to the end which the author is supposed to have in view."--Blair's Rhet., p. 50.
"Rhetoric, Logic, and Grammar, are three arts that should always walk hand in hand. The first is the art of speaking eloquently; the second, that of thinking well; and the third, that of speaking with propriety."--Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 114.
"Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees, Rock'd in the cradle of the western breeze."--Cowper.
LESSON II.--NOUNS.
"There goes a rumour that I am to be banished. And let the sentence come, if God so will. The other side of the sea is my Father's ground, as well as this side."--Rutherford.
"Gentlemen, there is something on earth greater than arbitrary or despotic power. The lightning has its power, and the whirlwind has its power, and the earthquake has its power. But there is something among men more capable of shaking despotic power than lightning, whirlwind, or earthquake; that is--the threatened indignation of the whole civilized world."--Daniel Webster.
"And Isaac sent away Jacob; and he went to Padan Aram, unto Laban, son of Bethuel the Syrian, and brother of Rebecca, Jacob's and Esau's mother."--See Gen., xxviii, 5.
"The purpose you undertake is dangerous." "Why that is certain: it is dangerous to take a cold, to sleep, to drink; but I tell you, my Lord fool, out of this nettle danger, we pluck this flower safety."--Shakespeare.
"And towards the Jews alone, one of the noblest charters of liberty on earth--Magna Charta, the Briton's boast--legalized an act of injustice."--Keith's Evidences, p. 74.
"Were Demosthenes's Philippics spoken in a British assembly, in a similar conjuncture of affairs, they would convince and persuade at this day. The rapid style, the vehement reasoning, the disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, which perpetually animate them, would render their success infallible over any modern assembly. I question whether the same can be said of Cicero's orations; whose eloquence, however beautiful, and however well suited to the Roman taste, yet borders oftener on declamation, and is more remote from the manner in which we now expect to hear real business and causes of importance treated."--Blair's Rhet., p. 248.
"In fact, every attempt to present on paper the splendid effects of impassioned eloquence, is like gathering up dewdrops, which appear jewels and pearls on the grass, but run to water in the hand; the essence and the elements remain, but the grace, the sparkle, and the form, are gone."--Montgomery's Life of Spencer.
"As in life true dignity must be founded on character, not on dress and appearance; so in language the dignity of composition must arise from sentiment and thought, not from ornament."--Blair's Rhet., p. 144.
"And man, whose heaven-erected face the smiles of love adorn, Man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn." --Burns.
"Ah wretched man! unmindful of thy end! A moment's glory! and what fates attend." --Pope, Iliad, B. xvii, l. 231.
LESSON III.--ADJECTIVES.
"Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought."--Blair's Rhet., p. 120.
"Upon this ground, we prefer a simple and natural, to an artificial and affected style; a regular and well-connected story, to loose and scattered narratives; a catastrophe which is tender and pathetic, to one which leaves us unmoved."--Ib., p. 23.
"A thorough good taste may well be considered as a power compounded of natural sensibility to beauty, and of improved understanding."--Ib., p. 18.
"Of all writings, ancient or modern, the sacred Scriptures afford us the highest instances of the sublime. The descriptions of the Deity, in them, are wonderfully noble; both from the grandeur of the object, and the manner of representing it."--Ib., p. 36.
"It is not the authority of any one person, or of a few, be they ever so eminent, that can establish one form of speech in preference to another. Nothing but the general practice of good writers and good speakers can do it."--Priestley's Gram., p. 107.
"What other means are there to attract love and esteem so effectual as a virtuous course of life? If a man be just and beneficent, if he be temperate, modest, and prudent, he will infallibly gain the esteem and love of all who know him."--Kames, El. of Crit., i, 167.
"But there are likewise, it must be owned, people in the world, whom it is easy to make worse by rough usage, and not easy to make better by any other."--Abp. Seeker.
"The great comprehensive truth written in letters of living light on every page of our history--the language addressed by every past age of New England to all future ages, is this: Human happiness has no perfect security but freedom;--freedom, none but virtue;--virtue, none but knowledge: and neither freedom, nor virtue, nor knowledge, has any vigour or immortal hope, except in the principles of the Christian faith, and in the sanctions of the Christian religion."--President Quincy.
"For bliss, as thou hast part, to me is bliss; Tedious, unshared with thee, and odious soon." --P. Lost, B. ix, l. 880.
LESSON IV.--PRONOUNS.
"There is but one governor whose sight we cannot escape, whose power we cannot resist: a sense of His presence and of duty to Him, will accomplish more than all the laws and penalties which can be devised without it."--Woodbridge, Lit. C., p. 154.
"Every voluntary society must judge who shall be members of their body, and enjoy fellowship with them in their peculiar privileges."--Watts.
"Poetry and impassioned eloquence are the only sources from which the living growth of a language springs; and even if in their vehemence they bring down some mountain rubbish along with them, this sinks to the bottom, and the pure stream flows along over it."--Philological Museum, i, 645. "This use is bounded by the province, county, or district, which gives name to the dialect, and beyond which its peculiarities are sometimes unintelligible, and always ridiculous."--Campbell's Rhet., p. 163.
"Every thing that happens, is both a cause and an effect; being the effect of what goes before, and the cause of what follows."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 297.
"Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in the power of thine hand to do it."--Prov., iii, 27.
"Yet there is no difficulty at all in ascertaining the idea. * * * By reflecting upon that which is myself now, and that which was myself twenty years ago, I discern they are not two, but one and the same self."--Butler's Analogy, p. 271.
"If you will replace what has been long expunged from the language, and extirpate what is firmly rooted, undoubtedly you yourself become an innovator."--Campbell's Rhet., p. 167; Murray's Gram., 364.
"To speak as others speak, is one of those tacit obligations, annexed to the condition of living in society, which we are bound in conscience to fulfill, though we have never ratified them by any express promise; because, if they were disregarded, society would be impossible, and human happiness at an end."--See Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 139.
"In England thou was in current use until, perhaps, near the commencement of the seventeenth century, though it was getting to be regarded as somewhat disrespectful. At Walter Raleigh's trial, Coke, when argument and evidence failed him, insulted the defendant by applying to him the term thou. 'All that Lord Cobham did,' he cried, 'was at thy instigation, thou viper! for I thou thee, thou traitor!'"--Fowler's E. Gram., §220.
"Th' Egyptian crown I to your hands remit; And with it take his heart who offers it."--Shakspeare.
LESSON V.--VERBS.
"Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man from his rank in the creation."--Murray's Key, ii, p. 231.
"When a writer reasons, we look only for perspicuity; when he describes, we expect embellishment; when he divides, or relates, we desire plainness and simplicity."--Blair's Rhet., p. 144.
"Livy and Herodotus are diffuse; Thucydides and Sallust are succinct; yet all of them are agreeable."--Ib., p. 178.
"Whenever petulant ignorance, pride, malice, malignity, or envy, interposes to cloud or sully his fame, I will take upon me to pronounce that the eclipse will not last long."--Dr. Delany.
"She said she had nothing to say, for she was resigned, and I knew all she knew that concerned us in this world; but she desired to be alone, that in the presence of God only, she might without interruption do her last duty to me."--Spect., No. 520.
"Wisdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, are immortal; while cunning and deception, the meteors of the earth, after glittering for a moment, must pass away."--Robert Hall. "See, I have this day set thee over the nations, and over the kingdoms, to root out, and to pull down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, and to plant."--Jeremiah, i, 10.
"God might command the stones to be made bread, or the clouds to rain it; but he chooses rather to leave mankind to till, to sow, to reap, to gather into barns, to grind, to knead, to bake, and then to eat."--London Quarterly Review.
"Eloquence is no invention of the schools. Nature teaches every man to be eloquent, when he is much in earnest. Place him in some critical situation, let him have some great interest at stake, and you will see him lay hold of the most effectual means of persuasion."--Blair's Rhet., p. 235.
"It is difficult to possess great fame and great ease at the same time. Fame, like fire, is with difficulty kindled, is easily increased, but dies away if not continually fed. To preserve fame alive, every enterprise ought to be a pledge of others, so as to keep mankind in constant expectation."--Art of Thinking, p. 50. "Pope, finding little advantage from external help, resolved thenceforward to direct himself, and at twelve formed a plan of study which he completed with little other incitement than the desire of excellence."--Johnson's Lives of Poets, p. 498.
"Loose, then, from earth the grasp of fond desire, Weigh anchor, and some happier clime explore."--Young.
LESSON VI.--PARTICIPLES.
"The child, affrighted with the view of his father's helmet and crest, and clinging to the nurse; Hector, putting off his helmet, taking the child into his arms, and offering up a prayer for him; Andromache, receiving back the child with a smile of pleasure, and at the same instant bursting into tears; form the most natural and affecting picture that can possibly be imagined."--Blair's Rhet., p. 435.
"The truth of being, and the truth of knowing are one; differing no more than the direct beam and the beam reflected."--Ld. Bacon. "Verbs denote states of being, considered as beginning, continuing, ending, being renewed, destroyed, and again repeated, so as to suit any occasion."--William Ward's Gram., p. 41.
"We take it for granted, that we have a competent knowledge and skill, and that we are able to acquit ourselves properly, in our own native tongue; a faculty, solely acquired by use, conducted by habit, and tried by the ear, carries us on without reflection."--Lowth's Gram., p. vi.
"I mean the teacher himself; who, stunned with the hum, and suffocated with the closeness of his school-room, has spent the whole day in controlling petulance, exciting indifference to action, striving to enlighten stupidity, and labouring to soften obstinacy."--Sir W. Scott.
"The inquisitive mind, beginning with criticism, the most agreeable of all amusements, and finding no obstruction in its progress, advances far into the sensitive part of our nature; and gains imperceptibly a thorough knowledge of the human heart, of its desires, and of every motive to action."--Kames, El. of Crit., i, 42.
"They please, are pleased; they give to get esteem; Till, seeming blest, they grow to what they seem."--Goldsmith.
LESSON VII.--ADVERBS.
"How cheerfully, how freely, how regularly, how constantly, how unweariedly, how powerfully, how extensively, he communicateth his convincing, his enlightening, his heart-penetrating, warming, and melting; his soul-quickening, healing, refreshing, directing, and fructifying influence!"--Brown's Metaphors, p. 96.
"The passage, I grant, requires to be well and naturally read, in order to be promptly comprehended; but surely there are very few passages worth comprehending, either of verse or prose, that can be promptly understood, when they are read unnaturally and ill."--Thelwall's Lect. "They waste life in what are called good resolutions--partial efforts at reformation, feebly commenced, heartlessly conducted, and hopelessly concluded."--Maturin's Sermons, p. 262.
"A man may, in respect of grammatical purity, speak unexceptionably, and yet speak obscurely and ambiguously; and though we cannot say, that a man may speak properly, and at the same time speak unintelligibly, yet this last case falls more naturally to be considered as an offence against perspicuity, than as a violation of propriety."--Jamieson's Rhet., p. 104.
"Ye are witnesses, and God also, how holily and justly and unblamably we behaved ourselves among you that believe."--1 Thes., ii, 10.
"The question is not, whether they know what is said of Christ in the Scriptures; but whether they know it savingly, truly, livingly, powerfully."--Penington's Works, iii, 28.
"How gladly would the man recall to life The boy's neglected sire! a mother too, That softer friend, perhaps more gladly still, Might he demand them at the gates of death!"--Cowper.
LESSON VIII.--CONJUNCTIONS.
"Every person's safety requires that he should submit to be governed; for if one man may do harm without suffering punishment, every man has the same right, and no person can be safe."--Webster's Essays, p. 38.
"When it becomes a practice to collect debts by law, it is a proof of corruption and degeneracy among the people. Laws and courts are necessary, to settle controverted points between man and man; but a man should pay an acknowledged debt, not because there is a law to oblige him, but because it is just and honest, and because he has promised to pay it."--Ib., p. 42.
"The liar, and only the liar, is invariably and universally despised, abandoned, and disowned. It is therefore natural to expect, that a crime thus generally detested, should be generally avoided."--Hawkesworth.
"When a man swears to the truth of his tale, he tacitly acknowledges that his bare word does not deserve credit. A swearer will lie, and a liar is not to be believed even upon his oath; nor is he believed, when he happens to speak the truth."--Red Book, p. 108.
"John Adams replied, 'I know Great Britain has determined on her system, and that very determination determines me on mine. You know I have been constant and uniform in opposition to her measures. The die is now cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unalterable determination.'"--SEWARD'S Life of John Quincy Adams, p. 26.
"I returned, and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happen to them all."--Ecclesiastes, ix, 11.
"Little, alas! is all the good I can; A man oppress'd, dependent, yet a man."--Pope, Odys., B. xiv, p. 70.
LESSON IX.--PREPOSITIONS.
"He who legislates only for a party, is engraving his name on the adamantine pillar of his country's history, to be gazed on forever as an object of universal detestation."--Wayland's Moral Science, p. 401.
"The Greek language, in the hands of the orator, the poet, and the historian, must be allowed to bear away the palm from every other known in the world; but to that only, in my opinion, need our own yield the precedence."--Barrow's Essays, p. 91.
"For my part, I am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation, is incomparably the best; since, not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths, it leads to the stock on which they grew."--Burke, on Taste, p. 37. Better--"on which truths grow."
"All that I have done in this difficult part of grammar, concerning the proper use of prepositions, has been to make a few general remarks upon the subject; and then to give a collection of instances, that have occurred to me, of the improper use of some of them."--Priestley's Gram., p. 155.
"This is not an age of encouragement for works of elaborate research and real utility. The genius of the trade of literature is necessarily unfriendly to such productions."--Thelwall's Lect., p. 102.
"At length, at the end of a range of trees, I saw three figures seated on a bank of moss, with a silent brook creeping at their feet."--Steele.
"Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulph'rous bolt, Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak."--Shakspeare.
LESSON X.--INTERJECTIONS.
"Hear the word of the Lord, O king of Judah, that sittest upon the throne of David; thou, and thy servants, and thy people, that enter in by these gates: thus saith the Lord, Execute ye judgement and righteousness, and deliver the spoiled out of the hand of the oppressor."--Jeremiah, xxii, 2, 3.
"Therefore, thus saith the Lord concerning Jehoiakim the son of Josiah king of Judah, They shall not lament for him, saying, Ah my brother! or, Ah sister! they shall not lament for him, saying, Ah lord! or, Ah his glory! He shall be buried with the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem."--Jer., xxii, 18, 19.
"O thou afflicted, tossed with tempest, and not comforted, behold, I will lay thy stones with fair colours, and lay thy foundations with sapphires."--Isaiah, liv, 11.
"O prince! O friend! lo! here thy Medon stands; Ah! stop the hero's unresisted hands." --Pope, Odys., B. xxii, l. 417.
"When, lo! descending to our hero's aid, Jove's daughter Pallas, war's triumphant maid!" --Ib., B. xxii, l. 222.
"O friends! oh ever exercised in care! Hear Heaven's commands, and reverence what ye hear!" --Ib., B. xii, l. 324.
"Too daring prince! ah, whither dost thou run? Ah, too forgetful of thy wife and you!" --Pope's Iliad, B. vi, l. 510.
II. ARTICLES
In this chapter, and those which follow it, the Rules of Syntax are again exhibited, in the order of the parts of speech, with Examples, Exceptions, Observations, Notes, and False Syntax. The Notes are all of them, in form and character, subordinate rules of syntax, designed for the detection of errors. The correction of the False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, will form an oral exercise, similar to that of parsing, and perhaps more useful.[334]
RULE I.--ARTICLES.
Articles relate to the nouns which they limit:[335] as, "At a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an aged elm."
"See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing, The sot a hero, lunatic a king."--Pope's Essay, Ep. ii, l. 268.
EXCEPTION FIRST.
The definite article used intensively, may relate to an adjective or adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree; as, "A land which was the mightiest."--Byron. "The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared their alacrity."--Dr. Johnson. "He chooses it the rather"--Cowper. See Obs. 10th, below.
EXCEPTION SECOND.
The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to what seems a plural adjective of number; as, "Thou hast a few names even in Sardis."--Rev., iii, 4. "There are a thousand things which crowd into my memory."--Spectator, No. 468. "The centurion commanded a hundred men."--Webster. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. 26.
OBSERVATIONS ON RULE I.
OBS. 1.--The article is a kind of index, usually pointing to some noun; and it is a general, if not a universal, principle, that no one noun admits of more than one article. Hence, two or more articles in a sentence are signs of two or more nouns; and hence too, by a very convenient ellipsis, an article before an adjective is often made to relate to a noun understood; as, "The grave [people] rebuke the gay [people], and the gay [people] mock the grave" [people].--Maturin's Sermons, p. 103. "The wise [persons] shall inherit glory."--Prov., iii, 35. "The vile [person] will talk villainy."--Coleridge's Lay Sermons, p. 105: see Isaiah, xxxii, 6. "The testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple" [ones].--Psal., xix, 7. "The Old [Testament] and the New Testament are alike authentic."--"The animal [world] and the vegetable world are adapted to each other."--"An epic [poem] and a dramatic poem are the same in substance."--Ld. Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 274. "The neuter verb is conjugated like the active" [verb].--Murray's Gram., p. 99. "Each section is supposed to contain a heavy [portion] and a light portion; the heavy [portion] being the accented syllable, and the light [portion] the unaccented" [syllable].--Rush, on the Voice, p. 364.
OBS. 2.--Our language does not, like the French, require a repetition of the article before every noun in a series; because the same article may serve to limit the signification of several nouns, provided they all stand in the same construction. Hence the following sentence is bad English: "The understanding and language have a strict connexion."--Murray's Gram., i, p. 356. The sense of the former noun only was meant to be limited. The expression therefore should have been, "Language and the understanding have a strict connexion," or, "The understanding has a strict connexion with language." In some instances, one article seems to limit the sense of several nouns that are not all in the same construction, thus: "As it proves a greater or smaller obstruction to the speaker's or writer's aim."--Campbell's Rhet., p. 200. That is--"to the aim of the speaker or the writer." It is, in fact, the possessive, that limits the other nouns; for, "a man's foes" means, "the foes of a man;" and, "man's wisdom," means, "the wisdom of man." The governing noun cannot have an article immediately before it. Yet the omission of articles, when it occurs, is not properly by ellipsis, as some grammarians declare it to be; for there never can be a proper ellipsis of an article, when there is not also an ellipsis of its noun. Ellipsis supposes the omitted words to be necessary to the construction, when they are not so to the sense; and this, it would seem, cannot be the case with a mere article. If such a sign be in any wise necessary, it ought to be used; and if not needed in any respect, it cannot be said to be understood. The definite article being generally required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns, we in this case repeat it before every term in a series; as, "They are singled out from among their fellows, as the kind, the amiable, the sweet-tempered, the upright."--Dr. Chalmers.
"The great, the gay, shall they partake The heav'n that thou alone canst make?"--Cowper.
OBS. 3.--The article precedes its noun, and is never, by itself, placed after it; as, "Passion is the drunkenness of the mind."--Southey. When an adjective likewise precedes the noun, the article is usually placed before the adjective, that its power of limitation may extend over that also; as, "A concise writer compresses his thoughts into the fewest possible words."--Blair's Rhet., p. 176.
"The private path, the secret acts of men, If noble, far the noblest of their lives."--Young.
OBS. 4.--The relative position of the article and the adjective is seldom a matter of indifference. Thus, it is good English to say, "both the men," or, "the two men;" but we can by no means say, "the both men" or, "two the men." Again, the two phrases, "half a dollar," and "a half dollar," though both good, are by no means equivalent. Of the pronominal adjectives, some exclude the article; some precede it; and some follow it, like other adjectives. The word same is seldom, if ever used without the definite article or some stronger definitive before it; as, "On the same day,"--"in that same hour,"--"These same gentlemen." After the adjective both, the definite article may be used, but it is generally unnecessary, and this is a sufficient reason for omitting it: as, "The following sentences will fully exemplify, to the young grammarian, both the parts of this rule."--Murray's Gram., i, p. 192. Say, "both parts." The adjective few may be used either with or without an article, but not with the same import: as, "The few who were present, were in the secret;" i. e., All then present knew the thing. "Few that were present, were in the secret;" i.e., Not many then present knew the thing. "When I say, 'There were few men with him,' I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, 'There were a few men with him,' I evidently intend to make the most of them."--Murray's Gram., p. 171. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. 28.
OBS. 5.--The pronominal adjectives which exclude the article, are any, each, either, every, much, neither, no, or none, some, this, that, these, those. The pronominal adjectives which precede the article, are all, both, many, such, and what; as, "All the world,"--"Both the judges,"--"Many a[336] mile,"--"Such a chasm,"--"What a freak." In like manner, any adjective of quality, when its meaning is limited by the adverb too, so, as, or how, is put before the article; as, "Too great a study of strength, is found to betray writers into a harsh manner."--Blair's Rhet., p. 179. "Like many an other poor wretch, I now suffer all the ill consequences of so foolish an indulgence." "Such a gift is too small a reward for so great a labour."--Brightland's Gram., p. 95. "Here flows as clear a stream as any in Greece. How beautiful a prospect is here!"--Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 52. The pronominal adjectives which follow the article, are few, former, first, latter, last, little, one, other, and same; as, "An author might lean either to the one [style] or to the other, and yet be beautiful."--Blair's Rhet., p. 179. Many, like few, sometimes follows the article; as, "The many favours which we have received."--"In conversation, for many a man, they say, a many men."--Johnson's Dict. In this order of the words, a seems awkward and needless; as,
"Told of a many thousand warlike French."--Shak.
OBS. 6.--When the adjective is preceded by any other adverb than too, so, as, or how, the article is almost always placed before the adverb: as, "One of the most complete models;"--"An equally important question;"--"An exceedingly rough passage;"--"A very important difference." The adverb quite, however, may be placed either before or after the article, though perhaps with a difference of construction: as, "This is quite a different thing;"--or, "This is a quite different thing." "Finding it quite an other thing;"--or, "Finding it a quite other thing."--Locke, on Ed., p. 153. Sometimes two adverbs intervene between the article and the adjective; as, "We had a rather more explicit account of the Novii."--Philol. Museum, i, 458. But when an other adverb follows too, so, as, or how, the three words should be placed either before the article or after the noun; as, "Who stands there in so purely poetical a light."--Ib., i, 449. Better, perhaps: "In a light so purely poetical."
OBS. 7.--The definitives this, that, and some others, though they supersede the article an or a, may be followed by the adjective one; for we say, "this one thing," but not, "this a thing." Yet, in the following sentence, this and a being separated by other words, appear to relate to the same noun: "For who is able to judge this thy so great a people?"--1 Kings, iii, 9. But we may suppose the noun people to be understood after this. Again, the following example, if it is not wrong, has an ellipsis of the word use after the first a:
"For highest cordials all their virtue lose, By a too frequent and too bold a use."--Pomfret.
OBS. 8.--When the adjective is placed after the noun, the article generally retains its place before the noun, and is not repeated before the adjective: as, "A man ignorant of astronomy;"--"The primrose pale." In Greek, when an adjective is placed after its noun, if the article is applied to the noun, it is repeated before the adjective; as, "[Greek: Hæ polis hæ megalæ,]"--"The city the great;" i.e., "The great city." [337]
OBS. 9.--Articles, according to their own definition and nature, come before their nouns; but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to be placed after the noun to which they both relate: as, "Section the Fourth;"--"Henry the Eighth." Such examples, however, may possibly be supposed elliptical; as, "Section, the fourth division of the chapter;"--"Henry, the eighth king of that name:" and, if they are so, the article, in English, can never be placed after its noun, nor can two articles ever properly relate to one noun, in any particular construction of it. Priestley observes, "Some writers affect to transpose these words, and place the numeral adjective first; [as,] 'The first Henry.' Hume's History, Vol. i, p. 497. This construction is common with this writer, but there seems to be a want of dignity in it."--Rudiments of E. Gram., p. 150. Dr. Webster cites the word Great, in "Alexander the Great" as a name, or part of a name; that is, he gives it as an instance of "cognomination." See his American Dict., 8vo. And if this is right, the article may be said to relate to the epithet only, as it appears to do. For, if the word is taken substantively, there is certainly no ellipsis; neither is there any transposition in putting it last, but rather, as Priestley suggests, in putting it first.
OBS. 10.--The definite article is often prefixed to comparatives and superlatives; and its effect is, as Murray observes, (in the words of Lowth,) "to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely: as, 'The more I examine it, the better I like it.' 'I like this the least of any.'"--Murray's Gram., p. 33; Lowth's, 14. "For neither if we eat, are we the better; neither if we eat not, are we the worse."--1 Cor., viii, 8. "One is not the more agreeable to me for loving beef, as I do; nor the less agreeable for preferring mutton."--Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 365. "They are not the men in the nation, the most difficult to be replaced."--Priestley's Gram., p. 148. In these instances, the article seems to be used adverbially, and to relate only to the adjective or adverb following it. (See observation fourth, on the Etymology of Adverbs.) Yet none of our grammarians have actually reckoned the an adverb. After the adjective, the noun might perhaps be supplied; but when the word the is added to an adverb, we must either call it an adverb, or make an exception to Rule 1st above: and if an exception is to be made, the brief form which I have given, cannot well be improved. For even if a noun be understood, it may not appear that the article relates to it, rather than to the degree of the quality. Thus: "The deeper the well, the clearer the water." This Dr. Ash supposes to mean, "The deeper well the well is, the clearer water the water is."--Ash's Gram., p. 107. But does the text specify a particular "deeper well" or "clearer water?" I think not. To what then does the refer, but to the proportionate degree of deeper and clearer?
OBS. 11.--The article the is sometimes elegantly used, after an idiom common in the French language, in lieu of a possessive pronoun; as, "He looked him full in the face; i. e. in his face."--Priestley's Gram., p. 150. "Men who have not bowed the knee to the image of Baal."--Rom., xi, 4. That is, their knees.
OBS. 12.--The article an or a, because it implies unity, is applicable to nouns of the singular number only; yet a collective noun, being singular in form, is sometimes preceded by this article even when it conveys the idea of plurality and takes a plural verb: as, "There are a very great number [of adverbs] ending in ly."--Buchanan's Syntax, p. 63. "A plurality of them are sometimes felt at the same instant."--Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 114. In support of this construction, it would be easy to adduce a great multitude of examples from the most reputable writers; but still, as it seems not very consistent, to take any word plurally after restricting it to the singular, we ought rather to avoid this if we can, and prefer words that literally agree in number: as, "Of adverbs there are very many ending in ly"--"More than one of them are sometimes felt at the same instant." The word plurality, like other collective nouns, is literally singular: as, "To produce the latter, a plurality of objects is necessary."--Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 224.
OBS. 13.--Respecting the form of the indefinite article, present practice differs a little from that of our ancient writers. An was formerly used before all words beginning with h, and before several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to require a: thus, we read in the Bible, "An help,"--"an house,"--"an hundred,"--"an one,"--"an ewer,"--"an usurer;" whereas we now say, "A help,"--"a house,"--"a hundred,"--"a one,"--"a ewer,"--"a usurer."
OBS. 14.--Before the word humble, with its compounds and derivatives, some use an, and others, a; according to their practice, in this instance, of sounding or suppressing the aspiration. Webster and Jameson sound the h, and consequently prefer a; as, "But a humbling image is not always necessary to produce that effect."--Kames, El. of Crit., i, 205. "O what a blessing is a humble mind!"--Christian Experience, p. 342. But Sheridan, Walker, Perry, Jones, and perhaps a majority of fashionable speakers, leave the h silent, and would consequently say, "An humbling image,"--"an humble mind,"--&c.
OBS. 15.--An observance of the principles on which the article is to be repeated or not repeated in a sentence, is of very great moment in respect to accuracy of composition. These principles are briefly stated in the notes below, but it is proper that the learner should know the reasons of the distinctions which are there made. By a repetition of the article before several adjectives in the same construction, a repetition of the noun is implied; but without a repetition of the article, the adjectives, in all fairness of interpretation, are confined to one and the same noun: as, "No figures will render a cold or an empty composition interesting."--Blair's Rhet., p. 134. Here the author speaks of a cold composition and an empty composition as different things. "The metaphorical and the literal meaning are improperly mixed."--Murray's Gram., p. 339. Here the verb are has two nominatives, one of which is expressed, and the other understood. "But the third and the last of these [forms] are seldom used."--Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 186. Here the verb "are used" has two nominatives, both of which are understood; namely, "the third form," and "the last form." Again: "The original and present signification is always retained."--Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., Vol. ii, p. 149. Here one signification is characterized as being both original and present. "A loose and verbose manner never fails to create disgust."--Blair's Rhet., p. 261. That is, one manner, loose and verbose. "To give a short and yet clear and plain answer to this proposition."--Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 533. That is, one answer, short, clear, and plain; for the conjunctions in the text connect nothing but the adjectives.
OBS. 16.--To avoid repetition, even of the little word the, we sometimes, with one article, join inconsistent qualities to a plural noun;--that is, when the adjectives so differ as to individualize the things, we sometimes make the noun plural, in stead of repeating the article: as, "The north and south poles;" in stead of, "The north and the south pole."--"The indicative and potential moods;" in stead of "The indicative and the potential mood."--"The Old and New Testaments;" in stead of, "The Old and the New Testament." But, in any such case, to repeat the article when the noun is made plural, is a huge blunder; because it implies a repetition of the plural noun. And again, not to repeat the article when the noun is singular, is also wrong; because it forces the adjectives to coalesce in describing one and the same thing. Thus, to say, "The north and south pole" is certainly wrong, unless we mean by it, one pole, or slender stick of wood, pointing north and south; and again, to say, "The north and the south poles," is also wrong, unless we mean by it, several poles at the north and others at the south. So the phrase, "The Old and New Testament" is wrong, because we have not one Testament that is both Old and New; and again, "The Old and the New Testaments," is wrong, because we have not several Old Testaments and several New ones: at least we have them not in the Bible.
OBS. 17.--Sometimes a noun that admits no article, is preceded by adjectives that do not describe the same thing; as, "Never to jumble metaphorical and plain language together."--Blair's Rhet., p. 146. This means, "metaphorical language and plain language;" and, for the sake of perfect clearness, it would perhaps be better to express it so. "For as intrinsic and relative beauty must often be blended in the same building, it becomes a difficult task to attain both in any perfection."--Karnes, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 330. That is, "intrinsic beauty and relative beauty" must often be blended; and this phraseology would be better. "In correspondence to that distinction of male and female sex."--Blair's Rhet., p. 74. This may be expressed as well or better, in half a dozen other ways; for the article may be added, or the noun may be made plural, with or without the article, and before or after the adjectives. "They make no distinction between causes of civil and criminal jurisdiction."-- Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 302. This means--"between causes of civil and causes of criminal jurisdiction;" and, for the sake of perspicuity, it ought to have been so written,--or, still better, thus: "They make no distinction between civil causes and criminal."
NOTES TO RULE I.
NOTE I.--When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that of a vowel; as, "With the talents of an angel, a man may be a fool."--Young.
NOTE II.--The article an or a must never be so used as to relate, or even seem to relate, to a plural noun. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "I invited her to spend a day in viewing a seat and gardens."--Rambler, No. 34. Say, "a seat and its gardens."
NOTE III.--When nouns are joined in construction, with different adjuncts, different dependence, or positive contrast, the article, if it belong at all to the latter, must be repeated. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "She never considered the quality, but merit of her visitors."--Wm. Penn. Say, "the merit." So the article in brackets is absolutely necessary to the sense and propriety of the following phrase, though not inserted by the learned author: "The Latin introduced between the Conquest and [the] reign of Henry the Eighth."--Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 42.
NOTE IV.--When adjectives are connected, and the qualities belong to things individually different, though of the same name, the article should be repeated: as, "A black and a white horse;"--i. e., two horses, one black and the other white. "The north and the south line;"--i. e., two lines, running east and west.
NOTE V.--When adjectives are connected, and the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated: as, "A black and white horse;"--i. e., one horse, piebald. "The north and south line;"--i. e., one line, running north and south, like a meridian. NOTE VI.--When two or more individual things of the same name are distinguished by adjectives that cannot unite to describe the same thing, the article must be added to each if the noun be singular, and to the first only if the noun follow them in the plural: as, "The nominative and the objective case;" or, "The nominative and objective cases."--"The third, the fifth, the seventh, and the eighth chapter;" or, "The third, fifth, seventh, and eighth chapters." [338]
NOTE VII.--When two phrases of the same sentence have any special correspondence with each other, the article, if used in the former, is in general required also in the latter: as, "For ye know neither the day nor the hour."--Matt., xxv, 13. "Neither the cold nor the fervid are formed for friendship."--Murray's Key, p. 209. "The vail of the temple was rent in twain, from the top to the bottom."--Matt., xxvii, 51.
NOTE VIII.--When a special correspondence is formed between individual epithets, the noun which follows must not be made plural; because the article, in such a case, cannot be repeated as the construction of correspondents requires. Thus, it is improper to say, "Both the first and second editions" or, "Both the first and the second editions" for the accurate phrase, "Both the first and the second edition;" and still worse to say, "Neither the Old nor New Testaments" or, "Neither the Old nor the New Testaments" for the just expression, "Neither the Old nor the New Testament." Yet we may say, "Neither the old nor the new statutes" or, "Both the early and the late editions;" for here the epithets severally apply to more than one thing.
NOTE IX.--In a series of three or more terms, if the article is used with any, it should in general be added either to every one, or else to the first only. The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: "Through their attention to the helm, the sails, or rigging."--Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 11. Say, "the rigging."
NOTE X.--As the article an or a denotes "one thing of a kind," it should not be used as we use the, to denote emphatically a whole kind; and again, when the species is said to be of the genus, no article should be used to limit the latter. Thus some will say, "A jay is a sort of a bird;" whereas they ought to say, "The jay is a sort of bird." Because it is absurd to suggest, that one jay is a sort of one bird. Yet we may say, "The jay is a bird," or, "A jay is a bird;" because, as every species is one under the genus, so every individual is one under both.
NOTE XI.--The article should not be used before the names of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences, in their general sense; before terms that are strictly limited by other definitives; or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently definite without it: as, "Falsehood is odious."--"Iron is useful."--"Beauty is vain."--"Admiration is useless, when it is not supported by domestic worth"--Webster's Essays, p. 30.
NOTE XII.--When titles are mentioned merely as titles; or names of things, merely as names or words; the article should not be used before them: as, "He is styled Marquis;" not, "the Marquis," or, "a Marquis,"--"Ought a teacher to call his pupil Master?"--"Thames is derived from the Latin name Tam~esis."
NOTE XIII.--When a comparison or an alternative is made with two nouns, if both of them refer to the same subject, the article should not be inserted before the latter; if to different subjects, it should not be omitted: thus, if we say, "He is a better teacher than poet," we compare different qualifications of the same man; but if we say, "He is a better teacher than a poet," we speak of different men, in regard to the same qualification.
NOTE XIV.--The definite article, or some other definitive, (as this, that, these, those,) is generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun who or which in a restrictive clause; as, "All the men who were present, agreed to it."--W. Allen's Gram., p. 145. "The thoughts which passion suggests are always plain and obvious ones."--Blair's Rhet., p. 468. "The things which are impossible with men, are possible with God."--Luke, xviii, 27. See Etymology, Chap. V, Obs. 26th, &c., on Classes of Pronouns.
NOTE XV.--The article is generally required in that construction which converts a participle into a verbal or participial noun; as, "The completing of this, by the working-out of sin inherent, must be by the power and spirit of Christ in the heart."--Wm. Penn. "They shall be an abhorring unto all flesh."--Isaiah, lxvi, 24. "For the dedicating of the altar."--Numb., vii, 11.
NOTE XVI.--The article should not be added to any participle that is not taken in all other respects as a noun; as, "For the dedicating the altar."--"He made a mistake in the giving out the text." Expunge the, and let dedicating and giving here stand as participles only; for in the construction of nouns, they must have not only a definitive before them, but the preposition of after them.
NOTE XVII.--The false syntax of articles properly includes every passage in which there is any faulty insertion, omission, choice, or position, of this part of speech. For example: "When the verb is a passive, the agent and object change places."--Lowth's Gram., p. 73. Better: "When the verb is passive, the agent and the object change places." "Comparisons used by the sacred poets, are generally short."--Russell's Gram., p. 87. Better: "The comparisons," &c. "Pronoun means for noun, and is used to avoid the too frequent repetition of the noun."--Infant School Gram., p. 89. Say rather: "The pronoun is put for a noun, and is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of the noun." Or: "The word PRONOUN means for noun; and a pronoun is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of some noun."
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE I.
[Fist][The examples of False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, are to be corrected orally by the pupil, according to the formules given, or according to others framed in like manner, and adapted to the several notes.]
EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--AN OR A.
"I have seen an horrible thing in the house of Israel."--Hosea, vi, 10.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the article an is used before horrible, which begins with the sound of the consonant h. But, according to Note 1st, under Rule 1st, "When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that of a vowel." Therefore, an should be a; thus, "I have seen a horrible thing in the house of Israel."]
"There is an harshness in the following sentences."--Priestley's Gram., p. 188. "Indeed, such an one is not to be looked for."--Blair's Rhet., p. 27. "If each of you will be disposed to approve himself an useful citizen."--Ib., p. 263. "Land with them had acquired almost an European value."--Webster's Essays, p. 325. "He endeavoured to find out an wholesome remedy."--Neef's Method of Ed., p. 3. "At no time have we attended an Yearly Meeting more to our own satisfaction."--The Friend, v, 224. "Addison was not an humourist in character."--Kames, El. of Crit., i, 303. "Ah me! what an one was he?"--Lily's Gram., p. 49. "He was such an one as I never saw."--Ib. "No man can be a good preacher, who is not an useful one."--Blair's Rhet., p. 283. "An usage which is too frequent with Mr. Addison."--Ib., p. 200. "Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of an horse."--Locke's Essay, p. 298. "An universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article."--Priestley's Gram., p. 154. "Architecture is an useful as well as a fine art."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 335. "Because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve an uniform signification."--Nutting's Gram., p. 78. "Such a work required the patience and assiduity of an hermit."--Johnson's Life of Morin. "Resentment is an union of sorrow with malignity."--Rambler, No. 185. "His bravery, we know, was an high courage of blasphemy."--Pope. "Hyssop; a herb of bitter taste."--Pike's Heb. Lex., p. 3.
"On each enervate string they taught the note To pant, or tremble through an Eunuch's throat."--Pope.
UNDER NOTE II.--AN OR A WITH PLURALS.
"At a sessions of the court in March, it was moved," &c.--Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., i, 61. "I shall relate my conversations, of which I kept a memoranda."--Duchess D'Abrantes, p. 26. "I took another dictionary, and with a scissors cut out, for instance, the word ABACUS."--A. B. Johnson's Plan of a Dict., p. 12. "A person very meet seemed he for the purpose, of a forty-five years old."--Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 338. "And it came to pass about an eight days after these sayings."--Luke, ix, 28." There were slain of them upon a three thousand men."--1 Mac., iv, 15." Until I had gained the top of these white mountains, which seemed another Alps of snow."--Addison, Tat., No. 161. "To make them a satisfactory amends for all the losses they had sustained."--Goldsmith's Greece, p. 187. "As a first fruits of many more that shall be gathered."--Barclay's Works, i, 506. "It makes indeed a little amends, by inciting us to oblige people."--Sheffield's Works, ii, 229. "A large and lightsome backstairs leads up to an entry above."--Ib., p. 260. "Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest."--Murray's Gram., p. 162; Smith's, 138. "With such a spirit and sentiments were hostilities carried on."--Robertson's America, i, 166. "In the midst of a thick woods, he had long lived a voluntary recluse."--G. B. "The flats look almost like a young woods."--Morning Chronicle. "As we went on, the country for a little ways improved, but scantily."--Essex County Freeman, Vol. ii, No. 11. "Whereby the Jews were permitted to return into their own country, after a seventy years captivity at Babylon."--Rollin's An. Hist., Vol. ii, p. 20. "He did riot go a great ways into the country."--Gilbert's Gram., p. 85.
"A large amends by fortune's hand is made, And the lost Punic blood is well repay'd."--Rowe's Lucan, iv, 1241.
UNDER NOTE III.--NOUNS CONNECTED.
"As where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds and odour of flowers."--Kames, El. of Crit., i, 117. "The last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent, and softness of its pause."--Ib., ii, 113. "Before the use of the loadstone or knowledge of the compass."--Dryden. "The perfect participle and imperfect tense ought not to be confounded."--Murray's Gram., ii, 292. "In proportion as the taste of a poet, or orator, becomes more refined."--Blair's Rhet., p. 27. "A situation can never be intricate, as long as there is an angel, devil, or musician, to lend a helping hand."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 285. "Avoid rude sports: an eye is soon lost, or bone broken."--"Not a word was uttered, nor sign given."--Brown's Inst., p. 125. "I despise not the doer, but deed."--Ibid. "For the sake of an easier pronunciation and more agreeable sound."--Lowth. "The levity as well as loquacity of the Greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history."-- Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 115.
UNDER NOTE IV.--ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.
"It is proper that the vowels be a long and short one."--Murray's Gram., p. 327. "Whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time before."--Ib., p. 70; Fisk's, 72. "There are three genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter."--Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 8. "The numbers are two; Singular and Plural."--Ib., p. 80; Gould's, 77. "The persons are three; First, Second, [and] Third."--Adam, et al. "Nouns and pronouns have three cases; the nominative, possessive, and objective."--Comly's Gram., p. 19; Ingersoll's, 21. "Verbs have five moods; namely, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive."-- Bullions's E. Gram., p. 35; Lennie's, 20. "How many numbers have pronouns? Two, the singular and plural."--Bradley's Gram., p. 82. "To distinguish between an interrogative and exclamatory sentence."--Murray's Gram., p. 280; Comly's, 163; Ingersoll's, 292. "The first and last of which are compounded members."--Lowth's Gram., p. 123. "In the last lecture, I treated of the concise and diffuse, the nervous and feeble manner."--Blair's Rhet., p. 183. "The passive and neuter verbs, I shall reserve for some future conversation."--Ingersoll's Gram., p. 69. "There are two voices; the Active and Passive."--Adam's Gram., p. 59; Gould's, 87. "Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which."--Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 7. "To feel the force of a compound, or derivative word."--Town's Analysis, p. 4. "To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions."--Murray's Gram., p. 150; Ingersoll's, 233. "E has a long and short sound in most languages."-- Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 13. "When the figurative and literal sense are mixed and jumbled together."--Blair's Rhet., p. 151. "The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and Phoenician stand in connection."--CONANT: Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 28. "The languages of Scandinavia proper, the Norwegian and Swedish."--Fowler, ib., p. 31.
UNDER NOTE V.--ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.
"The path of truth is a plain and a safe path"--Murray's Key, p. 236. "Directions for acquiring a just and a happy elocution."--Kirkham's Elocution, p. 144. "Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 9. "How can it choose but wither in a long and a sharp winter."--Cowley's Pref., p. vi. "Into a dark and a distant unknown."--Chalmers, on Astronomy, p. 230. "When the bold and the strong enslaved his fellow man."--Chazotte's Essay, p. 21. "We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and a perfect sentence." --Murray's Gram., p. 306. "And hence arises a second and a very considerable source of the improvement of taste."--Blair's Rhet., p. 18. "Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable emotion."--Ib., p. 50. "The deepest and the bitterest feeling still is, the separation."-- Dr. M'Rie. "A great and a good man looks beyond time."--Brown's Institutes, p. 125. "They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance." --Ib. "The light and the worthless kernels will float."--Ib. "I rejoice that there is an other and a better world."--Ib. "For he is determined to revise his work, and present to the publick another and a better edition."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 7. "He hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an independent authority."--Murray's Gram., p. 172: see Priestley's, 147. "There is however another and a more limited sense."--Adams's Rhet., Vol. ii, p. 232.
UNDER NOTE VI.--ARTICLES OR PLURALS.
"This distinction forms, what are called the diffuse and the concise styles."--Blair's Rhet., p. 176. "Two different modes of speaking, distinguished at first by the denominations of the Attic and the Asiatic manners."--Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 83. "But the great design of uniting the Spanish and the French monarchies under the former was laid."-- Bolingbroke, on History, p. 180. "In the solemn and the poetic styles, it [do or did] is often rejected."--W. Allen's Gram., p. 68. "They cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative cases."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 151; Ingersoll's, 239; R. G. Smith's, 127. "They are named the POSITIVE, the COMPARATIVE, and the SUPERLATIVE degrees."--Smart's Accidence, p. 27. "Certain Adverbs are capable of taking an Inflection, namely, that of the comparative and the superlative degrees."--Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §321. "In the subjunctive mood, the present and the imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense."--L. Murray's Gram., p. 187; Fisk's, 131. "The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses of this mood, are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 145. "What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?"--Ib., p. 116. "Nouns are sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter verb to be, or after an active-intransitive or passive verb."--Ib., p. 55. "The verb varies its endings in the singular in order to agree in form with the first, second, and third person of its nominative."--Ib., p. 47. "They are identical in effect, with the radical and the vanishing stresses."--Rush, on the Voice, p. 339. "In a sonnet the first, fourth, fifth, and eighth line rhyme to each other: so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh line; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth line; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth line."--Churchill's Gram., p. 311. "The iron and the golden ages are run; youth and manhood are departed."--Wright's Athens, p. 74. "If, as you say, the iron and the golden ages are past, the youth and the manhood of the world."--Ib. "An Exposition of the Old and New Testament."--Matthew Henry's Title-page. "The names and order of the books of the Old and New Testament."--Friends' Bible, p. 2; Bruce's, p. 2; et al. "In the second and third person of that tense."--L. Murray's Gram., p. 81. "And who still unites in himself the human and the divine natures."--Gurney's Evidences, p. 59. "Among whom arose the Italian, the Spanish, the French, and the English languages."--L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 111. "Whence arise these two, the singular and the plural Numbers."--Burn's Gram., p. 32.
UNDER NOTE VII.--CORRESPONDENT TERMS.
"Neither the definitions, nor examples, are entirely the same with his."--Ward's Pref. to Lily's Gram., p. vi. "Because it makes a discordance between the thought and expression."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 24. "Between the adjective and following substantive."--Ib. ii, 104. "Thus, Athens became both the repository and nursery of learning."--Chazotte's Essay, p. 28. "But the French pilfered from both the Greek and Latin."--Ib., p. 102. "He shows that Christ is both the power and wisdom of God."--The Friend, x, 414. "That he might be Lord both of the dead and living."--Rom., xiv, 9. "This is neither the obvious nor grammatical meaning of his words."--Blair's Rhet., p. 209. "Sometimes both the accusative and infinitive are understood."--Adam's Gram., p. 155; Gould's, 158. "In some cases we can use either the nominative or accusative promiscuously."--Adam, p. 156; Gould, 159. "Both the former and latter substantive are sometimes to be understood."--Adam, p. 157; Gould, 160. "Many whereof have escaped both the commentator and poet himself."--Pope. "The verbs must and ought have both a present and past signification."--Murray's Gram., p. 108. "How shall we distinguish between the friends and enemies of the government?"--Webster's Essays, p. 352. "Both the ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in those measures."--Campbell's Rhet., p. 260. "As the period has a beginning and end within itself it implies an inflexion."--Adams's Rhet., ii, 245. "Such as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory."--Kames, on Crit., ii, 39.
UNDER NOTE VIII.--CORRESPONDENCE PECULIAR.
"When both the upward and the downward slides occur in pronouncing a syllable, they are called a Circumflex or Wave."--Kirkham's Elocution, pp. 75 and 104. "The word that is used both in the nominative and objective cases."--Sanborn's Gram., p. 69. "But all the other moods and tenses of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are conjugated at large."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 81. "Some writers on Grammar object to the propriety of admitting the second future, in both the indicative and subjunctive moods."--Ib., p. 82. "The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."--Ib., p. 207. "The true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods in this tense."--Ib., p. 208. "I doubt of his capacity to teach either the French or English languages."--Chazotte's Essay, p. 7. "It is as necessary to make a distinction between the active transitive and the active intransitive forms of the verb, as between the active and passive forms."--Nixon's Parser, p. 13.
UNDER NOTE IX.--A SERIES OF TERMS.
"As comprehending the terms uttered by the artist, the mechanic, and husbandman."--Chazotte's Essay, p. 24. "They may be divided into four classes--the Humanists, Philanthropists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools."--Smith's New Gram., p. iii. "Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 138; L. Murray's, 68; R. C. Smith's, 27; Alger's, 28. "Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular."--Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 2. "Should give is an irregular verb active, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, and the first person plural."--Ibid. "Us is a personal pronoun, first person plural, and in the objective case."--Ibid. "Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case."--Ibid. "It is surprising that the Jewish critics, with all their skill in dots, points, and accents, never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation, of admiration, or a parenthesis."--Wilson's Hebrew Gram., p. 47. "The fifth, sixth, seventh, and the eighth verse."--O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 263. "Substitutes have three persons; the First, Second, and the Third."--Ib., p. 34. "John's is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third person, singular number, possessive case, and governed by wife, by Rule I."--Smith's New Gram., p. 48. "Nouns in the English language have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and objective."--Barrett's Gram., p. 13; Alexander's, 11. "The Potential [mood] has four [tenses], viz. the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and Pluperfect."--Ingersoll's Gram., p. 96.
"Where Science, Law, and Liberty depend, And own the patron, patriot, and the friend."--Savage, to Walpole.
UNDER NOTE X.--SPECIES AND GENUS.
"A pronoun is a part of speech put for a noun."--Paul's Accidence, p. 11. "A verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense."--Ib., p. 15. "A participle is a part of speech derived of a verb."--Ib., p. 38. "An adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs to declare their signification."--Ib., p. 40. "A conjunction is a part of speech that joineth sentences together."--Ib., p. 41. "A preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts."--Ib., p. 42. "An interjection is a part of speech which betokeneth a sudden motion or passion of the mind."--Ib., p. 44. "An enigma or riddle is also a species of allegory."--Blair's Rhet., p. 151; Murray's Gram., 343. "We may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an allegory."--Ib.: Blair, 151; Mur., 341. "And thus have you exhibited a sort of a sketch of art."--HARRIS: in Priestley's Gram., p. 176. "We may 'imagine a subtle kind of a reasoning,' as Mr. Harris acutely observes."--Churchill's Gram., p. 71. "But, before entering on these, I shall give one instance of a very beautiful metaphor, that I may show the figure to full advantage."--Blair's Rhet., p. 143. "Aristotle, in his Poetics, uses metaphor in this extended sense, for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word; as a whole put for the part, or a part for a whole; the species for the genus, or a genus for the species."--Ib., p. 142. "It shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking."--Kirkham's Gram., p. 69. "Cleon was another sort of a man."--Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 124. "To keep off his right wing, as a kind of a reserved body."--Ib., ii, 12. "This part of speech is called a verb."--Mack's Gram., p. 70. "What sort of a thing is it?"--Hiley's Gram., p. 20. "What sort of a charm do they possess?"--Bullions's Principles of E. Gram., p. 73.
"Dear Welsted, mark, in dirty hole, That painful animal, a Mole."--Note to Dunciad, B. ii, l. 207.
UNDER NOTE XI.--ARTICLES NOT REQUISITE.
"Either thou or the boys were in the fault."--Comly's Key, in Gram., p. 174. "It may, at the first view, appear to be too general."--Murray's Gram., p. 222; Ingersoll's, 275. "When the verb has a reference to future time."--Ib.: M., p. 207; Ing., 264. "No; they are the language of imagination rather than of a passion."--Blair's Rhet., p. 165. "The dislike of the English Grammar, which has so generally prevailed, can only be attributed to the intricacy of syntax."--Russell's Gram., p. iv. "Is that ornament in a good taste?"--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 326. "There are not many fountains in a good taste."--Ib., ii, 329. "And I persecuted this way unto the death."--Acts, xxii, 4. "The sense of the feeling can, indeed, give us the idea of extension."--Blair's Rhet., p. 196. "The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular number only."--Murray's Gram., p. 165; Lowth's, 89. "Expressing by one word, what might, by a circumlocution, be resolved into two or more words belonging to the other parts of speech."--Blair's Rhet., p. 84. "By the certain muscles which operate all at the same time."--Murray's Gram., p. 19. "It is sufficient here to have observed thus much in the general concerning them."--Campbell's Rhet., p. 112. "Nothing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language."--Murray's Gram., p. 319.
UNDER NOTE XII.--TITLES AND NAMES.
"He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman."--Brown's Inst., p. 126. "Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector."--Ib. "Her father is honoured with the title of an Earl."--Ib. "The chief magistrate is styled a President."--Ib. "The highest title in the state is that of the Governor."--Ib. "That boy is known by the name of the Idler."--Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 205. "The one styled the Mufti, is the head of the ministers of law and religion."--Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "Banging all that possessed them under one class, he called that whole class a tree."--Blair's Rhet., p. 73. "For the oak, the pine, and the ash, were names of whole classes of objects."--Ib., p. 73. "It is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of a trope, or of a figure."--Ib., p. 133. "The collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations, and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of an hiatus."--J. Q. Adams's Rhet., Vol. ii, p. 217. "We hesitate to determine, whether the Tyrant alone, is the nominative, or whether the nominative includes the spy."--Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 246. "Hence originated the customary abbreviation of twelve months into a twelve-month; seven nights into se'night; fourteen nights into a fortnight."--Webster's Improved Gram., p. 105.
UNDER NOTE XIII.--COMPARISONS AND ALTERNATIVES.
"He is a better writer than a reader."--W. Allen's False Syntax, Gram., p. 332. "He was an abler mathematician than a linguist."--Ib. "I should rather have an orange than apple."--Brown's Inst., p. 126. "He was no less able a negotiator, than a courageous warrior."--Smollett's Voltaire, Vol. i, p. 181. "In an epic poem we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or epigram."--Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 186. "That figure is a sphere, or a globe, or a ball."--Harris's Hermes, p. 258.
UNDER NOTE XIV.--ANTECEDENTS TO WHO OR WHICH.
"Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy."--Inst., p. 126. "The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that time."--Ib. "Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation."--Murray's Gram., p. 279; Comly's, 162; Ingersoll's, 291. "The work is designed for the use of persons, who may think it merits a place in their Libraries."--Murray's Gram., 8vo., p. iii. "That persons who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be wondered at."--Ib., p. 298. "Grammarians who limit the number to two, or at most to three, do not reflect."--Ib., p. 75. "Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession."--Ib., p. 132. "To these may be added verbs, which chiefly among the poets govern the dative."--Adam's Gram., p. 170; Gould's, 171. "Consonants are letters, which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel."--Bucke's Gram., p. 9. "To employ the curiosity of persons who are skilled in grammar."--Murray's Gram., Pref., p. iii. "This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the same bearing or relation."--Ib., i, p. 204. "So that things which are seen, were not made of things which do appear."--Heb., xi, 3. "Man is an imitative creature; he may utter sounds, which he has heard."--Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 21. "But men, whose business is wholly domestic, have little or no use for any language but their own."--Webster's Essays, p. 5.
UNDER NOTE XV.--PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.
"Great benefit may be reaped from reading of histories."--Sewel's Hist., p. iii. "And some attempts were made towards writing of history."--Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 110. "It is Invading of the Priest's Office for any other to Offer it."--Right of Tythes, p. 200. "And thus far of forming of verbs."--Walker's Art of Teaching, p. 35. "And without shedding of blood is no remission."--Heb., ix, 22. "For making of measures we have the best method here in England."--Printer's Gram. "This is really both admitting and denying, at once."--Butler's Analogy, p. 72. "And hence the origin of making of parliaments."--Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 71. "Next thou objectest, that having of saving light and grace presupposes conversion. But that I deny: for, on the contrary, conversion presupposeth having light and grace."--Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 143. "They cried down wearing of rings and other superfluities as we do."--Ib., i, 236. "Whose adorning, let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of gold, or of putting on of apparel."--1 Peter, iii, 3. "In spelling of derivative Words, the Primitive must be kept whole."--British Gram., p. 50; Buchanan's Syntax, 9. "And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar."--Numbers, vii, 10. "Boasting is not only telling of lies, but also many unseemly truths."--Sheffield's Works, ii, 244. "We freely confess that forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful."--Barclay, i, 316. "For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy."--Inst. E. Gram., p. 126. "He turned all his thoughts to composing of laws for the good of the state."--Rollin's Ancient Hist., Vol. ii, p. 38.
UNDER NOTE XVI.--PARTICIPLES, NOT NOUNS. "It is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit, as truly as to be taken out of it after the falling in."--Barclay, i, 210. "For in the receiving and embracing the testimony of truth, they felt eased."--Ib., i, 469. "True regularity does not consist in the having but a single rule, and forcing every thing to conform to it."--Philol. Museum, i, 664. "To the man of the world, this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale, and not worth the attending to."--Life of Tho. Say, p. 144. "To be the deliverer of the captive Jews, by the ordering their temple to be re-built," &c.--Rollin, ii, 124. "And for the preserving them from being defiled."--N. E. Discipline, p. 133. "A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles."--Art of Thinking, p. 80. "Hirsutus had no other reason for the valuing a book."--Rambler, No. 177; Wright's Gram., p. 190. "To the being heard with satisfaction, it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease."--Sheridan's Elocution, p. 114. "And to the being well heard, and clearly understood, a good and distinct articulation contributes more, than power of voice."--Ib., p. 117.
"Potential means the having power or will; As, If you would improve, you should be still." --Tobitt's Gram., p. 31.
UNDER NOTE XVII.--VARIOUS ERRORS.
"For the same reason, a neuter verb cannot become a passive."--Lowth's Gram., p. 74. "The period is the whole sentence complete in itself."--Ib., p. 115. "The colon or member is a chief constructive part, or greater division of a sentence."--Ib. "The semicolon or half member, is a less constructive part or subdivision, of a sentence or member."--Ib. "A sentence or member is again subdivided into commas or segments."--Ib., p. 116. "The first error that I would mention, is, a too general attention to the dead languages, with a neglect of our own."--Webster's Essays, p. 3. "One third of the importations would supply the demands of people."--Ib., p. 119. "And especially in grave stile."--Priestley's Gram., p. 72. "By too eager pursuit, he ran a great risk of being disappointed."--Murray's Key, Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 201. "Letters are divided into vowels and consonants."--Murray's Gram., i, p. 7; and others. "Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels."--Ib., i, 8; and others. "The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom."--Ib., i, 176. "If they gain, it is a too dear rate."--Barclay's Works, i, 504. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent a too frequent repetition of it."--Maunder's Gram., p. 1. "This vulgar error might perhaps arise from a too partial fondness for the Latin."--Dr. Ash's Gram., Pref., p. iv. "The groans which a too heavy load extorts from her."--Hitchcock, on Dyspepsy, p. 50. "The numbers [of a verb] are, of course, singular and plural."--Bucke's Gram. p. 58. "To brook no meanness, and to stoop to no dissimulation, are the indications of a great mind."--Murray's Key, ii, 236. "This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style."--Murray's Gram., i, 198. "This use of the word rather suits familiar and low style."--Priestley's Gram., p. 134. "According to the nature of the composition the one or other may be predominant."--Blair's Rhet., p. 102. "Yet the commonness of such sentences prevents in a great measure a too early expectation of the end."--Campbell's Rhet., p. 411. "An eulogy or a philippie may be pronounced by an individual of one nation upon the subject of another."--Adams's Rhet., i, 298. "A French sermon, is for most part, a warm animated exhortation."--Blair's Rhet., p. 288. "I do not envy those who think slavery no very pitiable a lot."--Channing, on Emancipation, p. 52. "The auxiliary and principal united, constitute a tense."--Murray's Gram., i, 75. "There are some verbs which are defective with respect to persons."--Ib., i, 109. "In youth, the habits of industry are most easily acquired."--Murray's Key, ii, 235. "Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out."--Bullions's Eng. Gram., p. 156.