XIV. THE FORM-WORLD OF ECONOMIC LIFE

XIV. THE FORM-WORLD OF ECONOMIC LIFE

(B)

THE MACHINE

I

Technique is as old as free-moving life itself. Only the plant--so far as we can see into Nature--is the mere theatre of technical processes. The animal, in that it moves, has a technique of movement so that it may nourish and protect itself.

The original relation between a waking-microcosm and its macrocosm--“Nature”--consists in a touch through the senses[921] which rises from mere sense-impressions to sense-judgment, so that already it works critically (that is, separatingly) or, what comes to the same thing, causal-analytically.[922] The stock of what has been determined then is enlarged into a system, as complete as may be, of the most primary experiences--identifying marks[923]--a spontaneous method by which one is enabled to feel at home in one’s world; in the case of many animals this has led to an amazing richness of experience that no human science has transcended. But the primary waking-being is always an active one, remote from mere theory of all sorts, and thus it is in the minor technique of everyday life, and upon things in so far as they are dead,[924] that these experiences are involuntarily acquired. This is the difference between Cult and Myth,[925] for at this level there is no boundary line between religion and the profane--all waking-consciousness is religion.

The decisive turn in the history of the higher life occurs when the determination of Nature (in order to be guided by it) changes into a fixation--that is, a purposed alteration of Nature. With this, technique becomes more or less sovereign and the instinctive prime-experience changes into a definitely “conscious” prime-knowing. Thought has emancipated itself from sensation. It is the language of words that brings about this epochal change. The liberation of speech from speaking[926] gives rise to a stock of signs for communication-speech which are much more than identification-marks--they are names bound up with a sense of meaning, whereby man has the secret of numina (deities, nature-forces) in his power, and number (formulæ, simple laws), whereby the inner form of the actual is abstracted form the accidental-sensuous.[927]

With that, the system of identification-marks develops into a theory, a picture which detaches itself from the technique of the day[928]--whether this be a day of high-level Civilized technics or a day of simplest beginnings--by way of abstraction, as a piece of waking-consciousness uncommitted to activity. One “knows” what one wants, but much must have happened for one to have that knowledge, and we must make no mistake as to its character. By numerical experience man is enabled to switch the secret on and off, but he has not discovered it. The figure of the modern sorcerer--a switchboard with levers and labels at which the workman calls mighty effects into play by the pressure of a finger without possessing the slightest notion of their essence--is only the symbol of human technique in general. The picture of the light-world around us--in so far as we have developed it critically, analytically, as theory, as picture--is nothing but a switchboard of the kind, on which particular things are so labelled that by (so to say) pressing the appropriate button particular effects follow with certainty. The secret itself remains none the less oppressive on that account.[929] But through this technique the waking-consciousness does, all the same, intervene masterfully in the fact-world. Life makes use of thought as an “open sesame,” and at the peak of many a Civilization, in its great cities, there arrives finally the moment when technical critique becomes tired of being life’s servant and makes itself tyrant. The Western Culture is even now experiencing an orgy of this unbridled thought, and on a tragic scale.

Man has listened-in to the march of Nature and made notes of its indices. He begins to imitate it by means and methods that utilize the laws of the cosmic pulse. He is emboldened to play the part of God, and it is easy to understand how the earliest preparers and experts of these artificial things--for it was here that art came to be, as counter-concept to nature--and how in particular the guardians of the smith’s art, appeared to those around them as something uncanny and were regarded with awe or horror as the case might be. The stock of such discoveries grew and grew. Often they were made and forgotten and made again, were imitated, shunned, improved. But in the end they constituted for whole continents a store of self-evident means--fire, metal-working, instruments, arms, ploughs, boats, houses, animal-taming, and husbandry. Above all, the metals, to whose site in the earth primitive man is led by some uncannily mystical trait in him. Immemoriably old trade-routes lead to ore-deposits that are kept secret, through the life of the settled countryside and over frequented seas, and along these, later, travel cults and ornaments and persistent legends of islands of tin and lands of gold. The primary trade of all is the metal trade, and with it the economics of production and of work are joined intrusively by a third--alien, venturesome, free-ranging over the lands.

On this foundation, now, arises the technique of the higher Cultures, expressive in quality and colour and passion of the whole soul of these major entities. It need hardly be said that Classical man, who felt himself and his environment alike Euclidean, set himself a priori in hostile opposition to the very idea of technique. If by “Classical” technique we mean something that (along with the rest that we comprehend in the adjective) rose with determined effort above the universal dead perfection of the Mycenæan age, then there was no Classical technique.[930] Its triremes were glorified row-boats, its catapults and onagers mere substitutes for arms and fists--not to be named in the same breath with the war-engines of Assyria and China--and as for Hero and his like, it was flukes and not discoveries that they achieved. They lacked the inner weight, the fatedness of their moment, the deep necessity. Here and there men played with data (and why not?) that probably came from the East, but no one devoted serious attention to them and, above all, no one made a real effort to introduce them into the ensemble-picture of life.

Very different is the Faustian technics, which with all its passion of the third dimension, and from earliest Gothic days, thrusts itself upon Nature, with the firm resolve to be its master. Here, and only here, is the connexion of insight and utilization a matter of course.[931] Theory is working hypothesis[932] from the outset. The Classical investigator “contemplated” like Aristotle’s deity, the Arabian sought as alchemist for magical means (such as the Philosophers’ Stone) whereby to possess himself of Nature’s treasures without effort,[933] but the Western strives to direct the world according to his will.

The Faustian inventor and discoverer is a unique type. The primitive force of his will, the brilliance of his visions, the steely energy of his practical ponderings, must appear queer and incomprehensible to anyone at the standpoint of another Culture, but for us they are in the blood. Our whole Culture has a discoverer’s soul. To dis-cover that which is not seen, to draw it into the light-world of the inner eye so as to master it--that was its stubborn passion from the first days on. All its great inventions slowly ripened in the deeps, to emerge at last with the necessity of a Destiny. All of them were very nearly approached by the high-hearted, happy research of the early Gothic monks.[934] Here, if anywhere, the religious origins of all technical thought are manifested.[935] These meditative discoverers in their cells, who with prayers and fastings wrung God’s secret out of him, felt that they were serving God thereby. Here is the Faust-figure, the grand symbol of a true discovering Culture. The Scientia experimentalis, as Roger Bacon was the first to call nature-research, the insistent questioning of Nature with levers and screws, began that of which the issue lies under our eyes as a countryside sprouting factory-chimneys and conveyor-towers. But for all of them, too, there was the truly Faustian danger of the Devil’s having a hand in the game,[936] the risk that he was leading them in spirit to that mountain on which he promises all the power of the earth. This is the significance of the perpetuum mobile dreamed of by those strange Dominicans like Petrus Peregrinus, which would wrest the almightiness from God. Again and again they succumbed to this ambition; they forced this secret out of God in order themselves to be God. They listened for the laws of the cosmic pulse in order to overpower it. And so they created the idea of the machine as a small cosmos obeying the will of man alone. But with that they overpassed the slender border-line whereat the reverent piety of others saw the beginning of sin, and on it, from Roger Bacon to Giordano Bruno, they came to grief. Ever and ever again, true belief has regarded the machine as of the Devil.

The passion of discovery declares itself as early as the Gothic architecture--compare with this the deliberate form-poverty of the Doric!--and is manifest throughout our music. Book-printing appeared, and the long-range weapon.[937] On the heels of Columbus and Copernicus come the telescope, the microscope, the chemical elements, and lastly the immense technological corpus of the early Baroque.

Then followed, however, simultaneously with Rationalism, the discovery of the steam-engine, which upset everything and transformed economic life from the foundations up. Till then nature had rendered services, but now she was tied to the yoke as a slave, and her work was as though in contempt measured by a standard of horse-power. We advanced from the muscle-force of the Negro, which was set to work in organized routines, to the organic reserves of the Earth’s crust, where the life-forces of millennia lay stored as coal; and to-day we cast our eyes on inorganic nature, where water-forces are already being brought in to supplement coal. As the horse-powers run to millions and milliards, the numbers of the population increase and increase, on a scale that no other Culture ever thought possible. This growth is a product of the Machine, which insists on being used and directed, and to that end centuples the forces of each individual. For the sake of the machine, human life becomes precious. Work becomes the great word of ethical thinking; in the eighteenth century it loses its derogatory implication in all languages. The machine works and forces the man to co-operate. The entire Culture reaches a degree of activity such that the earth trembles under it.

And what now develops, in the space of hardly a century, is a drama of such greatness that the men of a future Culture, with other soul and other passions, will hardly be able to resist the conviction that “in those days” nature herself was tottering. The politics stride over cities and peoples; even the economics, deeply as they bite into the destinies of the plant and animal worlds, merely touch the fringe of life and efface themselves. But this technique will leave traces of its heyday behind it when all else is lost and forgotten. For this Faustian passion has altered the Face of the Earth.

This is the outward- and upward-straining life-feeling--true descendant, therefore, of the Gothic--as expressed in Goethe’s Faust monologue when the steam-engine was yet young. The intoxicated soul wills to fly above space and Time. An ineffable longing tempts him to indefinable horizons. Man would free himself from the earth, rise into the infinite, leave the bonds of the body, and circle in the universe of space amongst the stars. That which the glowing and soaring inwardness of St. Bernard sought at the beginning, that which Grünewald and Rembrandt conceived in their backgrounds, and Beethoven in the trans-earthly tones of his last quartets, comes back now in the intellectual intoxication of the inventions that crowd one upon another. Hence the fantastic traffic that crosses the continents in a few days, that puts itself across oceans in floating cities, that bores through mountains, rushes about in subterranean labyrinths, uses the steam-engine till its last possibilities have been exhausted, and then passes on to the gas-engine, and finally raises itself above the roads and railways and flies in the air; hence it is that the spoken word is sent in one moment over all the oceans; hence comes the ambition to break all records and beat all dimensions, to build giant halls for giant machines, vast ships and bridge-spans, buildings that deliriously scrape the clouds, fabulous forces pressed together to a focus to obey the hand of a child, stamping and quivering and droning works of steel and glass in which tiny man moves as unlimited monarch and, at the last, feels nature as beneath him.

And these machines become in their forms less and ever less human, more ascetic, mystic, esoteric. They weave the earth over with an infinite web of subtle forces, currents, and tensions. Their bodies become ever more and more immaterial, ever less noisy. The wheels, rollers, and levers are vocal no more. All that matters withdraws itself into the interior. Man has felt the machine to be devilish, and rightly. It signifies in the eyes of the believer the deposition of God. It delivers sacred Causality over to man and by him, with a sort of foreseeing omniscience is set in motion, silent and irresistible.

II

Never save here has a microcosm felt itself superior to its macrocosm, but here the little life-units have by the sheer force of their intellect made the unliving dependent upon themselves. It is a triumph, so far as we can see, unparalleled. Only this our Culture has achieved it, and perhaps only for a few centuries.

But for that very reason Faustian man has become the slave of his creation. His number, and the arrangement of life as he lives it, have been driven by the machine on to a path where there is no standing still and no turning back. The peasant, the hand-worker, even the merchant, appear suddenly as inessential in comparison with the three great figures that the Machine has bred and trained up in the cause of its development: the entrepreneur, the engineer, and the factory-worker. Out of a quite small branch of manual work--namely, the preparation-economy--there has grown up (in this one Culture alone) a mighty tree that casts its shadow over all the other vocations--namely, the economy of the machine-industry.[938] It forces the entrepreneur not less than the workman to obedience. Both become slaves, and not masters, of the machine, that now for the first time develops its devilish and occult power. But although the Socialistic theory of the present day has insisted upon looking only at the latter’s contribution and has claimed the word “work” for him alone, it has all become possible only through the sovereign and decisive achievement of the former. The famous phrase concerning the “strong arm” that bids every wheel cease from running is a piece of wrong-headedness. To stop them--yes! but it does not need a worker to do that. To keep them running--no! The centre of this artificial and complicated realm of the Machine is the organizer and manager. The mind, not the hand, holds it together. But, for that very reason, to preserve the ever endangered structure, one figure is even more important than all the energy of enterprising master-men that make cities to grow out of the ground and alter the picture of the landscape; it is a figure that is apt to be forgotten in this conflict of politics--the engineer, the priest of the machine, the man who knows it. Not merely the importance, but the very existence of the industry depends upon the existence of the hundred thousand talented, rigorously schooled brains that command the technique and develop it onward and onward. The quiet engineer it is who is the machine’s master and destiny. His thought is as possibility what the machine is as actuality. There have been fears, thoroughly materialistic fears, of the exhaustion of the coal-fields. But so long as there are worthy technical path-finders, dangers of this sort have no existence. When, and only when, the crop of recruits for this army fails--this army whose thought-work forms one inward unit with the work of the machine--the industry must flicker out in spite of all that managerial energy and the workers can do. Suppose that, in future generations, the most gifted minds were to find their soul’s health more important than all the powers of this world; suppose that, under the influence of the metaphysic and mysticism that is taking the place of rationalism to-day, the very élite of intellect that is now concerned with the machine comes to be overpowered by a growing sense of its Satanism (it is the step from Roger Bacon to Bernard of Clairvaux)--then nothing can hinder the end of this grand drama that has been a play of intellects, with hands as mere auxiliaries.

The Western industry has diverted the ancient traditions of the other Cultures. The streams of economic life move towards the seats of King Coal and the great regions of raw material. Nature becomes exhausted, the globe sacrificed to Faustian thinking in energies. The working earth is the Faustian aspect of her, the aspect contemplated by the Faust of Part II, the supreme transfiguration of enterprising work--and contemplating, he dies. Nothing is so utterly antipodal to the motionless satiate being of the Classical Empire. It is the engineer who is remotest from the Classical law-thought, and he will see to it that his economy has its own law, wherein forces and efficiencies will take the place of Person and Thing.

III

But titanic, too, is the onslaught of money upon this intellectual force. Industry, too, is earth-bound like the yeoman. It has its station, and its materials stream up out of the earth. Only high finance is wholly free, wholly intangible. Since 1789 the banks, and with them the bourses, have developed themselves on the credit-needs of an industry growing ever more enormous, as a power on their own account, and they will (as money wills in every Civilization) to be the only power. The ancient wrestle between the productive and the acquisitive economies intensifies now into a silent gigantomachy of intellects, fought out in the lists of the world-cities. This battle is the despairing struggle of technical thought to maintain its liberty against money-thought.[939]

The dictature of money marches on, tending to its material peak, in the Faustian Civilization as in every other. And now something happens that is intelligible only to one who has penetrated to the essence of money. If it were anything tangible, then its existence would be for ever--but, as it is a form of thought, it fades out as soon as it has thought its economic world to finality, and has no more material upon which to feed. It thrust into the life of the yeoman’s countryside and set the earth a-moving; its thought transformed every sort of handicraft; to-day it presses victoriously upon industry to make the productive work of entrepreneur and engineer and labourer alike its spoil. The machine with its human retinue, the real queen of this century, is in danger of succumbing to a stronger power. But with this, money, too, is at the end of its success, and the last conflict is at hand in which the Civilization receives its conclusive form--the conflict between money and blood.

The coming of Cæsarism breaks the dictature of money and its political weapon democracy. After a long triumph of world-city economy and its interests over political creative force, the political side of life manifests itself after all as the stronger of the two. The sword is victorious over the money, the master-will subdues again the plunderer-will. If we call these money-powers “Capitalism,”[940] then we may designate as Socialism the will to call into life a mighty politico-economic order that transcends all class interests, a system of lofty thoughtfulness and duty-sense that keeps the whole in fine condition for the decisive battle of its history, and this battle is also the battle of money and law.[941] The private powers of the economy want free paths for their acquisition of great resources. No legislation must stand in their way. They want to make the laws themselves, in their interests, and to that end they make use of the tool they have made for themselves, democracy, the subsidized party. Law needs, in order to resist this onslaught, a high tradition and an ambition of strong families that finds its satisfaction not in the heaping-up of riches, but in the tasks of true rulership, above and beyond all money-advantage. A power can be overthrown only by another power, not by a principle, and no power that can confront money is left but this one. Money is overthrown and abolished only by blood. Life is alpha and omega, the cosmic onflow in microcosmic form. It is the fact of facts within the world-as-history. Before the irresistible rhythm of the generation-sequence, everything built up by the waking-consciousness in its intellectual world vanishes at the last. Ever in History it is life and life only--race-quality, the triumph of the will-to-power--and not the victory of truths, discoveries, or money that signifies. World-history is the world court, and it has ever decided in favour of the stronger, fuller, and more self-assured life--decreed to it, namely, the right to exist, regardless of whether its right would hold before a tribunal of waking-consciousness. Always it has sacrificed truth and justice to might and race, and passed doom of death upon men and peoples in whom truth was more than deeds, and justice than power. And so the drama of a high Culture--that wondrous world of deities, arts, thoughts, battles, cities--closes with the return of the pristine facts of the blood eternal that is one and the same as the ever-circling cosmic flow. The bright imaginative Waking-Being submerges itself into the silent service of Being, as the Chinese and Roman empires tell us. Time triumphs over Space, and it is Time whose inexorable movement embeds the ephemeral incident of the Culture, on this planet, in the incident of Man--a form wherein the incident life flows on for a time, while behind it all the streaming horizons of geological and stellar histories pile up in the light-world of our eyes.

For us, however, whom a Destiny has placed in this Culture and at this moment of its development--the moment when money is celebrating its last victories, and the Cæsarism that is to succeed approaches with quiet, firm step--our direction, willed and obligatory at once, is set for us within narrow limits, and on any other terms life is not worth the living. We have not the freedom to reach to this or to that, but the freedom to do the necessary or to do nothing. And a task that historic necessity has set will be accomplished with the individual or against him.

Ducunt Fata volentem, nolentem trahunt.

INDEX

Prepared by David M. Matteson

Abbassids, court life, 197; Syncretism, 313; Third Estate and rule, 424

Abraham, Judah’s silver pieces, 237

Absolutism. See Dynastic idea; Politics

Abu Bekr, Puritanism, 304

Abu Hanifah, as jurist, 75

Academy, style, 345

Achikar, as Arabian, 208

Achmed, and Caliph, 426

Acosta, Uriel, expulsion, 317

Acragas, democratic triumph, 396

Actium, battle, importance, 191; and Cæsarism, 423

Activity, waking-being and willed, 133

Actuality, and abstract thought, 144

Adiabene, Jewish state, 175, 198, 209

Adrianople, battle, effect, 40

Adventism, as type of second religiousness, 311 n.

Æchylus, and being, 272; and religion, 282

Ælius, Tripertita, 66

Agamemnon, as feudal, 374

Agathocles, and Mamertines, 160 n.; Syracuse massacre, 406 n.

Agis III, revolution, 65

Agriculture, effect on man, 89; farmhouse as symbol, 90; modern, as technic, 479 n., 485 n.

Ahuramazda, as deity, 207 n.; and Spenta Mainyu and Vohu Mano, 244 n.

Akhenaton, religiousness, 313; revolution, 353

Akiba, legends, 250.

Aksakov, Ivan, on Petersburg, 193

Al Alblaq, castle, 198

Alaric, historyless, 432

Albegensians, Manichæans, 260 n.

Albert of Saxony, as scientist, 301

Albertus Magnus, 291; philosophy, 172 n.; and Devil-cult, and technique, 502 n.

Alcibiades, and army, 406

Alcmæonidæ, and Athenian history, 336

Alesia, siege, 421

Alexander the Great, as follower, 88 n.; political character of empire, 174 n.; divine descent, 314; and polis, 383; control by generals, 407. See also Macedonians

Alexandria, as world-city, 99; outbreaks, 198 n.; as polis, 383

Alfonso X of Castile, work on planets, 316

Al Ghazali, deification, 314; and science, 315

Ali, war with Othman, 424; power, 426

Alien, and “proper” in sensation, 6

“All,” as word, 141

Al Maimun, Rationalism, 306 n.

Al Manzor, Christian, 260

Alp Arslan, power, 427

Alphabet. See Writing

Amasis, rise, 428

Amenemhet I, absolutism, 387

Amenhotep (Amenophis) IV, city, 101 n.; religiousness, 313; revolution, 353

Amenophis IV. See Amenhotep

American Revolution, effect in France, 411 n.; cause, loyalists, 411 n.

Americans, as race, Indian influence, 119; as people, creation of events, 165; language and nation, 183; and predestination, 305; Civil War, 356, 369 n., 421, 488 n.; fate of government, 416; basis of reverence for constitution, 430 n.; no yeomanry, 449 n.; party and political machine, 450-452; economics and politics, 475

Ammonius Saccas, conversion, 176

Amoraim, period, 71, 250; and commentary, 247

Amos, as Arabian prophet, 205

Analysis, and double-entry book-keeping, 490

Anastasius I, demonstration against, 381 n.

Ancestral worship, Chinese, time-mythology, 286, 351

Ancient History, as term, 28

Angelico, Fra, frescoes and the Devil, 292 n.

Animal, essential character, microcosm in macrocosm, 3, 4, 15; cosmic beat and tension, 4, 5; cosmic organs, blood, sex, 5; microcosmic organ, sense, 5, 6, 115; sense and understanding, 6; sight as supreme sense, 6; being and waking-being, 7; and language, 131-134; and art, 133 n.; involuntary technique, 499

Anselm, Saint, Arabian contemporaries, 250

Anti-Semitism, rationale, 317-321

Antioch, as un-Classical, 101 n.; as capital city, 191; as polis, 383

Antiochus Epiphanes, persecution, 210

Antony, Mark, Actium, 191, 423; on Cicero, 433 n.

Aphrahat, epistles, 252 n.

Aphrodisias, Pagan conversion, 259

Apocalyptic, predecessors of Mohammed, 204; related Arabian, 204-207, 209; Arabian development, 208, 245; Jewish law and the prophets, 209; end of Jewish, 211; and Arabian awakening, 212; Jesus’ teaching, 217; and Resurrection, 218; Paul’s attitude, 221; as vision of fable, 237; basis of writing, 245. See also Religion

Apocrypha, elimination, 71, 248

Apollinaris, Monophysite, 257

Apollonian cult, and body, 283; and Tyrannis, 386

Apollonius, as biographer, 252

Apologists, period, 71, 250

Apostles, fictitious authorships, 72 n. See also Gospels

Appius Claudius. See Claudius

Arabian Culture, historic, 27; problems of study, 38; as discovery, 42; relation to other Cultures, midmost, 42, 87, 190, 235; landscape, 42; Islam, Civilization and Crusades, 43; pre-cultural law, 75; pre-cultural tribal association, 175; pseudomorphosis, 189, 191; ignorance of inner form, partial study, 190, 191; feudalism, 196-200; Scholasticism and Mysticism, 200, 250; scientific beginnings, 200 n.; space-concept, cavern, 233; time-concept, ordained period, eras, 238-240, 249; future of nations, 323; cognate family, 330; dynastic idea, 330 n., 378, 379; style of priesthood, 325; relation of primary estates, 353; political periods from feudalism to Cæsarism, 423-427; political theory, 453. See also Cultures; Islam; Jews; Pseudomorphosis; Religion; Roman law

Aragon, control by nobility, 373

Aramaic, and Christianity, 225; as Jewish church-language, 252

Archæans, as name, 161, 164

Archaeology, as Western trait, 79

Archimedes, futility, 17

Architecture, Mexican, 45; foreign effects of Western, 46; cultural mixture, 87; Minoan and Mycenæan houses, 88; cosmic and microcosmic, 92, 93; and dwelling-house, 120; as religious and ornament, 123; secular buildings and style, 123; Romanesque soul, 180; basilica and mosque, 230. See also Art

Archons, urban, 374; overthrow, 398

Areopagus, overthrow, 396

Argos, massacre, 405

Aristides, on Roman polis, 383

Aristocracy of intellect, as term, 166 n. See also Nobility

Aristonicus, and Blossius, 454

Aristotle, universe, 58; and polis, 173 n.; on Calani, 175 n.; and commentary, 247 n.; “Theology,” 248; and Rationalism, 305; corpus, 346

Arius, and substance controversy, 256

Armenia, conversion as state, 177, 253; devil-worshippers, 236 n.; nobility, 423; sword-dynasty, 426, 428

Army, Byzantine system, 199; professional, rise as political power, 406. See also War

Arnold of Brescia, and reform, 296

Art, late Minoan and early Mycenæan, 87-89; expression-language and communication-language, 116; taboo and totem sides, in research, 118, 120, 121; in animals, 133 n.; and understanding, 133; forms, 331 n.; lack of Classical financial value, destruction, 487; as counter-concept to native, 500. See also Architecture; Ornament

Aryan. See Indogermanic

Asceticism. See Monasticism

Asclepiades, work, 252

Asclepiodotus, as Pagan missionary, 259

Asoka, religiousness, 313; as Sudra, 333

Asosi, as feudal, 375

Assuan documents, 209

Assyrians, as rulers, 40

Astrakan, Judaic conversion, 259

Astrology, and Arabian time-concept, 238; as late Classical fad, 310

Astronomy, Chaldean, 206

Asvagosha, Mahayana doctrine, 313

Atargatis, cult, 201

Athanasius, and Western dogma, 230; and substance controversy, 256; and reform, 296

Athens, and Alcmæonidæ, 336; vis-à-vis: Sparta, 368, Tyrannis, 386; overthrow of oligarchy, 396, 397

Athos, monasteries as Buddhistic, 314

Atreus, tomb, 89

Auaris, as capital, 428

Augustine, Saint, and Grace, 59, 241; on Classical religion as true, 204; Manichæan, 227; dualism, 234; community of the elect, 243; on ruler, 379

Augustus, principate and monarchy, 50, 349; and dyarchy, 432, 433

Aulard, F. Alphonse, on French Revolution, 399 n.

Aurelian, State religion, 253

Aureole, significance, 378

Aurignacian Man, conditions, 34

Austria, national origin, 182; annihilation, 183. See also Holy Roman Empire

Autarkeia, Rationalism, 307

Authority, and authorship, 248 n.

Authorship, and authority, 248 n.

Avicenna, Spinoza as heir, 321

Avidius Cassius, on Marcus Aurelius, 430

Axum, ignored history, 190; feudalism, 197; and Himaryites, 197; stelæ, 234 n.; State religion, 253

Aztecs, rule, 45; and jurisprudence, 66; and woman, 328

Baal cults, in Syncretism, 201

Baal Shem, Gnosis, 228; as Messiah, 311

Babek, outbreaks, 424, 425

Babylon, as world-city, 99

Babylonian Culture, beginning, achievements, rulers, 39, 40; and early Jewish law, 75; and Arabian Culture, 189 n.; and Chaldean, 205 n., 206 n.; astrology, 238 n.

Bacchiadæ, and succession, 380

Bach, John Sebastian, Exekias as contemporary, 135 n.

Bacon, Roger, philosophy, 172 n.; and the Devil, 290 n., 502; as scientist, 301; and technique, 502, 502 n.

Baghdad, as Islam, 95; as world-city, 99, 425; plan, 100

Balkuwara Palace, 100 n.

Banausos, notion, 332

Bank-note, status, 483

Banking, cultural basis, 493 n.

Bantu language, 142

Baptism, as impersonal, 293; Luther’s concept, 299

Barcochebas, rising, 319

Bardas, power, 426

Bardas Phocas, power, 426

Bardesanes, period and task, 250, 257; and substance, 255, 256, 258

Baroque, as microcosmic and urban, 92, 93; science and Gothic religiousness, 270; contemporary Jewish period, 316; political aspect, 391, 405; fifty-year periods, 392 n.

Barrack-state, 366 n.

Barter, in early Culture, 97, 480, 481

Bartolus, as jurist, 77

Baruch Apocalypse, fictitious, 72 n.; dualism, 234, 248

Basel, Council of, and feudalism, 374

Basileios I, power, 426

Basileios II, and rule, 426

Basileios, chancellor, power, 427

Basileus, as feudal, 374

Basilica, and mosque, 230

Basilides, and substance, 256

Basques, race, 165

Basra, Ali’s capture, 426

Bavaria, as State, 182

Baxter, Jedediah H., on American race, 119

Bayle, Pierre, on understanding, 13 n.

Beast-deities, Classical, 276; Mycenæan and Egyptian, 276 n.

Beat, and tension, 4; and being, 7; cosmic, in crowd, 18. See also Being

Beatification, scientific, 346

Become, and understanding, 14, 15. See also Microcosm

Becoming, and understanding, 14, 15. See also Cosmic

Behistun Inscription, 166, 207

Being, as cosmic, and waking-being, 7, 11, 13; peasant as, 89; and race, 113; upward series of utterances, 116; and totem, 117; and religion, 265; and faith, 271; and moral negations, 272-274; and truths, 274; and nobility, 335; and idea of property, 343; ultimate triumph, 435, 507; and economics, 470, 471. See also Cosmic; History; Politics; Race; Sex; Time; Waking-being; War

Bel temple, Palmyra, inscriptions, 206

Belhomme, Jacques, and aristocrats, 402 n.

Belisarius, as feudal lord, 350 n.

Beloch, Julius, on migrant minority, 164

Benedictines, as rural, 91

Bernadotte, Jean B. J., and Désirée Clary, 329; rise, 406

Bernard of Clairvaux, Arabian contemporaries, 250; on love of God, 266 n.; and compassion, 273; and Mary-cult, 288; and contrition, 298

Bible, fixation of canon, 71, 248; fictitious authorship, 72 n.; law of early books, 75; rise of fetishism, 299. See also Christianity; New Testament; Old Testament; Sacred books

Biography, in Western Culture, 29; and contrition, 294

Biology, and primitive history, 48; and post-Civilization history, 48

Bismarck, Fürst von, dynastic government, 415; flaw in leadership, 444

Blackstone, Sir William, Commentaries as Germanic, 78

Blake, William, “tiger” expression, 128 n.

Blood system, cosmic organ, 5

Blossius, influence, 454

Blumenbach, Johann F., race classification, 125

Boar’s-head attack, 199

Boas, Franz, on American race, 119

Boccaccio, Giovanni, and Classicism, 291 n.

Bodin, Jean, and law of nature, 78

Body, in Roman law, 67; Classical concept and Western law, 81, 82; and Classical cults, 283; and polis, 384; and Classical money concept, 486

Böhme, Jakob, and Western religious beginnings, 282

Boghaz, Keüi, archives, 167

Bogomils, iconoclasm, 304

Bollandists, and orders and schools, 346

Bolshevism, Tolstoi’s relation, as pseudomorphosis, 195; cultural basis of fury, 321 n.

Bonaventura, Saint, and Devil-cult, 291

Boniface, Saint, as missionary, 56

Boniface VIII, pope, and Jacopone, 296; Unam sanctam, 376

Book, expulsion by newspaper, 461; as personal expression, 463

Book-keeping, double-entry as Western symbol, 490

Booty, and power, 344, 345, 347, 371, 372, 474

Borchardt, Ludwig, erroneous chronology, 39 n.

Borkman, John G., on resources, 486

Bosch, Hieronymus, paintings and the Devil, 298 n.

Bourbons, and world-history, 182, 336

Bourse, as cultural phenomenon, 484 n.

Boxer Rebellion, cultural basis, 321 n.

Bracton, Henry de, as jurist, 76

Brahmanism, Sankhara and Neo-Brahmanism, 315

Breed. See Race

Brentano, Clemens, “playing” with expression, 137

Breughel, Pieter, and the Devil, 289 n.

Brunhilde, as destiny, 329

Bruno, Giordano, and machine and Devil, 502

Brutus, M. Junius, as ideologue, 433 n.

Buch, Christian L. von, theory, 31

Buddhism, and Indian philosophy, 49; and landscape, in China, 57, 312, 315; and sport, 103; and depopulation, 106; Rationalism, 305, 307; expansion, 308; Hinayana and Mahayana, 312; and Syncretism, 313; deification of Buddha, 314; and Neo-Brahmanism, 315; and political theory, 453

Bunyan, John, and concepts, 303

Burdach, Konrad, on Renaissance and Gothic, 291 n.

Burghers. See Democracy; Town

Buridan, Jean, as scientist, 301

Burkard of Worms, and Devil-cult, 290

Burke, Edmund, on rights, 403

Burning of the Books, and Cæsarism, 433, 434, 463 n.

Bylini, hero-tales, 192

Byzantine Empire, and inter-Cultures, 89; cult and nationality, State religion, 176, 178, 230, 243, 253, 258; capital city as symbol, 191; and feudalism, army system, 198; literature and Arabian literature, 304; and Crusades, 319; nobility and priesthood, 353; Sassanid pattern, 378 n.; class-basis of political associations, 381 n.; revolution in, 425; Cæsarism in, 426. See also Arabian Culture, Pseudomorphosis; Religion

Cæsar, C. Julius, ahistoric, 24; monarchy and principate, 50; divine descent, 314; demagogy, money and power, 402, 457 n., 458, 459; Gallic conquests, 408; Triumvirate and Cæsarism, 423; and forms, 431 n., 432; killing by ideologues, 433; tact of command, 444; at Lucca, 446

Cæsarism, and second religiousness, 310, 386 n.; and emperor-cult, 313; transit to, as cultural destiny, 416, 429, 434; era of great fact-men, 418; defined, formless strife for personal power, 418, 431, 434; character of war, 419-422; ruthless peace, 422; Classical evolution, 422, 423, 430; in Arabian Culture, sultanate, 423, 426; in Egypt, 427; coming Western, and overthrow of money, 428, 506, 507; and megalopolitanism and return of race, 431; as end of great politics, 432, 434; completed Roman, and ideologues, 432-434; and passing of Culture, 435; and private politics, 452, 464; battle with democracy, 464. See also Politics

Cæsarius of Heisterbach, and Devil-cult, 290

Calani, as term for philosophers, 175 n.

Calchas, and Classical religious beginnings, 282, 350

Caliphate, deification, 68; yields to sultanate, 425, 426

Calvin, John, and Grace, 59; as Gothic, 296; and world-politics, 299; and science, 300

Camden, battle, 412 n.

Canada, public-land survey, 101 n.

Cannæ, battle, importance, 191, 338

Canon, fixation, 71, 248; as term, 245; Arabian style, 346. See also Bible

Canon law, development, 77

Capital, Western, as movement of values, 493; Classical sort, 494. See also Money

Capital city, domination, 95; of Byzantine Empire, 191; and primary estates, 356; and State-idea, 377; cultural basis, 381

Capitulations, origin, 177 n.

Caracalla, citizenship edict, and emperor-worship, 68

Care, family and State as symbols, 364; legal modes, 365; financial officialdom, 371

Carey, Henry C., and English economics, 469

Carmathians, outbreak, 425

Carolingian Renaissance, character, 87

Carthage, as Babylonian, 108; in Classical Civilization, 323; vis-à-vis Rome, 368; economy and politics, 475. See also Punic Wars

Caspian Sea, and intercultural relations, 41

Cassius, Spurius, and cult, 386

Caste, meaning, 332, 333

Castle, as totem, racial expression, 122; and ornament, relation to style, 123; talk, 153

Catchwords, as term, 401

Cathedral, as taboo and ornament, 122, 123; speech, 153

Catholic, Western churches as, 223 n., 229

Catilinarian movement, financing, 402

Cato, M. Porcius (Censor), and Scipio, 411; ruthlessness, 422

Cato, M. Porcius (Uticensis), rise, 409 n.; courts and politics, 459

Catulus, Q. Lutatius, demagogy, 459

Caucus, as political means, 452 n.

Causality, human (microcosmic) type, 16-19; and sex, 327. See also Destiny; Intelligence; Nature; Religion; Space; Town; Waking-being

Cavern, Arabian symbol, and Chaldean religion, 206, 233, 238

Cecils, and English history, 337

Censorship, past and present, 463

Ceremonial, as expression-language, 134

Chacmultun, and Mexican Culture, 45

Chalcedon, Council of, substance controversy, 257; and reform, 296

Chaldeans, as rulers, 40; tribal association, 175; religion and nation, 176; cult in Syncretism, 201; as term, 205 n.; prophetic religion, 205, 209 n.; and Babylonia, 205 n., 206 n.; astronomy, 206; astrology, 238; oracles as canon, 245; disappearance, 252

Chamberlain, Joseph, and political machine, 453 n.

Champutun, and Mexican Culture, 45

Chandragupta, Sundra, 333

Chang-I, Imperialism, 417, 419

Chang-Lu, church, 314

Charlemagne, and cultural mixture, 87; and Devil-cult, 290

Charles I of England, and absolutism, 388

Charles IV, emperor, policy, 376

Charles Martel, as destiny, 192

Charondas, character of laws, 63, 64

Chartres, Arabian contemporaries of school, 250

Charvaka doctrine, 105

Chaucer, Geoffrey, and “virtue,” 307 n.

Cheirocracy, Classical, 397

Cherusci, importance of victory, 48

Chian, importance, 50; power, 428

Chichen Itza, and Mexican Culture, 45

Chinese Culture, as historic, 28; problems of study, 38; transition to Cæsarism, contending States, 38, 40, 339, 416-419, 454; date of beginning, 39 n.; periods, cultural contemporaries, 40-42; fate, 42; end of real history, 49; and Buddhism, 57, 312, 315; basis of laws, 67 n.; depopulation, 106; nations under, 178 n.; Tsin, 185; and sacred books, 244 n.; Manichæans and Nestorians, 260; beginning of religion, 281, 285; time mythology, 286; dualism, tao, 287; landscape as prime symbol, 287; second religiousness and Syncretism, 312; emperor-cult, 313, 379; fellah State religion, 315; ancient priest-estate, 350; ancestry-worship, 351; tao and priesthood, 352; relation of primary estates, 352; world-power idea, 373; feudalism and interregnum, 375; dynasty-idea, 379; Fronde in, 386; period of protectors, 387; Cæsarism and ideologues, 434; status of early coins, 481 n.; bank notes, 483; money concept, 486, 489 n.; and technique, 501 n. See also Culture

Chinese language, voice-differentiations, 140 n.; written and spoken, 145, 151; standard script, 152

Chios, and slaves, 488

Chivalry, Arabian, 198; and compassion as contemporary, 273

Chlysti, doctrines, 278

Chmenotep, inscriptions, 387

Chosen People, as common Arabian idea, 207

Chosroës Nushirvan, and Mazdak, 261

Chóu dynasty, residence, 92; fall, 376; money concept, 489 n.

Christ, as name, 219 n.

Christian Science, as fad, 310

Christianity, Arabian and Western, form and soul, 59, 235, 237, 258; period of Apologists, 71; of Fathers, 71; effect of Justinian, 74; Corpus Juris Canonici, 77; and Arabian nations, 177; nationalism and persecutions, 177; Arabian, and chivalry, 198; Jesus-cult and Syncretism, 201, 220, 252; and Hellenism, 203, 204; Jesus’ life and biography as central point, 212; and Arabian apocalyptic literature, 212; and Turfan manuscripts, 213 n.; and Mandæanism of John the Baptist, 214; self-view of Jesus as prophet and Messiah, townlessness, 215; Jesus and Pilate, symbolism, 216, 473 n.; Jesus and pure metaphysics, 217; effect of Resurrection, Messiah, 218; Arabian cult-nationality and world salvation, 219, 220; Paul and Church, 220, 221; Paul and urban intellect, westward trend, 221; Old Testament and canon, 221, 225, 226, 228, 245; Mark Gospel, 223; cults, Mary-cult, 223; Greek and Latin as languages, 224, 241 n., 252; John Gospel, Mysticism, Logos and Paraclete, 226; Marcionism and early Catholic Church, 227; Arabian West and East division, 228-230; architectural symbols of division, 230; Arabian Logos and Jesus’ world-image, 236, 237; era, 239; and Judaism, separation, 251, 316; early Eastern, 251 n.; Eastern State religions, 253; monasticism in Arabian, 254; Arabian expansion, and inner contradiction, 255; substance controversy and split, 255-258; Greek, 257; obligation to other missionarism, 259, 260; end of Arabian theology, 261; pre-period of Western, 277; Western Mary-cult and Devil-cult, 288-292; Western guilt and free-will, sacraments, 292, 293; Western contrition, 293-295; elements and effect of Reformation, 296-300; present Russian, 495 n. See also Manichæism; Monophysites; Nestorianism; Puritanism; Religion; Roman Catholic

Chronology, Arabian spirit, 27; cultural, 39 n.; Mexican, 44; Arabian eras, 239

Chrysostom, John, and conflict of estates, 353 n.

Chthonian cults, 283, 286

Chufucianism, fellah character, 315

Church, and religion, 443 n.

Church and State, Arabian concept, 168, 174-178, 210, 242, 243, 253, 315, 317; Roman law and established church, 177 n.; and Arabian monasticism, 254; lack of equilibrium, 336

Church of England, new transubstantiation controversy, 309 n.

Cicero, M. Tullius, rise, 409 n.; on elections, 432 n.; and party, weakling, 433; and Divus idea, 433; and killing of Cæsar, 433 n.; and demagogy, 458; and Trebatius, 458 n.

Cimabue, Giovanni, as Gothic, 291

Cineas, on Roman Senate, 409

Circus parties, as term, 381 n.

Citation, deeper meaning, 248

Citizenship, Caracalla’s edict on Roman, 68; Roman, and polis, 383, 384; Classical idea, 384

Citizenship, Roman, 166 n., 384

City. See Megalopolitanism; Town

City-leagues, Classical, 355

City planning, soulless chessboard form, 100

Civil War, American, defeat of aristocracy, 356, 369 n.; and military art, 421; as victory of coal-energy, 488 n.

Civilization, as term, 31 n.; position of present, 37; of Mexican Culture, 45; exhaustion and historylessness, 48-51; and microcosmic, 92; and dictatorship of money, 98; as tension, 102; rootless forms, world-extension, 107; inner stages, present Western, 109; and style, 109; survivals, 109; superficial history, 109, 339; and utilitarian script, 152, 155; Jewish, in contact with Gothic, 317-319; Jews in Western, 322; economics under, 477, 484, 493; final struggle, money and Cæsarism, 506. See also Cæsarism; Cultures; Fellahism; Megalopolitanism; Politics

Clary, Désirée, as destiny, 329

Classes, and history, 96; economic, 477. See also Estates

Classical Culture, as ahistoric, and script, 24, 27, 36, 150, 152; similarity of Mexican, 43; end of real history, 50; relation of Renaissance, 58; Greek laws, 61; and capital city, 95; Civilization cities, 101; Civilization and sterility, 105; destruction and survivals of Civilization, 109; nations under, polis basis, 173; geographically-limited cults, 200; and revelation, 244 n.; fate in, 267; beast character of deities, 276; obscure religious beginnings, 281-283; Orphism, Ascetism, 283; outline of early religion, 283, 284; Greek and Roman cults, 284; later city-religions, 285; personality-concept, 293 n.; second religiousness and Syncretism, 312; agnate family, 330; ancient priest-estate, 350; style of nobility, 351; style of priesthood, 352; position of primary estates, 353; significance of colonization, 354; city-leagues, 355; capital and financial organization, 372, 383, 493-496; and world-power, 373 n.; feudalism and polis, 374; first Tyrannis, 375, 386; dynasty-ideal and oligarchy, 380, 381; carpe diem, 383; and war, 385; inter-Tyrannis period, 394-398; second Tyrannis, 405-408; period of Cæsarism, evolution, 418, 422, 423, 430; military technique of Civilization, 420; trader-master period, 484; money as magnitude, 486, 495; money and land and art value, 487; slaves as money, 488, 496; and technique, 501. See also Cultures; Polis; Pseudomorphosis; Rome

Claudii, and Roman history, 336; social composition, 357

Claudius I, importance, 50

Claudius, Appius, and sons of freedmen, 166 n.; and peasantry, 408, 410; and consul-list, 409 n.; and Punic War, 410; reforms and demagogy, 458

Clausewitz, Karl von, inversion of phrase, 330 n.; as military writer, 419 n.

Clearing-house, electrical analogy, 490 n.

Clement, Saint, period, 250

Cleomenes I, and helots, 396

Cleomenes III, fall, 65; and Sphærus, 454 n.

Cleomenes, Alexander’s administrator, and speculation, 484

Cleon, as mass-leader, 448 n.

Clergy. See Priesthood

Climate, and man’s history, 39 n.

Clisthenes, and Homer, 386

Clock, as Western symbol, 300 n.

Clodius. See Claudius

Cluniacs, as rural, 92

Cluny, and reform, 296

Coal, and slaves, 488 n.

Code, Civil, position, 76

Code of Manu, on Sudra, 332

Coins, and “Money,” 481 n., 483; as Classical symbol, 486; Western attitude, 490

Coke, Sir Edward, and Roman law, 78, 365 n.

Collinet, Paul, on Justinian’s Digests, 70 n.

Colonate, end, 357

Colonization, significance of Classical, 354, 355; cultural basis, 382 n.

Colonna, and Papacy, 354

Colonus, vassalage, 350

Colosseum, decay, 107 n.

Colour, symbolism in Western religion, 289

Comitia Centuriata, and money, 410; and Punic War, 410; supporters, 451

Comitia Tributa, and conquest, 410; supporters, 451

Commentary on sacred books, authoritative chain, 247, 248

Common law, development, 76, 78

Community. See Consensus

Comnena, Anna, on crusaders, 89

Compass, Chinese invention, 501 n.

Compassion, and being, 273; and chivalry, 273

Comradeship, and race, 126

Conception, as sin, 272. See also Sex

Condés, feudal force, 350 n.

Confession. See Contrition

“Confession of Peter,” 220

Confucianism, and “Persian” religion, 260; as end of culture, 286; Rationalism, 306, 307, 309; Syncretism, 315; and nobility, 357; and Cæsarism, 434

Confucius, deification, 314; on Hwang, 388

Congress of Princes, 38, 304

Connubium, cult basis, 69

Conrad II, emperor, feudal law, 371

Conscription, as phase of Civilization, 420; as substitute for war, 428; effect of World War, 429

Consensus, as Arabian principle, 59, 73, 210; Arabian community of elect, 242; and Arabian monasticism, 253; phases of Jewish, 315-317, 320

Constance, Council of, and feudalism, 374

Constantine the Great, and Roman law as Christian, 69; and Byzantium, 89; and cult and nationality, 178, 230, 243, 253; as prince and prelate, 204, 258; and Nicæa, 257

Constantine VII, and Romanos, 426

Constitutio Antoniana, 68

Constitutions, incomplete system of written, 361; written and living, 369; doctrinaire government, 413-415; foresight, 415 n.; status of American, 430 n.; character of German (1919), 457 n. See also Politics

Consuls, origin of term, 374 n.; beginning, 382; and Senate, 409; as forged ancestors, 409 n.; and party, 451

Contemplation, cultural basis, 242

Contemporaneity, intercultural, 39-42

Contending States, period in China, 38, 40, 339, 416-419, 454

Contrition, Western sacrament and Arabian submission, and Grace, 240-242; as supreme Western religious concept, 293, 295; and happiness, 294; effect of decline, 294, 298, 299; as English idea, 294 n.; and Luther’s faith-concept, 298

Conversion, and Arabian cult-nationality, 219

Copan, and Mexican Culture, 44

Corcyra, massacre, 405

Cordus, Cremutius, history burnt, 434

Corinth, royal succession, 380; destruction, 489

Corporation, and Arabian juridical person, 174 n.

Corpus Christi, and thanksgiving, 293

Corpus Juris, position in Arabian Culture, 71, 74; and Western law, 76-78; and canon law, 77

Corpus Juris Germanici, development, 76-78

Corruption, political so-called, 458

Cortes, beginning, 373

Cortez, Hernando, force in conquest, 44 n.

Cos, style of school, 345

Cosmic, relation of plant and animal to, 3, 4, 15; beat, feel, 4, 5; organs, 5; being, 7; crowd and beat, 18; and history, 23, 24; in architecture, 92; and sex, 327; earth and universe, 392 n. See also Being; Landscape; Microcosm; Plant; Race

Cosmogony, of Genesis, 209 n.

Cosmopolitanism, and intelligentsia, 184. See also Megalopolitanism

Costume, as expression-language, 134

Councils, spirit of Arabian and Western Christian, 59; and pope, 374

Country, cosmic, 89; relation to town, 91, 94; as Gothic, 93; historyless, 96. See also Peasantry

Courts, Roman, and politics, 459. See also Jurisprudence; Roman law

Crassus Dives, M. Licinius, and money, 402; Triumvirate and Cæsarism, 423; politics and finance, 458, 459; and court, 459

Credit-system, Western concept, 489. See also Money

Crete, Minoan art and Mycenæ, 87-89; and ethnology, 129; and Mycenæan beast-deities, 276 n.

Criticism, relation to science and history, 24

Cromwell, Oliver, Puritan manifestation, 302; power, 389; dictatorship, 390

Cross, and Tree of Knowledge, 180 n.

Croton, Sybaris, 303; style of school, 345

Crowd and mob, cosmic beat, 18; and Cultures, 18; ethic, 342; fourth estate, 358; and leaders, 376; rise of power, 399

Crusades, and Arabian Civilization, 43; as rural, 97; and nationalism, 180; Jewish parallel, 198

Ctesiphon, school, 200; location, 200 n.

Cujacius, and Roman law, 77

Cult, and dogma, cultural attitude, 200, 201; technique, and myth, 268, 499. See also Religion

Cultures, as beings, cosmic beat, 19, 35; historic and ahistoric, 24, 27; as basis of history, 26, 27, 44, 46-51; primitive, character, 33, 34; mutation, 33, 36; primitive and pre-Culture, 35, 89; comparative study, 36-38; destined course, 37; future, 37; problems of study, 37-39; and landscape study, 39 n., 46; dating, 39 n.; contemporary periods, 39-42; inter-Cultures, 87-89; and “return to nature,” 135; and writing, 150; relation of people, 169, 170; and nations, 170-173, 362; narrow circle of understanding, 280; and religious creativeness, 308; intercultural dissonance, race and time elements, 317-323; passing, 435; economic underlay, 474; distinct economic styles, 477; money-symbols, 486. See also Arabian; Art; Babylonian; Chinese; Civilization; Classical; Economics; Egyptian; Fellahism; History; Indian; Landscape; Language; Mexican; Macrocosm; Morphology; Natural science; Politics; Race; Religion; Russian; Technique; Town; Western

Cumont, Franz, on old Persian religion, 207

Customs, purpose, 475 n.

Cuvier, Baron Georges, theory, 31

Cynics, Pietism, 308; and Socrates, 309

Cyprus, massacre, 321 n.

Cyrene, massacre, 198 n.

Damascenus, John, as Al Manzor, 260

Damascius, as biographer, 252; anchorite, 254

Damiani, Petrus, and Mary-cult, 288

Danai, as name, 161, 164

Daniel, fictitious, 72 n.

Dante Alighieri, and Devil-cult, 292; and “virtue,” 307 n.

Darius the Great, Behistun Inscription, 166, 207

Darwinism, shallowness, 31; palæontological reputation, mutation, 32; and race determination, 124; and genealogy, 180

Death, man and fear, 15, 16; relation to light, 265; as punishment, 272; and Classical cults, 283; hunger-death and hero-death, 471

Decemvirs, code, 65; significance, 396

Dediticii peregrins, as class, 68

Dehio, Georg, on houses and architecture, 121

Deism, as technic, 306

Delbrück, Hans, on ancient armies, 40 n., 199 n.; on migrant minority, 164

Delos, slave market, 489; temples as banks, 493 n.

Demeter cult, Homer’s ignoring, 282; and Pythagoreans, 282; survival, 282 n.; and sex, 283; power, 290 n.

Demeter-Dionysus-Kore cult, in Rome, 386

Democracy (Third Estate), urban, 97; relation to other estates, 334; rise as contradiction, 355-358; Plebs, 357, 408-411; rise of Classical, 387; Classical, in inter-Tyrannis period, 394-398; rise as independent force, 398; negative unity, 399; and mob, 399; nationalism, and unity, 400-402, 485, 506; in England, 402; class dictatorship, 403, 404; and Parliamentarism, 416; period in Arabian Culture, 424-426; decay, 433; and party, 449; end, 463-465; social and economic form, 478; and machine industry, 504 n. See also Politics

Democritus, atomic theory, 58

Depth-experience, Western, “I” as light-centre, 8; and nations, 179; as prime symbol, 288; and gunpowder and printing, 460; and technique, 501-504

Descartes, René, and doubt, 12

Destiny, and cosmic beat, 4; and facts, 12; human (cosmic) type, 16-19; and natural science, 31; in nations, 170; faith, cultural basis of fate, 266; and sex, 327, 329; nobility as, 335, 336, 340; States as, 363; in war, 429, 434. See also Being; Causality; History; Race; Time; Will

Deutero-Isaiah, Persian influence, 208

Devil-cult, development of Western, 288-291; Renaissance and, 291; and contrition, 293; and Protestantism, 299; Puritanism, 302; and machine, 502, 504 n., 505. See also Witchcraft

Diadochi, and Arabian Culture, 190; struggle, 408

Diakrii, and Tyrannis, 386

Dictatorship, of class, money and Rationalism 403-405. _See also_ Politics

Diels, Hermann, on Classical technique, 501 n.

Dike, age, 376, 378, 381

Dikhans, aristocracy, 353

Diocletian, distorted importance, 38; and orthodoxy, 178; and Nicodemia, 191; army, 199; era, 139; Church and State, 243, 253; Syncretism, 252; feudalism, 349, 423; fiscal machinery, 371, 496; and economics, 480 n.

Diodorus, on Roman tenements, 102

Dionysiac cult, Homer’s ignoring, 282; survival, 282 n.; power, 290 n.; and Tyrannis, 386

Dionysius I, executions, 405; and army, 406; and conquered territory, 407; war technique, 420

Dionysius the Areopagite, fictitious, 72 n.

Diplomacy, contrapuntal politics, 381; basis, 440; and war, 440

Direction, historical, 361

Discovery, and Western history-picture, 28, 46, 501

Dispensation, and valuation, 267

Dispersion, Jewish, as misnomer, 210

Disraeli, Benjamin, Jew and Englishman, 320

Divorce, English reform, 64 n.; civil and ecclesiastical conflict, 365 n.

Dodington, George B., on party loyalty, 403 n.

Dogma, and cult, cultural attitude, 200-202

Dominicans, as urban, 92; and Mary-cult, 288; and Inquisition, 291

Donellus, Hugo, and Roman law, 77

Doomesday-Book, 371 n., 372

Dorians, no nation, 173

Doric, as cosmic, 92; name and migration, 161, 162

Dostoyevski, Feodor M., on Petersburg, 193; and Russian soul, 194-196; and Socialism, 218; religion, 295 n.; and money, 495 n.

Dracon, laws, 64, 65; class law, 365

Drama, as urban, 93; origin of Chinese, 286

Dreams, and cognition, 14

Druses, and Trinity, 237

Dualism, in Arabian Culture, 233-236, 244; and substance controversy, 256; Chinese, 287; in moral, 341

Dukas, power, 427

Dukhobors, as manifestation, 278

Duns Scotus, Joannes, will and reason, 241; and Devil-cult, 291

Dyarchy, Augustinian, 432, 433

Dynamics. See Force; Motion; Technique

Dynastic idea, Western, 179-183, 378, 381; and overthrow of monarchy, language struggles, 183; Arabian, 330 n., 378, 379, 423, 424; basis, 336; relation to priesthood, 337; and officialdom, 371; elements, 377, 378; Chinese and Egyptian, 379; Classical, and oligarchy, 380, 381; union with and against non-estate, 386, 387; European absolutism, 388; statesmen as leaders, 389; in Thirty Years’ War, 389; in Fronde struggles, outcome, 390; republic as anti-dynastic, 413. See also Politics

Eastern Empire. See Byzantine Empire

Ebionites, origin, 220 n.; disappearance, 252

Eckart, Meister, on Mysticism, 292; and Devil-cult, 303

Economics, and writing, 152, 155; classes and political estates, 333, 348, 477; relation to politics, power and booty, 344, 345, 347, 474-476; and learning, 347; and estates, 356, 357; and class-history, 367 n.; material basis of English concept, 469; not self-contained, 469; English premisses of usual concept, 469, 479; real, as physiognomic, 470; and politics as sides of being, 470, 471; “in form” as self-regarding, 471; hunger-death, 471; relation to family, 471; significance of history, form-language, 472; customary ethic, 472; and religion, 473; waking-being in, 473; producing and acquisitive, 474; under city life, 476; morphology, 476-480; production, preparation, and distribution, 478; subjects and objects in classes, 479, 493; no worker-class, 479 n.; spring time of Culture, traffic in “goods,” and “possession,” 480; status of dealer then, 481; early small-scale traffic, 481 n.; town life and trade, “wares” and money measure, 481-484; fortune displaces possession, 483; as urban, under Civilization, 484. See also Money; Technique; Waking-being

Ecstasy, Arabian, 242, 244, 245

Eddas, and nature and history, 286 n.

Edessa, location, 200 n.; and substance controversy, 256

Edinburgh, as intellectual centre, 305 n.

Education, universal, as instrument of press, 462

Egyptian Culture, as historic, 28; problems of study, 38; Hyksos Period, 38, 41, 428 n., 453; date of beginning, 39 n.; basis of law, 67 n.; Minoan art, 88; Civilization and depopulation, 106; and sea-folk, 109, 122, 164; alphabetical script, 152; nations under, 178 n.; beast-deities, 276 n.; religion and way symbol, 279, 281; Re religion as Reformation, 296; Syncretism, 313; early nobility, 350; and genealogy, 351; relation of primary estates, 353; Pharaoh as Horus, 373; feudalism and interregnum, 375; dynastic-idea, 379, 380; Fronde in, 386; Middle Kingdom, absolutism, 387; period of Cæsarism, 427, 435; money concept, 486, 489 n., 491 n.; financial organization, 495. See also Cultures

Elections, as civil war, 415; decay, electorate as objects, 432, 456, 463; as political means, suffrage and technique, 447; size and influence of electorate, 455. See also Democracy

Electors, rise in Empire, 373; and Thirty Years’ War, 388, 391

Electricity, clearing-house analogy, 490 n.

Elephantine documents, 209

Eleusinian mysteries, 203

Elkazites, origin, 220 n.; disappearance, 252

Elxai, sacred book, 220 n.

Empedocles, suicide, 283

Emperor-mythology, Chinese, 286, 379

Emperor-worship, and law of creed-communities, 68; Western and Eastern aspects, 203; and Syncretism, 253; Chinese, 313; Cicero and, 433

Empire, as Germanic idea, 181. See also Imperialism

Engineer, as master of Western technique, 504, 505

England, development of law, 62, 75, 76, 78; and dynastic idea, 183; and Western religious concepts, 294 n.; politics and predestination, 304; property law, 371; Normans and finance, 372; Magna Charta and control by nobility, rise of Parliament, 373; Puritan Revolution, 389, 390; eighteenth-century class absolutism, 392-394; Parliamentarism and democracy, reform, 402-404, 412, 412 n., 414; politics, Rationalism and money, 403, 441; and French Revolution, 411, 412; cessation of yeomanry, 449 n.; political flair, 451; and conception of economics, 469, 479

Enoch, fictitious, 72 n.

Ephesus, Council of, and Christian split, 257; and reform, 296

Ephors, and succession, 380

Epic, as rural, 93; Russian hero-tales, 192; Arabian period, 250. See also Literature

Epicurus, cult, 314

Epimenides, as dogmatist, 282

Epistemology. See Knowledge

Epoch, as term, 33 n.

Equality, and party, 449

Equities, big-money party, 402; creation, 411; decay, 432; and populus, 451

Equity, and statute law, 363

Eras, as Arabian idea, 239

Erckert, Roderich von, on Jewish type, 175

Erigena, John Scotus, world-concept, 242 n.

Essenes, tendency, 211

Estates, beginning, 280; as term, 329 n.; “in form” and cultural history, 330-332; and residue classes, caste, 332-334; and occupation classes, 333, 348, 477; relation to non-estate, 334; and society, 343; build and course of Cultures, 347; primary, and economy and science, 347; relation to peasantry, vassalage, 348, 349; end of primary, 357; primary and existence of State, 362; and laws, 364; contest with State, 366; final effort for rule, 385, 386; and parties, 449. See also Democracy; Nobility; Politics; Priesthood

Ethics, and truth, 144; Jesus and morals, 217; meaning of religious, 271, 272; moral defined, negations and being, 272-274; character of social, 273; duality of moral, noble and priestly, 341; custom-ethic, crowd, honour, 342, 343; in economic life, 348, 472; dual moral and law, 363. See also Philosophy; Religion; Truth

Etruscan language, and Roman cults, 154 n.; as Roman, 395 n.

Etruscans, as name, and people, 164; no nation, 173

Eubulus of Athens, and finance, 372, 494

Eudaimonia, Rationalism, 307

Eugene IV, pope, insurgent faction, 381 n.

Euhemerism, 306

Evolution. See Darwinism

E’we language, 140

Exchequer, origin of term, 372

Exegesis. See Sacred books

Exekias, vase-painting, 135

Exilarch, position, 208

Expansion, political aspect of Classical conquests, 407. _See also_ Imperialism

Experience, egoistic basis, 26

Expositio, of German law, 76

Expression, defined, 133

Ezekiel, Persian influence, 208; and Talmud, 208; revelation, 245

Ezra, and Talmud, 208

Fabii, and Roman history, 336

Factions, political, 448

Factory-worker, as agent of Western technique, 504

Facts, and truths, 11, 12; as starting point of history, 47; and politics, 368

Faith, defined, and intellect, 266, 269, 271; and life, 271; Luther’s concept and contrition, 298; under Rationalism, 308, 309. See also Religion; Truth

Falasha, as Jews, 176 n.; as tribe, 348, 479

Family, and State, 329, 336; cultural basis, 330; relation of priesthood, 337; cultural styles of nobility, 350, 351; “in form” relation, 362; inward experience, 365; and economic side of being, 471. See also Sex

Fan-Sui, character, 419

Fas, and jus, 72, 78

Fate, cultural attitude, 267. See also Destiny; Religion

Faustian Culture. See Western Culture

Fear, human, relation to invisible, 8, 12; of death, 15, 16; and “thou,” 133; and speech, 133, 139; and Arabian apocalypse, 212; and religion, 265

Feeling, and understanding, 136; language and domination of intellect, 144, 145

Fehbellin, battle, importance, 182

Fellahism, as post-Civilization residue, 105; as term, 169; of Arabian nations, 178; and pacifism, 185, 186; religious, 314; rigidity, 362

Ferdinand V of Spain, dynasty-idea, 381

Feudalism, cultural contemporaries, 39, 40; Arabian, 196-199; Byzantine, 199; vassalage, 349; union of power and booty, fiscal machinery, 371, 372; rise, idea, 371, 376; Western national stirrings, 372; rise of control by Western nobility, 372, 374; world-power idea, Empire-Papacy contest, 373, 374; Classical, and polis, 374; decay, interregnum, 375; economy, 477

Ficinus, Marcilius, and Devil-cult, 291

Fictitious authorship, significance in Arabian Culture, 72 n.

Fifty-year period, cultural rhythm, 392 n.

Finance, rise of officialdom, 371; classical attitude, 383. See also Money

Finck, F. N., on word and sentence, 141

Firm, as Western symbol, 490

Flaminius, C., significance, 65; conquest, 408; consul-list, 409 n.; and finance, 410, 411; and party, 451

Flaminius, T. Quinctius, and political organization, 452

Flavius, Cneius, son of freedman, 166 n.

Force, alteration in concept, 307; Western dynamic Rationalism, 309. See also Motion; Technique

Foreign relations, unilateral law, 364-366; in conflict of estates and State, 367; importance of inner authority, 369; as field of high politics, 440, 447; war as primary relation, 440. See also Peace; War

Form, being “in form,” 330; of historical movement, 361; family and State, 362; Civilization and loss, Cæsarism, 398, 404, 406, 418, 431; economic “in form,” 471

Fortune, as displacing possession, 483

Fourier, François, M. C., and English economics, 469

Fourth Estate, significance, 358. See also Crowd

Fox, Charles James, and French Revolution, 412

France, Anatole, on law, 64; and moral, 272 n.

France, sterility, 106; national origin, 182; States-General, 373; absolutism and Fronde, 388, 390; impractical politics, 403; financial and military rule, 415. See also French Revolution

Francis of Assisi, and compassion, 273

Franciscans, as urban, 92

Francke, August H., Pietism, 308

Franco-German War, German bankers and French loans, 402 n.

Frangipani, and Papacy, 354

Frankish dynasty, notion, 379 n.

Fratres Arvales, end of records, 255; rites, 314; formal restoration, 433

Frau Holde, and Mary-cult, 299

Frederick I Barbarossa, and Henry the Lion, 180 n.

Frederick II, emperor, and finance, 372, 489

Frederick the Great of Prussia, and conscription, 420 n.; tact of command, 444; economics and politics, 475

Frederick William of Brandenburg, as real ruler, 389

Frederick William I of Prussia, and army, 415; as politician, 443; finance, 489

Frederick William III of Prussia, and army, 406

Freedom, rise of idea, significance, 354, 356, 358; as negation, 456; and money, 481 n.

French Revolution, and dynastic idea, 183; political significance, 387; struggle for internal control, 398; not economic, 399 n.; and mob, 400; English ideas and practices, 403, 411, 412; as unique, 411; and set of incidents, 411 n.

Frobenius, Leo, on primitive Culture, 33; on Arabian “cavern,” 233

Fronde, significance, 386, 404; European absolutism, 388; principle in Thirty Years’ War, 389; struggle elsewhere, outcome, 390, 404; period in Arabian Culture, 423

Fugger, city nobility, 356; small-scale traffic, 481 n.

Function, Western money concept, 486, 489

Furniture, race in, 122

Gaia cult, 283

Gaius, Institutes, 67

Galba, unimportance, 50

Gallienus, mounted corps, 199; historyless, 432

Gamaliel, influence, 209

Gao-dsung, and Nestorians, 260

Gathas, Gnosis, 228

Gelnhausen, cathedral art, 123

Gelon, and Syracuse, 382 n.

Genealogy, and fear, 265; time-mythology, 286; as Western-principle, 350; and Chinese ancestry-worship, 351; inherited will, 377; and money, 449 n. See also Dynastic idea

Genesis, influences, 209 n.

Georgia, State religion, 253

Germanic law, development, 75, 76

Germany, and Roman law, 76, 77; and Western Civilization, 109; dynasty and nationalism, 181-183; politics, army, and administration, 415, 444; character of constitution of 1919, 457 n. See also Holy Roman Empire; Prussia

Gesture, as sign of language, punctuation, 134; and words, 140 n.

Ghassanids, court, poetry, 198

Ghetto, as Jewish mode, 315, 317

Giotto, as Gothic, 291

Gnosis, and Chaldean, 176; Eastern and Western forms, 228, 229, 250

Godwin, William, and Third Estate, 403 n.

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, and cosmic beat, 5; historical attunement, 30; form-fulfilment theory, 32, 32 n.; on parts of a Culture, 37 n.; on world-literature, 108; form and untruth, 137 n.; on German nationalism and poetry, 182; on freedom, 267; on confession, 295; on doer, 442; on book-keeping, 490

Gold reserve and standard, and credit, 491 n. See also Money

Golden Age, Classical, 239

Gomdan, stronghold, 197

Good, as evaluation, 241 n.

Goods, early traffic, 480

Goslar, cathedral art, 123

Gospels, fictitious authorship, 72 n.; character, 212; picture, 217 n.; Mark, 223; John, 226, 234, 244, 245, 250; warrantry, 248

Gothic, as cosmic, 92, 93; cathedral, 122, 123, 153; and Baroque science, 270; Renaissance as return, 291; and personality, 293; and Reformation, 296; result on Jews of contact, 317-319; and technique, 502, 503

Gould, Benjamin A., on American race, 119

Government. See Politics

Gracchi, importance, 47, 50; and rural citizens, 384 n.; financing, 402; and money, 410, 494; disorders, 423; and Tribunate, 433; and party, 451; and political theory, 454; and electorate, 457 n.; and courts, 460

Grace, plurality of idea, 59; as Arabian doctrine, 234, 241, 242; Western concept, 292

Grammar, sentence and word, 141, 145; and syntax, 142; lost origin, 146; and vocabularies as basis of linguistic families, 147; Indogermanic, 148; and writing, 149

Granada, as world-city, 99; Jewish city, 316

Gratian, Decretum, 77, 290

Great Protectors, Chinese period, 40

Great Wall, contemporary, 41

Greek, as language of Christianity, 224, 252, 256; as Roman language, 395 n.

Greek fire, purpose, 502 n.

Greek Orthodox Church, picture series, 116. See also Christianity

Greeks, no nation, 173; as adherents of Syncretic cults, 176; as Christian Church, 177; modern security as Byzantine relic, 323

Gregory VII, pope, and world-power, 373

Gregory of Tours, history and Karamzin’s narrative, 192; religiousness, 277

Groot, Jan J. M. de, mistake on Chinese religions, 286 n.

Grosseteste, Robert, philosophy, 8 n., 172 n.; as scientist, 300

Gudunov {sic}, Boris, period, 192

Guilds, status, and tribal organization, 348

Gundisapora, school, 200; location, 200 n.

Gunpowder, and printing, 460; Chinese discovery, 501 n.; and Greek fire, 502 n.

Habsburgs, and Austrian nation, 182; and world-history, 336

Hadramaut, Axumite kings, 197 n.

Hadrian, legal edict, 66

Hague Conference, as prelude of war, 430

Halakha, Jewish and Christian, 221

Hallgerd, as destiny, 329

Halo, significance, 378

Halyburton, Thomas, on divine-given torments, 299 n.

Hamdanids, rule, 197

Hamilcar Barca, Spanish conquest, 408

Hammurabi, code, 75 n.

Han dynasties, 41; fall, 314

Hanifs, Puritanism, 304

Hannibal, and Hellenism, 191, 422; and border States, 408

Hansa, small-scale traffic, 481 n.

Haoma-drinking, 203, 207

Hasidim, sect, 255, 321

Hatshepsut, and Egyptian history, 434

Hauran, feudalism, 196

Heaven, Arabian and Western, 292; Western and Russian, 295 n.

Hebrew, fate of spoken and written, 73 n.

Hegel, Georg W. F., and law of nature, 78; and numbers, 269 n.

Hellenes, as name, 161, 173

Hellenism, as fellah, 185; and Cannæ and Zama, 191, 422; Paganism and Christianity, 203, 204; materialism and myth, 310. See also Pseudomorphosis

Helots, status, 322, 349; attempt to emancipate, 357

Henotheism, Arabian, 201. See also Religion

Henry IV, emperor, contemporaries, 39

Henry VI, emperor, and world-power, 374

Henry VII of England, dynasty-idea, 381

Hermes Trismegistus, fictitious, 72 n.

Hermetic Pœmander, 213 n.

Hermetics, collection as canon, 247; period, 250

Hermopolis, cult, 279, 281

Hero, and technique, 501

Herod, Hellenism, 211

Herodotus, on Persians, 167; inaccuracy on Egypt, 333

Heroism, and race, 339; hero-death, 471

Herrnhut, Pietism, 308

Hesiod, and Classical religious beginnings, 282

Hia dynasty, mythology, 286, 379 n.

Hiang-Sui, peace league, 429

Hidalgo, meaning, 342 n.

Hierocles, breviary, 252

Hijra, era, 239

Himaryites, history, 197 n.; Jewish State religion, 153

Hinayana doctrine, 312

Hippodamus of Miletus, city-plan, 100

History, and cosmic and microcosmic, 23, 24; adjustment to horizon, cultural aspect, 24, 25; subjective basis, 26, 29; cultural history-pictures, 27, 28; Western Culture and infinite, 28; irrational culminative division scheme, 28, 37, 55, 190; Western Culture and individuality in historical attunement, planes, 29; future uniform physiognomic, 30; enlarged possibilities, restoration and prediction, 36; Cultures and significance, 44; true definition and treatment, physiognomic fact, 46, 47; biological sense of primitive, 48; and final objects, 48; Cultures and historical man, 48; exhaustion of Civilization and historylessness, 48-51; actualization of the spiritual, 49; intra- and intercultural, 55; cultural plurality, soul and transfer of form, 55-60; importance of negative cultural influences, 57-59; cultural transfer of Christianity as example, 59, 60; of Roman Law as example, 60-83; city’s “visage” as, 94; and classes, 96; and Civilization, superficial, 109, 339; and race, 116; and writing, 150, 153; relation to people, 165, 169, 170, 181; and nations, 171; and faith and science, 271; and moral, 272; of truths, 274; Western sense, influence of contrition, 294; in intercultural dissonance, 319; sex war, 328; cosmic-politic duality, family and State, 329; “in form” estates and making, 330; cultural tradition, 338; being-streams as true, 339; and State, 361; as court, high decision, 507. See also Being; Cultures; Destiny; Landscape; Nature; Politics; Race; Sex; Time

Hogarth, William, art sermons, 116

Hohenstaufens, results of fall, 181

Hohenzollerns, and Prussia, 182

Holy Roman Empire, significance, 181; electorate, 373; world-power and contest with Papacy, 373, 374; decay, 376; Thirty Years’ War, Wallenstein, 388-391; provincial horizons, 392

Holy Synod, 278

Homer, urban language, 125 n.; indifference to religion, 281; feudal evidences, 374; and talent, 486

Ho-nan-fu, as royal residence, 92

Honour, and class, 342; as basic concept of ethics, 343; in economic life, 472

Horten, Max, on popular Islam, 237 n.

Horus-hawk cult, end, 279, 373

Hou-li, as religious source, 286

House, Minoan and Mycenæan, 88; farmhouse as symbol, 90; megalopolitan, 99; and architecture, 120; as expression of race, 120-122; as totem, history, 121; and ornament, 121; and family, 329; political and economic expression, 471

Hsinan-tang, in India, 107

Hugo de St. Victor, Arabian contemporaries, 250

Huguccio, pun, 77 n.

Humanism, field, 291 n. See also Renaissance

Humboldt, Wilhelm von, on language, 117 n.; and State, 366 n.; on politics and literature, 439 n.

Hume, David, and economic thought, 403, 469

Hunac Ceel, rule, 45

Hunger-death, 471

Huns, Chinese repulse and Western attack, 41

Hus, John, and reform, 296

Huxley, Thomas H., race classification, 125

Hwang of Tsi, as protector, 388

Hwang-ti, rise, 38; as title, 41; cult, 314; economics and politics, 475

Hybrias the Cretan, and carpe diem, 383

Hybris, doctrine, 282, 301

Hyksos Period, meaning, 38, 41; preliminaries, 386; and Cæsarism, 427; as term, 428 n.; and political theory, 453

Hypothesis, and usefulness, 144

Hyrcanus, Hellenism, 211

Iamblichus, and Pagan Church, Syncretism, 204, 252; on divine substance, 256; and numbers, 269 n.

Ibas, and substance controversy, 256

Ibn Sina, style of canon, 346

Ibsen, Henrik, and marriage, 105

Ice Age, man in, 33

Iconoclasm. See Images

Ilya Muromyets, hero, 192

Images, in Pagan churches, 204; basis of worship, 256; Arabian and Greek iconoclasm, 304, 425. See also Monophysites

Immaculate Conception, as English idea, 294 n.

Immortality, cultural basis, 59. See also Death

Imperialism, Chinese, 38, 41; Indian, 41 n.; collapse of Roman, 42; Calvin-Loyola struggle, 299; political aspect of Classical conquests, 407; cultural necessity, 422 n., 424. See also Politics

Indian Culture, ahistoric, and script, 36, 150, 152; problems of study, 38; and Imperialism, 41 n.; fate in, 267; beginning of religion, 281; Rationalism, 307; style of priesthood, 352; relation of primary estates, 353; and world-power, 373 n. See also Buddhism; Cultures

Indians, and Americans, 119; gesture language, 140 n., 147

Indogermanic system, alien words, 148; youth, question of grammar, 148; effect of ahistoric Cultures, 150; basis of coherence, 166; and Persians, 166-169; and Western genealogical ideal, 181

Industry. See Economics; Technique

Infinity, in Western Culture, 46. See also Depth-experience

Innocent III, pope, and world-power, 374; as politician, 442

Inquisition, and Devil-cult, 291

Inscriptions, as taboo, 121 n.

Insula Feliculæ, 101

Intelligence, as tension, 102; language as vehicle of dominance, 144, 145; and race-traits, 166; aristocracy, 166 n.; and cosmopolitanism, 184; Jesus and, 216-218; Paul’s introduction with Christianity, 221; Jewish period, 316; and primary estates, 356, 357; and Cæsarism, 433. See also Causality; Knowledge; Rationalism; Thought; Town; Understanding; Waking-being

International law, and Roman jus gentium, 61. See also Foreign relations

Internationalism, as element of Jewry, 320

Interregnum, cultural period, significance, 375

Interrex, and oligarchy, 375

Inventions, Western, 501. See also Technique

Ionic, as microcosmic, 92

Ipsus, battle, importance, 422

Irak, slave-rebellion, 426, 428 n.

Irenæus, and Western Church, 229; and commentary, 247; period, 250

Irnerius, and Roman law, 77

Isaac Hassan (ibn Sid), as scientist, 316

Isaiah, as Arabian prophet, 205

Isidore, biography, 252

Isis cult, origin, 201, 310

Islam, as Puritanism, 74, 302-304; and nationality, 178; Logos, 236; significance as term, 240; community of elect, 243; and substance controversy, 256; Monophysites and starting point, 258; missionarism, 259, 304; earlier Arabian religions and success, 260; as Arabian manifestation, 304; fellahism, 315; basis for endurance, 323; political aristocracy of beginning, 424. See also Arabian Culture; Mohammed; Religion; Sufism

Isocrates, and class dictatorship, 404

Israelites, tribal association, 175. See also Jews

Italy, union as Germanic dynastic creation, 181; city-republic finance, 489

Ivan III, and Tartars, 192

Ivan IV, the Terrible, period, 192

I-Wang, contemporaries, 39; and feudalism, 349 n., 375

Jabna, Council of, on revelation, 245

Jackson, Andrew, and party, 451

Jacopone da Todi, and reform, 296

Jainism, Rationalism, 307

James, Saint, Gospel, 223 n.

James I of England, and marriage-alliance, 389

Jansenists, Puritan manifestation, 302

Japan, cultural status, 49 n., 108, 323, 421 n.

Jason of Pheræ, politics, 407

Jehuda, Rabbi, period, 250

Jehuda ben Halevi, and science, 315

Jeremiah, as Arabian prophet, 205

Jerusalem, relation to Jewry, 204, 208, 210

Jespersen, Otto, on origin of language, 138

Jesubocht, Corpus, 75

Jesuits, as urban, 92. See also Loyola

Jesujabh III, on conversion to Islam, 260

Jesus, and ceremonial, 134 n.; life and biography, 212; and John the Baptist, Mandæanism, 214; connotation of “Nazarene,” 214 n.; self-view as prophet and Messiah, 215; townlessness, 215; before Pilate, faith and fact, 216, 473 n.; metaphysical world, 217; effect of Resurrection, 218; romances of birth and childhood, 224, 237, 250; world-image, and apocalyptic, 237, 239; and submission, 240. See also Christianity; Logos; Substance

Jews, creed basis of law, Talmud, 69; jurisprudence, 71; pre-cultural law, 75; comradeship and race in European, 126, 127; tribal types, 175; ignored phases of religious history, 191; crusade, 198; Yahweh cult in Syncretism, 201; Judaism as Arabian prophetic religion, 204-207; effect of exile, apocalypse and Persian influence, 207; Judaistic minority, Talmudic development, 208; Exilarch majority, 208, 210; law and the prophets as separate, 209; post-exilic (springtime) increase, spirit, 209, 316; Judea and Jewry, fall of Jerusalem as liberation, 209-211; tendencies, rescue from pseudomorphic Hellenism, 210, 211; end of apocalypse, 211; Judaism and exclusive Messiah Christian sects, disappearance, 219, 220, 252; Paul and Judaism, 221; era, 239; and revelation, 245; separation of Christianity, 251; missionarism, 259; Mazdak reformation, end of theology, 261; fellah-religion, 315, 323; Arabian-type nationality and ghetto, 315, 317; intellectual (Baroque) period, in Spain, 316; spiritual character of period, 316; Civilization period, results of contact with Gothic, 317-319; race and piety phases of later antagonism, 318-320; landless consensus and Western patriotism, 320; fixed alien metaphysic phase, 321; and Western Civilization, 322; danger of dissolution, 323; economic rôle, 481 n.; and machine-industry, 504 n. See also Arabian Culture; Religion

Jezidi, and Trinity, 236

Joachim of Floris, world-conception, 28; Arabian contemporaries, 250; and reform, 296

Job, Book of, character, 208; and will, 242

John Gospel, 226; Mani and, 227, 251 n.; dualism, 234; on God and the Word, 244; as a Koran, 245; and Old Testament, 245; period, 250

John the Baptist, Mandæanism, and Jesus, 214; order-community, 254

John Tzimisces, power, 426

Josephus, on Sadducees, 211

Judah, Abraham and betrayal money, 237

Judaism. See Jews

Judge of men, and speech, 137

Judith, as Arabian, 208

Jugurtha, power, 428

Julian, edict, 66 n.; and cult nation, 176, 204; as prophet, 204; and Syncretism, 253; and monasticism, 254

Jundaisapur, and Gundisapora, 200 n.

Junian Latins, 68 n.

Jupiter Dolichenus cult, 201

Juridical person, as Arabian concept, 67, 68, 174, 177

Jurisprudence, as late science, 66; Egyptian and Chinese, 67 n.; future Western, 80-83, 505. See also Roman law

Jus, and lex in Arabian Culture, 71; and fas in Western Culture, 78

Jus gentium, Classical idea, 61; as imperial law, 66

Justification by faith, and Western Rationalism, 309

Justinian, Arabian jurisprudence, 70 n., 71, 74; army system, 199; Digests as interpretation, 246; and end of theology, 261; Nika Rebellion, 381 n.; conflict with nobility, 423

Kabbalah, and secret dogma, 247

Kalaam, and pneuma, 242

Kama-sutram, and sport, 103

Kanauj, as world-city, 99

Kant, Emmanuel, and numbers, 269 n.; gloom, 295; and Devil-cult, 303; and Talmudic intellects, 322; on marriage, 337; and celibacy of science, 346

Kara Balgassun, inscription, 260

Karæi, as order, 255; Puritanism, rise, 316

Karamzin, Nikolai M., narrative, 192

Karlsruhe, plan, 100 n.

Karlstadt, as Gothic, 296

Karna, and civil law, 210

Karo, Joseph, metaphysic, 321

Karramiyya movement, 424, 425

Karun valley, Mandæanism, 214 n.

Kassites, as rulers, 40

Khazars, conversion to Judaism, 259

Khuzistan, Mandæanism, 214 n.

Ki-Sung, dynasties, 379 n.

Kierkegaard, Sören, “playing” with religion, 137

Kinnesrin, school, 200

Kiur Zan, power, 426

Knowledge, waking-being and problem of epistemology, 14; technical and theoretical, 25; epistemology and destiny, 267 n. See also Intelligence

Kobad I, and Mazdak, 261

Koran, as term, 244. See also Islam

Kung-Yang, on Middle Kingdom, 373 n.

Kwan-tse, and pre-Confucian philosophy, 300

Kwei-ku-tse, character, 419 n.

Labna, and Mexican Culture, 45

Labor. See Economics

Laity, vis-à-vis clergy, 333

Lakayata, system, 309

Lakhmids, court, poetry, 198

Lambert, Édouard, on Twelve Tables, 65 n.

Land, and Classical money wealth, 487. See also Peasantry

Landscape, necessity of study in man’s history, 39 n.; of Arabian Culture, 42; relation to Culture, 46; and transfer of forms, 57; and town, 90; and race, 113, 119, 129, 130; and language, 119; and plant changes, 130; and religions of Cultures, 278; as Chinese prime symbol, 287

Language, and emancipation of understanding, 9; of Civilization, 108; defined, development, 114, 115; and race and waking-being, 114, 117; expression and communication, “I” and “thou,” motive and sign, 115, 133; cult-colouring of prime words, 116; and taboo, 116; and speaking, dead languages, 117, 125; independence from landscape, mother-tongue fallacy, 119; essence, wordless, 131, 132; essential element of relations of microcosm, 132; phases of expression, extensiveness, 134; evolution of communication, 134; speech divorced from speaking, rigid signs as system, 134, 144; “knowing” the language, complexity, 135; set language and understanding, 135; signs and meaning, relation to truth, 136, 137; “playing” with expression, 137; spiritual communion and silence, 137; words, origin, incompleteness, 137, 138, 142; vocal and verbal, 138; name and word, 138-141; opposite word-pairs, 140; Chinese voice-differentiations, 140 n.; grammar and sentence, relation to word, 141; sentences and race, 142; acquisition of words, 142; verbs and thought-categories, 143; abstract thinking and intellect and life, 144; stages of history, 145; lost formative history, 146; as ancient class-secret, 146; tempo of history, effect of writing, 147; grammar and vocabulary, linguistic families as grammatical, 147; alien words, 148; as to Aryan, 149; written and colloquial, 150; morphology of Culture-languages, 152-155; birth of cultural, popular talk and cult speech, 153-155; city script-speech, 155; and people, 161; Persian, 166; mother tongue and dynastic idea, 183; and literary history, 190; influence on Christianity, 224, 241 n., 252, 256, 258; of Arabian religions, 252. See also Literature; Race; Words; Writing

Lao-tse, Taoism, 307; Pietism, 308

Lao-Tzu, and sterility, 105

Lassalle, Ferdinand, and class dictatorship, 404; and English economics, 469

Latin, disappearance from legal life, 75; and Western scholar-languages, 155; and Christianity, 241 n., 258; period, 395 n.

Latin-America, and Cæsarism, 435

Law, property as power, 345; defined, 363; as instrument of power, internal and external, 365-367. See also Jurisprudence; Roman law

League of Nations, Chinese attempt, 38, 417, 429

Learning, separation from priesthood, 345; priesthood and cultural form of profane, 345-347; and nobility and economics, 347

Le Bon, Gustave, study of the crowd, 18 n.

Lechfeld, battle, 259

Leibniz, Baron von, and evolution, 31

Leiden, Papyrus, on Hyksos Period, 427

Lemnos, inscription, 122

Lenel, Otto, on Roman jurisprudence, 67

Lenin, Nikolai, as mass-leader, 448 n. See also Bolshevism

Leo III, emperor, legislation, 75, 357; iconoclasm, 304

Leo V, and Theodore of Studion, 425

Leonardo da Vinci, and Gothic, 291

Leonardo Pisano, on accountancy, 489 n.

Leontini, destruction, 405

Lessing, Gotthold E., and German nationalism, 182; and Rationalism, 305

Letter, as language-picture, 134. See also Writing

Levites, as term for priesthood, 175

Lex, and jus, Arabian, 71

Lex Æbutia, and present law, 62

Lex Canuleia, 69 n., 397

Lex Hortensia, 358, 396

Lex Ogulnia, and Plebs, 408

Li-Ki, ritual work, 312 n., 315

Li Si, standard script, 152

Li-Szu, and Wang-Cheng, 41

Li-Wang, problem, 38; flight, 376

Libyan problem, 162

Lidzbarski, Mark, on Jesus as Mandæan, 214 n.

Lies, and set language, 136, 137

Life. See Being; Death; Sex; Waking-being

Light. See Sight

Limes, Great Wall as, 41

List, Friedrich, relation to property, 345; and English economics, 469

Literature, rural and urban, 93; of Culture and Civilization, 107; German and nationalism, 182; and cosmopolitanism, 185; Arabian research, 190; and language history, 190; hero-tales, 192; Arabian Minne, and epic, 198, 250; Chinese drama, 286; Byzantine and Arabian, 304

Livy, and polis, 383

Lo-Yang, as royal residence, 92

Locke, John, and Continental Rationalism, 308

Logic, and opposites, 141; and truth, 144; and history, 144

Logos, John Gospel, 226; Pseudomorphic and Arabian, 229; Jezidi view, 236; Arabian indwelling of spirit, light-sensation, 236, 237; alteration in concept, 307. See also Trinity

Lombarda code, 76

London, as world-city, 99

Lorraine, as name, 161, 181

Louis XI of France, dynasty-idea, 381

Love, and cosmic beat, 166; and religion, faith 265, 266; and stability, 275; cultural religious, 279; and nobility, 351

Loyalists, American, 412 n.

Loyola, Ignatius, on moral, 272; as Gothic, 296; and world-politics, 299; Puritanism, 302

Lü-pu-Wei, Syncretism, 312 n.

Lü-Shi Chun-tsiu, 312 n.

Lucca, Cæsar’s politics, 446

Luceres, tribe, 351, 382

Lui-Shi, and Wang-Cheng, 41; as statesman, 418, 419; tutor, 419 n.

Lukka, as name, 164

Luschen, Felix von, ethnological research, 129

Luther, Martin, as Gothic, 296; as urban monk and schoolman, 297, 298; and Devil-cult, 299; lack of practicality, 299; and science, 300

Lycurgus, laws, 64, 65

Lyell, Sir Charles, theory as English, 31

Lysander, and army, 406; as victor, 422

Lysias, on speculators, 484

Macedonians, as rulers, 40; schools and nationalism, 162 n.; and Arabian Culture, 189. See also Alexander the Great

Machiavellism, and factions, 448

Machine. See Technique

Macrocosm, animal’s microcosmic relation, 3, 4, 15; man’s self-adjustment, 14. See also Cultures; History; Microcosm; Morphology; Nature; Waking-being

Madrid, as provincial city, 99

Mælius, Sp., movement, 397

Magi, as term for priesthood, 175

Magian Culture. See Arabian Culture

Magic, technique, 268, 271

Magna Charta, and control by nobility, 373

Magnesia, battle, 422

Magnitude, Classical money-concept, 486-489

Mahavira, Rationalism, 307

Mahayana, doctrine, 312, 313

Mahraspand, Mazdaism, 251

Maimon, Solomon, and Kant, 322

Maimonides, Moses, world, 241 n.; collection of dogmas, 315; and Spinoza, 321

Ma’in, Kingdom of, feudalism, 196; geography, 196 n.

Mamertines, as people, 160

Man, lordship of sight, visual thought, 7-9; language and understanding, theoretical thought, 9, 10; and fear of death, 15, 16; destiny and causality types, 16-19; refutation of Darwinism, 32; two great ages, 33; in primitive Culture, 33, 34; effect of agriculture, 89. See also Animal; Being; Microcosm; Sex; Waking-being

Management, American development, 82 n. See also Technique

Manchester School, and Rationalism, 403

Mandæanism, as redemption-religion, 213; John the Baptist and Jesus, 214; survival, 214 n.; disappearance, 252; order-communities, 254

Maniakes, Turk, 427 n.

Manichæism, and Chaldean, 176; origins, 209, 251; Logos and Paraclete, 227, 251 n.; development, 251; missionarism, 260; Albegensians, 260 n.

Mannheim, plan, 100 n.

Manufacturer, as economic class, 478

Manzikert, battle, 427

Mar Shimun, prince-patriarch, 177

Marcianus, and dynasty, 379

Marcion, Bible and Church, 225-228, 245; period, 250; and reform, 296

Marcionites, era, 239

Marcus Aurelius, as episode, 171; religiousness, 313; and peace, 430; Cæsarism and Stoicism, 434 n.

Marduk, as deity, 206

Marib, Congress of Princes, 197, 304

Marinus, as biographer, 252

Marius, C., and money, 410; and Cæsarism, 423; and party, 451

Mark Gospel, 223

Market, status, 91, 480

Marozia, as destiny, 339

Marriage, law, control over it, 78, 365; Civilization type, 105; defined, 344 n.; “in form” relation, 362

Marx, Karl, and Marxism, and property, 344; and party, 450; and effective theory, 454; end of influence, 454, 45 5; and English economics, 469; and economic classes, 478; and value, 482 n.; and work, 492; in Russia, 495 n.; on machine-industry as bourgeois, 504 n. See also Socialism

Mary of England, and absolutism, 388

Mary-cult, Arabian development, 224; victory at Ephesus, 257; Western development, 288; and contrition, 293; effect of Reformation, 299

Materialism. See Rationalism

Mathematics, and religion, 268

Matthew Gospel, Judaic character, 220 n.

Maule, Sir William H., and divorce laws, 64 n.

Maurists, and orders and schools, 346

Maurya and Sunga dynasty, and Imperialism, 41 n.

Mavali, and revolution, 424

Maximilian I, emperor, and law, 76; dynasty-idea, 380

Mayan Culture. See Mexican Culture

Mayapan, and Mexican Culture, 45

Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal, power, 389; and Fronde, 390

Mazdaism, and chivalry, 198; development, 251; as State religion, 253; missionarism, 260; absorption, 260

Mazdak, reformation, 261; and Karramiyya movement, 424

Mechanics. See Technique

Medes, as rulers, 40; as people, 167

Mediæval History, as term, 28

Medici, city nobility, 356; economics and politics, 475; small-scale traffic, 481 n.

Medicine, as priesthood, 478 n.

Medinet Habet, relief, 164 n.

Mediterranean region, influence of climatic change, 39 n.

Medrashim, style, 346

Megalopolitanism, and nomadism, 90; and country, 94; development, and provinces, 98, 99; absolute intellect, 99; city planning, 100; future Western, 101; Classical inner-town, 101; final phase, death, 102, 107; tension, 102; sport, 103; and sterility, 103-105; and uniform type, 108; and language, 155; and cosmopolitanism, 184; phase in Jewry, 317, 318; and Fourth Estate and mob, 358, 399; and public opinion, 400; and Cæsarism, 431; and economics, 484. See also Town

Megasthenes, on Calani, 175 n.

Mehlis, C., on Libyan problem, 162

Melfi, constitutions, 372

Memory, and the named, 140

Meng Tse, materialism and myth, 310, 312

Mercenaries, and Cæsarism, 428

Messana, democratic triumph, 396

Messiah, as common Arabian idea, 206; of Mandæanism, 214; attitude of Jesus, 215; effect of Resurrection, 218

Metals, primacy, 500. See also Smith

Metaphysics. See Philosophy; Religion

Methodism, Pietism, practicality, 308

Mewes, Rudolf, on weather and war, 392 n.

Mexican Culture, development, 43; violent death, 43; reconstruction of history, 44, 45; Civilization and Aztecs, 45; jurisprudence, 66; depopulation, 106, 107; religious beginnings, 288; fellah-religion, 315

Mexico City. See Tenochtitlan

Meyer, Edward, on Persian host, 40 n., 167; on history, 47, 50; error on Egyptian nobility, 350 n.; correct Egyptian chronology, 427 n.; mistake on Roman Cæsarism, 432 n.

Michael III, emperor, and Bardas, 426

Michelangelo, and Devil-cult, 292

Microcosm, animal as, in macrocosm, 3-5, 15; sense as organ, 6, 7; waking-being, 7; and cosmic beat, crowd, 18; and history and nature, 23, 24; and megalopolitanism, 90; language as essential element, 132; and sex, 327; and Western technique, 504. See also Animal; Cosmic; Waking-being

Middle Kingdom, Chinese, and world-power, 373

Middle Kingdom, Egyptian, significance, 387

Middleman, as economic class, 478; as economic master, 483, 484; as agent of Western technique, 504. See also Economics; Money

Migrations, and peoples, 162-165; small bands, 163, 167

Miletus, style of school, 345

Mill, John Stuart, and Pascal, 273

Milton, John, and concepts, 303

Minæans, tribal association, 174

Ming-Chu, period, 40, 387

Ming-ti, as ruler, 41

Minnesänger, Arabian, 198

Minoan art, and Mycenæ, 87-89; as Egyptian, 88

Mir, status, 348

Mirabeau, Comte de, on law of nations, 366

Mirandola, Francesco della, and Devil-cult, 291

Mirian of Georgia, State religion, 253

Mirza Ali Mohammed, Gnosis, 228

Mishnah, completion, 71; development, 208; as commentary, 247; origin, 316

Missionarism, Arabian, 259; Islam, 304; Pythagorean, 307; Jewish, 318

Mithraism, as military order, 198, 254; in Syncretism, 201, 253; and Essenes, 211; liturgy, 213 n.; provenance, 314 n.

Mithridates, cultural basis of wars, 318, 321 n.

Mitteis, Ludwig, on Constantine’s legislation, 70 n.

Mob. See Crowd

Modern History, as term, 28

Mohammed, predecessors as prophet, 204; Paul’s analogy, 221; as Logos, 236; and consensus, 243; revelation, 244. See also Islam

Moh-ti, and property, 344; and military technique, 421 n.; and politics, 453

Mollahs, law-men, 71

Moltke, Count Hellmuth von, leadership, 444

Mommsen, Theodor, false history, 50; on political character of Roman Empire, 174 n.; misunderstanding of Cæsarism, 432; and Varus’ defeat, 487

Monarchy. See Dynastic idea; Politics

Monasticism (Asceticism), Western rural and urban, 91, 297; in Paganism, 204; character and development of Arabian, 254; Orphic, 283; and orgiasm, 283; sage, 307

Money, as urban, abstract, 97, 58; and idea of property, 357; rise as political force, and Rationalism, 401, 402; in English politics, 403; and class dictatorship, 404; in Roman politics, 410, 411, 457-459; Cæsarism and overthrow, 431, 433 n., 464, 506, 507; and genealogy, 449 n.; and democracy, 456; in Western politics, and press, 460, 462; and end of democracy, 463; early status of coin as goods, 481; beginning of concept as category, 481-484; value-token and payment-medium, 483; trader as master, 483, 484; as power of Civilization, 485; struggle against, 485; and mobility, 485; money-mass and value, 485 n.; cultural symbols, 486; Classical magnitude concept, 486, 495; irrelation with Classical land value, 487; Classical slaves as, 488, 496; Western function-concept, book-keeping, 489, 490; Western Culture and metallic, 490, 491; and work, quantity and quality, 491-493; capital, cultural basis, 493; financial organization, cultural basis, 494; Russian attitude, 495 n.; struggle with technique, 505; and Socialism, 506 n. See also Economics

Monophysites, importance, 47; creed basis of law, 70; as nation, 177; and Mary-cult, 224; origin, 257; and starting-point of Islam, 258; missionarism, 260; and reform, 296

Monotheism, relation to Arabian Culture, 201 n.

Montanist movement, 227

Morale. See Ethics; Spirit; Truth

Mormons, as people, 160

Morphology, of Culture languages, 152-155; of peoples, 169; of religious history, 275; of social history, 348; of economic history, 470, 476-480

Mortgages, Classical land, 487 n.

Mortmain, and established church, 177 n.; in Egypt, 375

Moscow, character, 194

Mosque, and basilica, 230

Mother tongue, fallacy, 120; and dynastic-idea, 183. See also Language

Motherhood, “versehen,” 126. See also Demeter; Mary-cult; Sex

Motion, as problem of thought, 14-16; Western concept and military art, 421; money and mobility, 485. See also Technique

Motive, and language, 133

Müller, Frederick, race classification, 125

“Mufti,” 71

Muktara, as capital, 426

Multiplication table, dynamics, 66 n.

Murtada, philosophy, 321

Music, basis of charm, 8; in English Parliamentarism, 403

Musonius Rufus, and peace, 430

Mutation theory, and Darwinism, 32; and Cultures, 33, 36

Mutawakil, palace, 100 n.

Mycenæ, and Crete, 87-89; and beast-formed deities, 276

Mysteries, Classical, 203. See also Religion

Mysticism, Sufism, 176, 228, 242; Arabian period, 200, 250; John Gospel and Christian, 226; longing of Western, 292; of Rationalism and Pietism, 308; Yesirah, 316; fixed Jewish, 321

Myth, as theory, and cult, 268, 499; relation to Greek, 284, 286; time mythology, 286; of Western springtime, 288-290; modern ignorance of it, 290; and Protestantism, 299

Naasenes, Book of, 213 n., 251 n.

Nabu-Nabid, overthrow, 207

Naganjuna, Mahayana doctrine, 313

Nahua, in Mexican Culture, 45

Names, and words, 138-141; and spiritual change, religion, 139; and the enigmatic, 139; and sentence, 141; and things, 148; and people, 160; and technique, 499

Napoleon I and Napoleonism, and dynastic-idea, 181; and Désirée Clary, 329; State-machine, formlessness, 404, 405; army and personal rule, 407; and military mobility, 421; ruthlessness as victor, 422; and Cæsarism, 428; as destiny, 439 n.; and tact of command, 444; economics and politics, 475

Naranjo, and Mexican Culture, 44

Narses, expedition, 200

Nation, as term, 170, 362; destiny, 170; and city-building, 171; separation, 171; representation of minority, 172, 180, 183, 184; character of Classical, 173; of Arabian, 174-178; of Western, 178-184; of Chinese and Egyptian, 178 n.; language basis, continued dynastic feeling, 183; nobility as representative, 184; cosmopolitanism, intelligentsia, and pacifism, 184; peace and fellahism, 185, 186; rise of idea, 385. See also Politics; Race

Nationality, Arabian creed basis, 69, 168, 210, 253, 254, 315, 317; Arabian cult, and world Christianity, 219

Natural science, religious basis, 13; English type of causality, 31; physiognomic, 31; reputation of Darwinism, 32; beginning of Arabian, 200 n.; dispensation and law, 267; Western Culture and practical mechanics, 300; theoretical basis in other Cultures, 301; as diabolical, 302; Jewish, 316; scientists as priests, 478. See also Art; Nature; Technique

Nature, and cosmic and microcosmic, 23, 24; adjustment to, cultural development and horizon, 25; technical and theoretical knowledge, 25; and peasant, 89; of Rationalism, 305-308. See also Causality; History; Natural science

Nazarene, connotation, 214 n.

Nebo, as deity, 206

Nebuchadnezzar, henotheism, prayer, 206

Nehardea, school, 200, 210; as capital of Exilarch, 208

Neo-Brahmanism, 315

Neo-Platonists, dualism, 234; and revelation, 245; period, 250; as order, 254

Neo-Pythagoreans, community, 204, 254; and revelation, 245; period, 250

Nephesh, connotation, 234; soul stones, 234 n.

Nero, and elections, 432; and ideologues, 434

Nestorianism, creed basis of law, 70; as nation, 177; and Mary-cult, 224, 257; formative influences, 228; church language, 252; second-century beginnings, 252 n.; missionarism, 260; and reform, 296

New Testament, Marcion as creator, 226, 227; Marcion and Catholic, 228. See also Bible; Christianity; Gospels

New York, as world-city, 99

Newspaper. See Press

Ngi-li, as religious source, 286

Nicæa, Council of, Constantine and, 257; substance controversy, 257, 276

Nicephorus, power, 426

Nicholas I, pope, and world-power, 373

Nicholas of Cusa, as Western, 316 n.

Nicholas of Oresme, as scientist, 301

Nicias, treaty, 385

Nicodemia, as capital, 191

Nietzsche, Friedrich W., and value of truth, 12; and technique, 302; on duality of moral, 341

Nika Rebellion, 381 n.

Nirvana, rationalistic concept, 307

Nishapur, and Gundisapora, 200 n.

Nisibis, Jewish defence, 198; location, 200 n.

Nobility, primary estate, 97; as State, 172, 180, 183, 367; beginning as estate, 280; relation to other estates, 334, 335; symbolic significance, being, destiny, 335-337, 340; and family, 336; big individuals and tradition, 338; dependence of politics on, 339, 440; and “training,” 340; moral, 341; and idea of property, 343; and learning, 347; common cultural land-bound estate, 350; cultural styles, 350, 351; foci of feelings, 351, 352; conflict with priesthood, 352-354; Classical, and polis, 355; city movement, effect, new type, 355-357; and Third Estate, 356; State rule by minority, 370; and absolutist State, 400; development of Roman political, 409-411; and political Islam, 424; and party-form, 450. See also Estates; Feudalism; Oligarchy; Politics

Nomadism, pre-cultural and megalopolitanism, 89, 90

Normans, development of law, 75; and finance, concept of money, 372, 489

Northcliffe, Viscount, and demagogy, 461, 463

Novel, as megalopolitan, 93

Novels, Justinians, 71

Number, and grammar, 146; and religion, 268; abstract, and abstract money, 481, 482; and technique, 499

Numina, naming, 139

Objects and subjects, 369; in politics, 441; in economics, 479, 493

Occamists, and Copernican system, 301

Occupations, status of classes, and primary estates, 333, 348. See also Economics

Odoacer, historyless, 432

Oetinger, Friedrich C., Pietism, 308

Officialdom, common cultural development, 350; rise of financial, 371; Classical tenure and choice, 380, 383

Oigur realm, Manichæism, 260

Old Kingdom, as Gothic, 296; money concept, 489 n.

Old Testament, and Christian canon, 221, 225, 226, 228, 245. See also Bible

“Old Women,” as phrase, 329 n.

Oldenbarneveldt, Jan van, power, 389

Oldendorp, Johann, and law of nature, 78

Oligarchy, early Roman, 375, 382; and polis, 380-382; and Reformation, 386 n.; Classical democratic contentions, 394-398. See also Nobility

Olivarez, Count, power, 389

Oman, Charles W. C., on Byzantine army system, 199 n.

Omar, Puritanism, 304

Ommaiyads, overthrow, 424

Oñate, Conde de, power, 389

Onias, and the “Law,” 209

Opposites, word pairs and logic, 140

Oresme. See Nicholas of Oresme

Orientation, defined, 133

Origen, Scholasticism, 229; period, 250

Ornament, as taboo, 121; cathedral as, 123; and secular buildings, 123; as expression-language, 134; script as, 151; and number, 268; priesthood as, 337

Orphism, and Classical religious beginnings, 282; asceticism, 283; and reform, 296; and Tyrannis, 386

Orvieto, frescoes, 292

Orsini, and Papacy, 354

Orthodoxy, and Arabian State, 177

Osrhoene, conversion, 177, 253

Ostrogoths, as episode, 171

Othman, war with Ali, 424

Otto I, and world-power, 373

Otto II, and Byzantium, 87

Outsiders, dediticii peregrins, 68 n.

Oxenstierna, Count Axel, power, 389

Pa Period, 387

Pachomius, and monasticism, 254

Pacioli, Luca, book-keeping, 490

Pætus, Thrasea, death, 434

Paganism, struggle with Christianity, 202. See also Hellenism; Pseudomorphosis; Syncretic Church

Paine, Thomas, and Third Estate, 403 n.

Painting, modern as dishonest, 136

Pais, Ettore, on Twelve Tables, 65 n.

Palæontology, refutation of Darwinism, 32

Palenque, and Mexican Culture, 45

Paley, William, and Third Estate, 403 n.

Palmyra, inscriptions, 206

Pan Ku, myth, 312

Papacy, pope and councils, 59; as English idea, 294 n.; family history, 337; and dynamic space, 352; idea and facts, 354; control of Curia, 370; world-power and contest with Empire, 373, 374; clerical nobility and pope, 374; decay, 376. See also Roman Catholic Church

Paper, Chinese invention, 501 n.

Papias, on Jesus’ teachings, 217 n.

Papinian, position as jurist, 71, 73

Papirius Carbo, and Crassius, 459

Paraclete, doctrine, 227. See also Trinity

Paradosis, in Arabian creeds, 228

Paralii, and Tyrannis, 386

Paris, as France, 95; as world-city, 99

Parliamentarism, character, 412-415; as transition, 415, 416; as seasonable political means, 446. See also Democracy; England

Parsees, and ghetto, 315; security, 323

Parshva, Puritanism, 303

Parthians, and Persians, 167; chivalry, 198; wars as Jewish, 198

Party, place in politics, 449; identity with Third Estate, 449; nobility and forms, 450; displacement by private politics, machine, 452, 454, 464. See also Politics

Pascal, Blaise, and Mill, 273; and Devil-cult, 303

Pataliputra, as world-city, 99; abandoned, 107

Patriotism, Western fatherland concept, 179, 183; Jewish attitude, 320

Patrol-state, 366 n.

Paul, Hermann, on sentence, 141

Paul, Saint, position as jurist, 71; and Christian Church, 220, 221; Mohammed’s analogy, 221; system and westward trend of Christianity, 221; and Mark Gospel, 223; and cults, 223; and Greek, 224; dualism, 234; substance controversy as reversal of work, 258

Paulicians, iconoclasm, 304

Paullus, L. Æmilius, Pydna, 190 n.

Pausanias, and helots, 357, 396

Pavia, and legal study, 76

Pe-Ki, as general, 417; overthrow, 419

Peace, Chinese League of Nations attempt, 38, 417, 429; and fellahism, 185, 186; Classical attitude, 385; ruthless, of Cæsarism, 422; as unhistorical, 429, 434; as submission, 434, 441

Peacock, as Arabian symbol, 236

Peasantry, as plant, 89; historyless, cosmic, 96; and religion, 280; relation to primary estates, vassalage, 348, 349; reappearance at end of Culture, 435; lack in England and America, 449 n.; as economic class, 478. See also Being; Country

Pehlevi, as church-language, 252

Pelasgi, as name, 161

Pelham, Sir Henry, money in politics, 403 n.

Penestæ, status, 332

People, false idea, 113, 159; as conscious linkage, 159; and name, 160, 161; and language, 161; and provenance, and migration, 162-165; and race, 165; as soul unit, and events, 165, 169, 170; Romans and Russians as example, 166-169; morphology, 169; creation of Western, 169; as product of Culture, 169, 170; characteristics of nations, 170, 171; of West as result of events, 181; vis-à-vis nobility, 333; rise of ideal concept, 393. See also Race

Pergamum, revolt of Aristonicus, 454

Pericles, age, 391

Peripatos, style, 345

Persecution, contrast of Classical and Arabian, 203

Persephone, cult, 283

Perseus, defeat, 190 n.

Persians, chronology, 27; as rulers, 40; language and people, 166; problem of origin of religion, 168, 191; cult and nationality, 168; religion and Jewish, 207; and revelation, 245; end of theology, 261; Arabian-type nation, ghetto, 315. See also Arabian Culture; Mazdaism; Zarathustra

Person, Classical notion, 60; Arabian concept of incorporeal, 67, 68, 174, 177; Classical concept and Western law, 81, 82

Personality, and contrition, 293; Classical concept, 293 n. See also Destiny; Will

Peruvian Culture, destruction, 46

Peter, Saint, Gospel, 213 n., 223 n.; Paul’s supersession, 221

Peter the Great, Petersburg plan, 101 n.; and Russian pseudomorphosis, 192

Peter Lombard, and sacraments, 292

Petersburg, plan, 101 n.; artificiality, 193

Petrie, W. M. Flinders, error on Egyptian chronology, 427 n.

Petrus Peregrinus, as scientist, 300; and technique, 502

Phallic cults, 283, 286

Pharaoh, religious position, 279 n.; and world-power, 373

Pharisees, tendency, 211

Pherecydes, as dogmatist, 282

Philip of Macedon, politics, 407

Philip II of Spain, and absolutism, 388

Philip IV of Spain, and world-power, 388

Philippi, battle, and Cæsarism, 423

Philistines, migration, 164

Philistinism, and Rationalism, 307

Philo, and Christianity, 229; dualism, 234

Philology, Arabian, and research, 191. See also Language

Philosophy, Buddhism and Indian, 49; Western Culture and Classical, 57; systematic, and untruth, 137 n.; Jesus and metaphysics, 216, 217, 473 n.; Western swing, 306; and economics, 473. See also Ethics; Religion

Phocas, power, 427

Phœnicians, economic rôle, 481 n.

Physical geography. See Landscape

Physiognomy, and race, 117. See also Destiny

Pi-Yung, as symbol, 287; and Shi-King, 352; change, 357

Picture, and expression-language, 116; as sign of language, letter, 134

Piedras Negras, and Mexican Culture, 45

Pietism, cultural manifestations, 308

Pilate, and Jesus, fact and faith, 216, 473 n.

Pindar, and being, 272; and religion, 282

Pisistratus, and oligarchy, 382; and peasantry, 386

Piso, conspiracy, 434

Pistis-Sophia, 213 n.

Pitt, William, and French Revolution, 412

Pittacus, laws, 64

Plant, essential character, cosmic, 3, 4; being, 7; and race, 115; effect of transplanting, 130; economic life, 473; and technique, 499

Plantagenets, early, 182 n.

Plato, “ideas,” 58; and polis, 173 n.; and commentary, 247 n.; and Orphism, 282; cult, 314; theory and Syracuse, 454

Play, cosmic, and microcosmic sport, 103. See also Sport

Plebs, political rise and status, 349, 357, 408; and political nobility, 409-411; and populus, 451 n.

Pliny, on depopulation, 106

Plotinus, Scholasticism, 229; ecstasy, 242

Pneuma, as Arabian principle, 57; and law of creed-communities, 68; as truth, 242. See also Dualism

Poetry, Arabian Minne, 198. See also Literature

Polis, as Classical nation, 173; and nobility, oligarchy, 355, 381; official tenure and choice, 380, 383; synœcism and aristocracy, 381, 382; civitas and hostis, 384; normal war, 385; Tyrannis and non-estate against estates, 386; and democracy, 387; burgher and peasant, 396; destruction as idea, 405; and subjugated territory, 407; and Imperialism, 423; and Classical finance, 494. See also Politics

Politics, and race, 116; and intercourse by writing, 153; and social ethics, 273; English, and predestination, 304; State and family, 329, 336; estates as term, 329 n.; “in form” estates, 330, 331; as war, 330, 366, 440, 474; estates and history of Cultures, 331; estates and residue classes, 331-334; Third Estate and non-estate, interrelation, 334; nobility and priesthood, symbolic significance, 335, 339, 340; great families, basis of dynastic principle, 336; priesthood as opposite, 337; big individuals and tradition, 338; as life, dependence on nobility, 339, 440; moral, 341; custom-ethic and honour, 342, 343; relation to economics, power and booty, 344, 345, 474-476; State and historical stream, 361; nations defined, primary estates and State, 362, 366; and care and opposition, war as creator of State, 362; State as inward connection, custom-ethic and law, 363; orders of internal law, 363; power and law, internal and external, 363-366; barrack-state, 366 n.; State control of external position, paramountcy, 367; State and nobility as cognate, 367; alienship of other estates, 368; factual control and truths, 368; importance of leadership, subjects and objects, 368, 369, 441, 456; estate rule and minority within class, 369, 370; interregnum between feudalism and State, 375; rise of State idea, 376; individual ruler, inherited will and dynasty-idea, 376-378; Classical oligarchy, 380; rise of nation-idea, 385; estates against monarchy and non-estate, 385-387; non-estate as opposite estate, 387; Chinese and Egyptian absolutism, 387; Western Fronde, 388-391, 404; Western absolutist period, cabinet-politics, 391-394, 400; Classical oligarchic-democratic-alternative period, 394-398; of Civilization, non-estate as independent force, 400-402; Rationalism and money as forces, opposition and dependence, 400-401, 455, 456; Third Estate in England, 402, 403; rational-money, class dictatorship, anti-form, 403, 404; character of Second Tyrannis, 405-408; army as power, 406; polis and conquered territory, 407; Roman State of this period, 408-411; doctrinaire Parliamentarism, 412-415; its decay, 415, 416; Fronde period in Arabian Culture, 423; Third Estate and revolution in Arabian Culture, 424; pre-Civilization relics and future Western, 430; theory and reality, 439; personal, 441; popular talent and leadership, 441; men and measures, 441 n.; conscienceless “doing,” 442; seasonableness, command of means, 443, 446; exemplariness in doing, 443; tact of command, 444; tradition of command, 444; art of the possible, 445; opportuneness, 446; foreign and domestic, 447; early cultural, factions, 448; urban, and parties, 448, party and estates, 449-451; displacement of party by private, machine, 452, 454, 464; place and influence of theory, 453-455; Roman demagogy, elections and courts, 457-460; Western demagogy, press, 460-463; battle between democracy and Cæsarism, 463, 464; hero-death, 471; and religion, 473 n.; and financial credit, 491 n. See also Cæsarism; Church and State; Dynastic idea; Estates; Feudalism; Foreign relations; History; Polis; Sex

Polybius, on sterility, 104; on Flaminius, 411

Polycrates, and finance, 383; economics and politics, 475

Pompey the Great, adventurer, 19; principate and monarchy, 50; and Rome, 383; Triumvirate and Cæsarism, 413; at Lucca, 446; demagogy, 458, 459

Pompey, Sextus, and Cæsarism, 428 n.

Pompon, François, technique, 128 n. {sic}

Population, megalopolitanism and sterility, 103-105; machine and increase, 502

Porcelain, Chinese invention, 501 n.

Porphyry, and Greek Church, 176; Scholasticism, 229; ecstasy, 242; community of elect, 243; on divine elements, 252

Poitiers, importance of Saracen defeat, 192

Portraiture, physiognomic studies, 126 n.

Portugal, separation from Spain, 390

Possession, concept, 480; and fortune, 483; Classical land and money, 487

Poverty, Western learning and vow, 346. See also Monasticism

Power and booty, 344, 345, 347, 371, 372, 474

Prætors, urban, 374; beginning, 382

Precedent, lack in Roman law, 62; in Arabian law, 72

Predestination, and English politics, 304. See also Will

Premonstratensians, as rural, 92

Press, and free opinion, 405; and spatial infinity, 413; as political means, 447; power in Western demagogy, 460; and gunpowder and war, 460; expulsion of book by newspaper, 461; dictum as public truth, 461; education as instrument of power, 462; syndication, as army, 462; censorship of silence, 463

Pre-Socratics, asceticism, 283

Pretinax, edict on untended land, 106

Priene, plan, 100

Priesthood, primary class, 97; beginning as estate, and nobility, 280; and time mythology, 286; Western and contrition-concept, 294, 294 n., 298; relation to other estates, 334, 335; symbolic significance, waking-being, causality, 335-338, 340; relation to family and dynasty, 337; as ornament, idea and person, 337, 338; and life, 339; as result of shaping, 340; and heredity, 341; moral, 341; and property, 344; and learning, style influence, 345-347, 478; common cultural estate, 350; cultural styles, 352; conflict with nobility, 352-354; city movement, effect, 355, 356; Western law-making, 365; Classical, as city officials, 381

Priestley, Joseph, and Third Estate, 403 n.

Primitive man, Ice Age, 33, 34; and religion, 275. See also Man; Peasantry

Principate, in Pseudomorphosis, 349; Sulla as heir, 423; Augustus’ dyarchy as nullity, 432

Printing, symbolism, 413; Chinese invention, 501 n. See also Press

Priscus, Helvidius, death, 434

Private law, first systematic, 66; Western, and Roman law, 77, 79

Proclus, on Chaldean oracles, 245; as Syncretic Father, 252; biography, 252; and substance controversy, hymn, 257 n.

Procopius, on Narses expedition, 200

Proculiani, legal school, style, 67, 346

Profane, as concept, 345

Proper, and “alien” in sensation, 6

Property, Classical concept and Western law, 82; farmhouse as, 90; origin of idea, groundness, 343; power and booty, divergence, 344, 345, 347, 371, 372, 474; effect of money, 357; English law, 371. See also Economics; Money; Roman law

Prophetic religions. See Apocalyptic

Protestantism. See Puritanism; Reformation

Provinces, and megalopolitanism, 98, 99

Prudentes, law-men, 71

Prussia, as Hohenzollern creation, 182; political rise, 392; origin of finance, 489. See also Germany

Psalms, period, 249

Psellus, Michal Constantine, religiousness, 313

Pseudo-Clementines, romances, 237

Pseudomorphosis, Justinian, Christianity, and Corpus Juris, 74; as historical term, 189; of Arabian Culture, 189, 190; effect of Actium, 191; Charles Martel and Western avoidance, 192; Russia, 192; falsification of Arabian manifestations, 200; aspects of Syncretism, 201-204; Jewish rescue from, 210, 211; Catholic Church and Marcionism, 227; and substance controversy, 256-258; feudalism, 349; economics, 480 n. See also Religion; Roman law; Syncretic Church

Psychology, of the crowd, 18; cultural basis, 271

Ptah of Memphis, and dogma, 281

Public opinion, rise, status, 400; and press, 405

Pulcheria, and dynasty, 379

Pumbeditha, academy, 71

Punctuation, as language gesture, 134

Punic Wars, economics in, 410; evolution of ruthlessness, 422

Purgatory of learning, 346 n.

Puritan Revolution, as Fronde, 389, 390

Puritanism, Islam as, 302-304; basis, common cultural manifestation, 302-305; and concepts, 303; Pythagoreans, 303; predestination and politics, 304; and Rationalism, 305; Jewish, 316; and Fronde and Tyrannis, 386 n.; and English Fronde, 389, 390

Pydna, battle, importance, 190, 409 n., 422

Pyramids, as cosmic, 92

Pyrrhonian skepsis, and Socrates, 309

Pythagoras, fictitious, 72 n.; and commentary, 247 n.; biography, 252

Pythagoreans, mysteries, 203; and cult, 282; Puritanism, 302, 303; missionarism, 305; style, 345; Sybaris, 394

Qaro, Joseph, as expositor, 321

Qaraites, Puritanism, rise, 255, 316

Quirinus Pater, god, 382

Quirites, origin of name, 382

Rabbi, law-man, 71

Race, false idea of people, 113, 165; and landscape, no migration, 113, 119, 129; defined, 113; and development of language, being and waking-being, 113, 114; sensation, 114; in plants, 115; and history and politics, 116; and totem, 116; not classification but physiognomic fact, 117, 130; American, 119; house as expression, 120-122; castle as expression, 122; superficial and divergent mechanistic conception, 124, 125, 129; hall-marks, inadequacy of skeletonic determination, 124, 128-130, 175; chaotic “living” elements in determination, 126, 127; race-feeling as race-forming, 126; statistics and ancestry, 127; importance of movement-expression, 128; spiritual differences, 128; and sentences, 142; and writing, 151; and Culture-language, 153, 154; cosmic beat and race hatred, 165, 166, 318; and intellect, 166; absolutist State as expression, 400; Cæsarism and return to power, 431. See also Being; Language; Nation; People; Politics

Radio, and light, 9 n.; as megalopolitan, 95 n.; and distance, 150 n.; and political tactics, 460

Rainald van Dassel, policy, 376

Rameses III, and sea-folks, 122, 164 n.; historyless, 432

Ramnes, tribe, 351, 382

Ranke, J. Johannes, on skull forms, 128, 129

Ranke, Leopold von, on history, 46

Raskol movement, 278

Rationalism, and Puritanism, 305; basis, cultural manifestations, 305, 308, 309; sage, 307; Mysticism and Pietism, 308; dynamic character of Western, 309; mock-religion, 310; fading-out, 310; rise in politics, 400; and money, 401, 402; in England, 403; and class dictatorship, 403, 404; and constitutions, 413; and effective political theory, 453, 454

Ravenna, Theoderich’s tomb, 89

Re cult, 279, 281; as Reformation, 296

Reading, defined, 149

Reason, content, 6; and understanding, 13

Reflection, and grammar, 141, 143

Reformation, as general cultural movement, 295-297; Western, as Gothic, 296; and Renaissance, background, 297; narrow circle of understanding, 298; and Devil-cult, 299; Calvin and world-politics, 299; relation to intellectual creation, 300; and oligarchy, 386 n.

Reger, Max, “playing” with music, 137

Reitzenstein, Richard, on Jesus as Mandæan, 214 n.

Religion, fear of the invisible, 8; as basis of science, 13; and causality, 14; and theoretical knowledge, 25; Arabian consensus, 59; Arabian cults and scripts, 73, 150, 227 n.; expression-language and communication-language, 116, 134; and language-linkage, 116; and knowledge, 136; names and religious thought, 139; and rigid language, 154, 155; Persian, 168; and Arabian nationality, 168, 174-178, 210, 242, 243, 253, 315, 317; Arabian, and research, 191; geographical cults of Classical, 200; Arabian fourth period, Mysticism and Scholasticism, 200, 250; Arabian henotheism, 201; Arabian dogmatic, 201; Arabian prophetic, Messianism, 204-207, 209; awakening of Arabian, 208, 249; second or apocalyptic period, 208, 212, 249; as lived metaphysics, 217; distinct Arabian domains, 228; Arabian dualism, spirit and soul, 233-236; inward unity of Arabian, 235, 248; Arabian Logos and light-sensation, 236, 237; Arabian time-concept, 238, 249; Arabian submission, Grace, 240; Arabian community of the elect, 242, 243, 253; Arabian sacred books and revelation, 243-246; infallible word and interpretation, secret revelation, 245-247; third Arabian period, religions of salvation, grand myths, 249; three directions of Arabian forms, 251-253; Arabian monasticism, 254; Arabian missionarism, 259; end of Arabian inner history, 261; and being and waking-being, fear and love, 265, 499; and light, 265; intellect and faith, 266, 269-271; cultural basis of fate, 267; theory and technique, myth and cult, 268, 271; God and soul, cultural basis of understanding of numina, 270; faith and life, 271, 443; works and moral, 271, 272; moral and negations on being, 272-274; and social ethics, 273; cultural basis of truth, 274; morphology of history, 275; primitive organic religiousness, 275, 276, 278; “pre”-periods of Cultures, 276-278; of Cultures and landscape, 278; beginning in Cultures, 279; cultural character and prime symbols, 279; Egyptian, 279, 281; beginning of priesthood estate, 280; peasant, 280; narrow circle of cultural understanding, 280, 282; obscurity of Classical beginning, 281-283; outline of Classical beginning, 283, 284, 290 n.; Classical unity, Greek and Roman cults, 284, 285; later Classical, 285; Chinese beginning, 285-287; Chinese tao, 287; newness of Western, depth-experience as symbol, 288, 294 n.; reformation as general cultural movement, 295-297; and Western practical mechanics, 300-302; Puritanism, 302-305, 316; Rationalism, 305-308; Pietism, 308; cultural basis of mechanistic conception, 308, 309; Rationalism and myth fads, 310; second religiousness, 310-314; historyless fellah, 314; phase in anti-Semitism, 321, 322; phase of Fronde and Tyrannis, 386; and church, 443 n.; and economics, 473; and technique, 502. See also Causality; Christianity; Church and State; Death; Jews; Philosophy; Priesthood; Pseudomorphosis; Puritanism; Reformation; Sacred books; Soul; Spirit; Creeds and sects by name

Renaissance, history-picture, 28 n.; relation to Classical Culture, 58; style as urban, 93, 297; and Italian nationalism, 182; as Gothic, 291; and personality, 293; and Reformation, 297

Republic, Western, as negation, 413. See also Democracy; Parliamentarism

Resaina, school, 200

Resh-Galutha, 72; position, 177, 208, 210

Resurrection, as Arabian principle, 59; effect on Christianity, 218

Retz, Cardinal de, Fronde, 390

Retzius, Anders A., and skull-forms, 128

Revelation, Arabian concept, 243-246; secret, 246

Revolution, period, 387; Classical occurrence, 394, 405; French, as unique manifestation, 411; Parliamentarism as continuance, 415; Arabian period, 424. See also Democracy; Politics

Rhegium, democratic triumph, 396

Rhodes, Cecil, actuality of leadership, 369; significance, 435; money and power, 459, 473, 475

Rhodes, plan, 100; siege, 421

Rhodesia, oval house, 122

Richard I of England, imperial vassal, 374

Richelieu, Cardinal de, power, 389, 390

Robert the Devil, and finance, 372

Robespierre, Maximilian, adventurer, 19; State-machine, 404, 405; as mass-leader, 448 n.

Rodbertus, Johann K., and class dictatorship, 404

Roe, Sir Thomas, Turkish mission, 43 n.

Roger II of Sicily, finance, 489

Roman Catholic Church, Classical survivals in popular, 110; and style of Western learning, 346; changed basis of politics, 451 n. See also Christianity; Papacy

Roman law, basis in Classical world, persona and res, 60; and divine law, 60; as product of practical experience, no legal class, 61; and Greek law, jus civile and jus gentium, city law, 61, 62; lack of precedent, English contrast, 62, 63; “collection” not “system,” 63; lack of early stratification, 64; codes as party politics, 64; jus gentium as imperial, 66; Hadrian’s edict and petrification, 66; development of jurisprudence, 66; period of maturity, 66; lack of basic ideas, 67; schools, 67; law of bodies, statics, 67; and Arabian juridical person, 67, 68, 174, 177; and Arabian creed-communities, emperor-worship, 68, 69; Constantine and orthodox Christian law, 69, 70; position of Arabian-Latin law, 70-72; divine origin and Arabian written law, precedent and consensus, 72-74; framing and position of Corpus Juris, religious creation, 74; independent development of Western law-history, 75; development of Norman-English law, 75, 76, 78; Germanic law in Southern Europe, 76; Maximilian’s code, 76; character in Germany and Spain, 76, 77; Corpus Juris Canonici, 77; Western conflict of fas and jus, 78; effect on Western culture, book and life, 78-80; Classical bodies and Western functions, 80-82; Western emancipation as future task, 83, 491, 505; and established church, 177 n.; and family, 330; Western estates and, 365

Romanesque, soul, 180

Romanos, power, 426

Romans, origin of name, 382

Romanticism, and world-literature, 108; and idea of people, 113; and apocalyptic, 236, 237, 250

Rome, collapse of empire, 42; historyful and historyless, 50; as capital city, 95; as provincial city, 99; Classical block-tenements, 101; suburbs of modern city, 101 n.; decay of city, 107; city as Etruscan, 164; people of city, 166; political character, 173, 174; reason for rise, cultural necessity, 185, 422; cults and Greek cults, 284; family history, 336; first settlements and tribes, 351, 382; Plebs as Third Estate, 357, 408; vis-à-vis Carthage, 368; early oligarchy, 375; aristocratic control, attitude toward residue, 375, 382; empire as polis, 383; polis and citizenship, 383, 384; fifth-century relations, 394-398; status of Tribunate, 395, 415 n.; Senate and Tribunate, opposition as “form,” 397; period of military control, 407; and border states, 407; control by political nobility, Senate as engine, 409-411; money in politics, demagogy, 410, 411, 457-459; evolution and completion of Cæsarism, 422, 423, 430, 432-434; political factions and parties, 450; courts and politics, 459; finance, 487, 494, 495

Roosevelt, Theodore, on race suicide, 106

Rossbach, battle, importance, 182

Rothschilds, founding of fortune, 402 n.

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, Rationalism, 307; and class dictatorship, 404; end of influence, 454

Ruach, connotation, 234

Rubens, Peter Paul, “tigress” expression, 128 n.

Ruma clan, 382

Rumina, goddess, 382

Russian Culture, pseudomorphosis, and Western Culture, 192-194; and towns, 194; Dostoyevski and Tolstoi as types, 194-196; position of Bolshevism, 195; regular and secular clergy, 254; pre-cultural religiousness, 278; soul-character, 295 n.; unreal classes, 335 n.; mir, 348; and money, 495 n.; present Christianity, 495 n.; culture and machine, 504 n.

Russo-Japanese War, and military art, 421

Saba, ignored history, 190; feudalism, 196-198; geography, 196 n.; religion, 209, 253; chronology, 239

Sabazius, cult, 201

Sabbath, Chaldean and Jewish, 207

Sabiniani, legal school, style, 67, 346

Sachsenspiegel, 64, 76

Sacraments, Pagan, 203; Western concept, and free will, 293; effect of Reformation, 298. See also Contrition

Sacred books, Arabian nation, revelation, 243-246; cultural attitude, 244 n.; infallibility, interpretation, secret revelation, 245-247; allegorical exegesis, 247; commentary and authoritative chain, 249, 250. See also Bible

Sadducees, tendency, 211

Sage, as ideal, 307

Sahara, extension, 39 n.

Saint-Simon, Comte de, and class dictatorship, 404

Saint-Simon, Duc de, on nobility and nation, 172; on new nobility, 357 n.

Salisbury, Marquess of, and family, 393

Salman, trial, 317

Samarra, plan, 100; area, 101 n.; abandoned, 107

Samuel, lord of Al Alblaq, 198

San Gimigniano, fortified towers, 355 n.

Sankhara, Neo-Brahmanism, 315

Sapor I, and Mazdaism, 251

Saracens, Charles Martel’s victory, 192. See also Islam

Saragossa, General Privilege, 373

Sarapion, anchorite, 254

Sards, as name, 164

Sargon, contemporaries, 39

Sassanids, study neglected, 38, 190; feudalism, 196-198, 423; Mazdaic State religion, 253; nobility and priesthood, 353; as model for Byzantine ceremonial, 378 n.

Savelli, and Papacy, 354

Saviour, as title, 219 n.

Savonarola, Girolamo, and Renaissance, 291; and reform, urbanism, 296, 297

Saxony, dynastic influence, 182

Scævola, Q. Mucius, private-law, 66

Scent, man’s relation, 7, 115. See also Sense

Schadow, Johann Gottfried, art, 118

Schiele, Friedrich M., on Sadducees and Essenes, 211 n.

Schinkel, Hans F., art, 118

Scholasticism, Arabian and Pseudomorphic, 71, 200, 228, 229, 250; of Rationalism, 305-308; intellectual discipline, 463

Schuda, legends, 250

Schwabenspiegel, 76

Science. See Intelligence, Natural science

Scipio, P. Cornelius (Africanus Major), and border States, 408; and Cato, 411; and Imperialism, 422; and political organization, 452

Scipio, P Cornelius (Africanus Minor), murder, 423; and Imperialism, 430; and political organization, 452

Scots, and divine-given torments, 299 n.

Script. See Writing

Sea-folk, and Egypt, 107, 122, 129, 164

Second religiousness, in Mexican Culture, 45 n.; period and character, 310; Syncretism, 311-313; emperor-cult and fixed organizations, 314; and Cæsarism, 386 n.; Western, 455

Seibal, and Mexican Culture, 44

Seleucid Empire, as Arabian, 190; era, 239

Senate, Roman, and Tribunate, 397, 398; and political nobility, 409; Augustus’ dyarchy as nullity, 432; and courts, 460; economics and politics, 475

Senatus Populusque Romanus, as Senate and Tribunate, 398; formal restoration, 433

Seneca, L. Annæus, religiousness, 313

Sensation-content, 6

Sense, as microcosmic organ, and understanding, 5, 69; human and animal, 114, 115; and relation of microcosm to macrocosm, 499. See also Sight

Sentence, origin, and word, 141; and race, 142; verbs, 143. See also Language

Sentinum, battle, importance, 422

Sepoy Mutiny, cultural basis, 321 n.

Septimus Severus, historyless, 432

Serapis-cult, origin, 310

Sertorius, Quintus, and Cæsarism, 428 n.

Sesostris I, absolutism, 387

Sesostris III, absolutism, 387

Sethe, Kurt, on Egyptian script, 108 n.

Seuse, Heinrich, on Mysticism, 292

Sex, cosmic organ, 5; Civilization and sterility, 103-105; “versehen,” 126; conception as sin, 272; and Classical cults, 283; orgiasm and asceticism, 283; elements of duality, war, 327, 328; and “form,” 331; and State, 362. See also Being; Family; Monasticism

Sforza, Catherine, heroism, 328

Shak-el-Arab, Mandæanism, 214 n.

Shamir Juharish, feudalism, 196

Shan-Kur {sic} Period, 416

Shang dynasty, mythology, 286, 379 n.

Shantung, Manichæans, Nestorians, and Islam, 260, 261

Shaping, and training, 331, 340

Shaw, George Bernard, on free woman, 105; Undershaft as type, 475 n.; on money and life, 484

Sheridan, Richard B. B., and French Revolution, 412

Shi, as title, 41, 418

Shi-hwang-ti, and second religiousness, 310; and Chinese history, 434

Shi-King, as religious source, 286; love songs, 352

Shia, and Chaldean, 176

Shiites, Logos-idea, 236 n.; beginning, 424

Shirazi, philosophy, 321

Shneor Zalman ben Baruch. See Salman

Shu-Ching, as religious source, 286

Shuiski, Vassili, period, 192

Sibylline books, character of Classical, 244 n.

Sicily, Norman state, 372, 489; democratic triumph, 396; and Maniakes, 427 n.

Siculi, as name, 164

Siena, fortified towers, 355

Sight, as supreme sense, 6; bodily and mental, 7; and waking-being, 7; lordship in man, 7-9; invisible and fear, 8; and race, 114, 128; and words, 140; and verbs, 143; Arabian light-sensation, “cavern” and Logos, 233, 236, 237; light and religion, 265. See also Sense

Sign, and language, 134; and script, 149

Signorelli, Luca, frescoes and the Devil, 292 n.

Simplicius, and commentary, 247

Sinuhet, biography, 387

Skeleton, and race, 124, 128-130, 175; and landscape, 130

Skleros, power, 427

Skoptsi, as manifestation, 278

Skull. See Skeleton

Slavery, Roman freedmen and citizenship, 166 n.; Classical and money, end, 349 n., 480, 488, 496; Irak rebellion, 426; attitude of Plebs, 451 n.; technique, 479 n., 503; Western status, 488 n.

Sleep, as vegetable, 7

Smith, Adam, relation to property, 345; and Hume, 403; and economic thought, 469; theory of value, 491

Smith, Elliot, ethnological research, 129

Smiths, guild and tribe, 479

Socialism, money and movement, 402; effect on Capitalism, 454, 464 n., 506 n.; and Cæsarism, 506. See also Marx

Society, origin, 343

Sociology, Jesus’ indifference, 217

Socrates, Rationalism, 307; as spiritual heir and ancestry, 309

Sohm, Rudolf, on German jurisprudence, 80

Sol Invictus, cult, 201; and Syncretism, 253

Solomon, fictitious, 72 n.; Psalms, 213 n.

Solon, Egyptian influence, 62 n.; character of law, 63-65; and impiety, 282; economics and politics, 475

Sombart, Werner, on book-keeping, 490

Sophists, and Socrates, 309; and Chinese Cæsarism, 418

Sorel, Albert, and French Revolution, 399 n.

Soul, cultural and intercultural forms, 56; cultural significance, 59; of town, 90; and language, 137; and people, 165; and spirit in Arabian dualism, indwelling, 234-236; Western and Russian, 295 n. See Religion; Spirit; Will

Sound, as sign of language, word, 134

Space, extension and waking-being, 7; and truths, 12; Arabian concept, 233; and time and religion, 265. See also Time

Spain, physical changes, 39 n.; and Roman law, 77; Jewish Culture, 316; period of absolutism, 388; Fronde conflict, 390; origins of accountancy, 489

Sparta, helots, 332, 349, 357; vis-à-vis Athens, 368; royal succession, 380; oligarchic-democratic struggle, 396, 397

Spartacus, and Cæsarism, 428 n.

Spartiates, as feudal, 375

Speaking, and language, 117, 125

Speculators, as cultural phenomenon, 484

Spence, Lewis, on Mexican chronology, 44 n.

Spener, Philipp J., Pietism, 308

Spenta Mainyu, Persian Holy Spirit, 244

Sphærus, influence, 454 n.

Spinden, Herbert J., researches in Mexican Culture, 44 n.

Spinoza, Baruch, Gnosis, 228; Arabian metaphysic, 241, 321; on contemplation, 242; expulsion, 317

Spirit, Arabian pneuma, 57; and soul in Arabian dualism, indwelling, 234-236. See also Body; Religion; Soul; Waking-being

Sport, and Civilization, 103

Stanley, Arthur P., on Islam and Christianity, 304 n.

State. See Politics

States-General, calling, 373; overthrow, 388

Statics, Roman law, 67

Steam-engine, effect, 502

Stein, Lorenz von, on money, 485

Stenography, character, 152

Sterility, and Civilization, 103-105

Stoicism, and jurisprudence, 62; Rationalism, 307; Pietism, 308; and second religiousness, 312; style of school, 345; improvidence, 372; and Cæsarism, ideologues and conspiracy, 433, 434; political influence, 454

Streets, cultural attitude, 94

Stuarts, and Roman law, 365 n.; and dynasty, 388, 389

Studion, monk-state, 314

Style, Western, external effects, 46; intercultural, 87-89; as urban, 92; and Civilization, 108, 109; rigid and living, surface mixture, 123; priesthood and, of learning, 345

Su-tsin, career, 417; character, 419

Subjects and objects, 369; in politics, 441; in economics, 479, 493

Submission, as Arabian concept, 240

Substance, Arabian religious concept, 244; controversy and Christian split, 255-258. See also Trinity

Succession Wars, character, 392

Sudra, as caste, 332; and tribes, 348

Sufism, and Chaldean, 176; Gnosis, 228; and contemplation, 242; Pietism, 308; and Jewish Mysticism, 321. See also Islam; Mysticism

Sulla, L. Cornelius, and princeps, 423; and demagogy, 458; and courts, 460

Sultanate, rise over caliphate, 425, 426

Sumer, and Arabian Culture, 189 n.

Sun-tse, on war, 417 n., 419 n.; character, 419 n.; anecdote, 420 n.

Sura, academy, 71, 200

Swedenborg, Emanuel, Pietism, 308; and Yesirah, 316

Sybaris, destruction, 303, 394

Symbolism, farmhouse, 90; peacock, 236; cultural religious prime symbols, 279, 287, 288; colour, 289; clock, 300 n.; Wandering Jew, 317; printing, 413; Classical coin, 486

Syncretic Church, and emperor-worship, 68; as name, 68 n.; cults and “Greeks,” 176; Arabian churches in Classical style, 201; reversal, Classical cults as Eastern Church, 102; Paganism and Christianity, sacraments and other elements, 203, 204; Jewish rescue, from, 210; Jesus sects, 220 n.; development, parallelism, 252; State religion, 253; monasticism, 254; westward expansion, 255; missionarism, 259; end of theology, 261. See also Pseudomorphosis; Religion

Syncretism, in second religiousness, 311-313. See also preceding title

Synesius, as Neo-Platonist, 252

Synod of a Hundred Chapters, 278

Synod of Antichrist, 278

Synœcism, Classical, 173, 355, 381, 382; Roman, 383

Syntax, and grammar, 142; period, 145

Syracuse, as provincial city, 99; as megalopolis, 382 n.; democratic triumph, 396; colonization, 405; class proscriptions, 405, 406 n.; siege, 421; and Plato’s theory, 454

Syrian Law-book, importance, 64, 70

Sze-ma-tsien, on Contending States, 417; as compiler, 418 n.; biographies, 454 n.

Taboo, relation to waking-being and language, 116, 154; dependence on totem, 117, 265; in art, 118; and cathedral, 122; and script, 151; space-fear, 265; and technique, 268, 271; moral, and negations, 272, 342. See also Totem

Tacitus, Cornelius, on Decemvirs’ code, 65; philosophical confusion, 238; and polis, 383; on Musonius Rufus, 430; and Cæsarism, 434 n.

Tai-dsung, and Islam, 261

Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles de, as politician, 446

Talmud, as creed law, 69; and Chaldean, 176; development, influences, 208, 209

Tammany Hall, as type, 452 n.

Tannaim, class, 71

Tanvasar, and new Avesta, 250, 251

Taoism, and Pacifism, 185; principle, 287; alteration in concept, 307; expansion, 308; Syncretism, 312, 315; of Han period, 314; and priesthood, 352; and Cæsarism, 434 n.

Tarquins, fall, 65

Tarragona, Jewish city, 316

Tartars, Russian release, 192

Taxes, purpose, 475 n.

Tchun-tsin-fan-lu, 454 n.

Technique, and truth, 144 n.; and theory in religion, 268, 271; and Classical city-religions, 285; and Western science, 300, 302; and Rationalism, 306; development of military, 420-422; influence on Western economic thought, 469; machines and Western slavery, 488 n.; and plant, 499; of animal movement, involuntary, 499; conscious-knowing, 499; tyrannical theory, 500; development out of nature, 500; under Classical Culture, 500; Western passion, Gothic, 501; effect of steam-engine, 502; religious origin, and Devil, 502, 504, 504 n., 505; Western and infinity, conquest of nature, 503, 504; machine-industry as master of Western Civilization, 504; its agents, 504; machine-industry as Western bourgeois, 504 n.; other cultures and machine, 504 n.; engineer as priest, 505; struggle with money, 505

Telemachus, and dynasty, 380

Telescope, Chinese invention, 501 n.

Tell-el-Amarna letters, 166

Ten Thousand, as polis, 160 n.

Tenochtitlan, destruction, 44; founding, character, 45, 99

Tension, and beat, 4; and waking-being, 7; and Civilization and intelligence, 102. See also Waking-being

Tertullian, Montanist, 227; and Western Church, 229; period, 250

Teutoburger Wald, Varus’ defeat, 48 n.

Teutonic Knights, finance, 489

Tezcuco, as world-city, 99

Thebes, as Egypt, 95; as world-city, 99; rise of dynasty, 428

Themis, and Dike, 376, 378

Theocritus, “playing” with expression, 137

Theoderich, tomb, 89

Theodore of Studion, and Leo V, 425; as party leader, 449

Theognis, and carpe diem, 383

Theory, development, dominance, 10, 500; and technique in religion, 268, 271; cultural attitude toward scientific, 301; correctness and technical value, 500 n.

Thing, legal Classical notion, 60

Third Estate. See Democracy

Thirty Years’ War, as consequence, 181; political aspect, 388, 391; Wallenstein’s idea and fall, 389

Thomas, Saint, Gospel, 213 n.; Acts, romances, 236, 251 n.

Thomas Aquinas, philosophy, 172 n.; and Devil-cult, 291; and sacraments, 293

Thought, defined, development of theoretical, 10; and life, facts and truths, 11-13; compulsion, 12; causality-men, place in life, 16-19. See also Waking-being

Thucydides, ahistoric, 24

Thurii, plan, 100

Tiberius, as historyful, 171; economics and politics, 432, 475

Tikal, and Mexican Culture, 44

Tilly, Count of, and Wallenstein, 389

Time, and facts, 12; and dynastic-idea, 179; Arabian concept, ordained period, 238-240, 249; and space and religion, 265; and truth, 271; mythology, 286. See also Being; Destiny; History; Space

Tiresias, and Classical religious beginnings, 282, 350

Tities, tribe, 351, 382

Tobit, as Arabian, 208

Togrulbek, power, 427

Toledo, Jewish city, 316

Toleration, Classical and Arabian attitude, 203

Tolstoi, Leo, Western soul, 194-196; conception of Jesus, 218

Topinard, Paul, race classification, 125

Totem, relation to being and race, 116; in art, 118; and dwelling-house, 121; and castle, 122; in language, 154; time-fear and taboo, 265; moral, 342. See also Taboo

Touch, as primary sense, 6. See also Sense

Tournament, as manifestation of nobility, 352

Tours, importance of Saracen defeat, 192

Town, and Culture, 90; soul, 90; relation to country, 91; cultural type, 91; and market, 91, 480; and style, 92; “visage” as cultural, 93; relation to landscape, 94; city history as world-history, 95, 96; domination of capital city, cultural basis, 95, 381; and intellect, 96; great and little, spiritual distinction, 97; and monetary idea, and dictatorship, 97, 98; Civilization and overflow, 100; and writing, 152; script speech, 155; and nations, 171; Russia and, 194; and Renaissance-Reformation movement, 297; and science, 300; and Puritanism, 302; and Rationalism, 305; consciousness and personal freedom, 354, 356, 358; burgher estate, 355; movement of primary estates to, 355, 356; and State-idea, 377; relation of politics and economics, capitalism, 476, 477, 493; effect on trade, 481, 484. See also Causality; Megalopolitanism; Polis; Politics

Trade, and politics, 474; as substitute for war, 474. See also Economics

Tradition, place in cultural history, 338; prevision law, 363; of political leadership, 444

Training, and shaping, 331, 340

Trajan, historyless, 432

Tramilæ, as name, 164

Transubstantiation, new English controversy, 309 n.

Trdat of Armenia, State and Church, 253

Trebatius Testa, C., and Cicero, 458 n.

Tree of Knowledge, and cross, 180 n.

Tribes, Arabian pre-cultural associations, solution, 173, 176; as names for priesthoods, 175; occupational, 348, 479

Tribonian, as jurist, 73

Tribunate, and Plebs, 357; beginning, status, as lawful Tyrannis, 394-398, 433; consular, 397; and Senate, survival, 397, 398, 433; blind incident, 415 n.; Marius as heir, 423; and party, 451

Trinity, and Arabian pneuma, 68, 244. See also Logos; Substance

Triumvirates, and border States, 408; and Cæsarism, 423; first, 454

Troeltsch, Ernst, on Augustine as Classical, 241 n.

Trojan War, as beginning of history, 27; feud or crusade, 282

Troubadours, Arabian, 198; relation to Renaissance, 297

Truth, and facts, 11, 12, 47; cultural basis, 58; and speech, 137, 144; abstract and living, 147; Arabian pneuma, 242; Arabian sacred book, 243; experience, 268; and time, 271; and current of being, history, 274; and politics, 368; influence of press, 461. See also Ethics; Faith

Tshou-li, on officialdom, 372

Tshun-tsin, period, 391

Tsi, in period of Contending States, 417

Tsin, imperialistic State, 38, 41; and Taoism, 185; and Tsu, 368; rise in period of Contending States, 416-419

Tsu, and Tsin, 368; in period of Contending States, 417, 418, 454

Tung Chung-Shu, on Middle Kingdom, 373 n.

Turfan manuscripts, 213 n., 252

Turgot, Anne R. J., overthrow, 411 n.

Turks, and Cæsarism, 426, 427

Tursha, as name, 164

Twelve Tables, character, 63, 65; importance, 65 n.; commentary, 66; class law, 365; significance, overthrow, 396

Tyche, and lot-choice of officials, 383

Tyrannis, first, preceding oligarchy, 375; fall of Tarquinian, 382; significance, 386; and Tribunate, struggle for lawful, 394-398; character of second, 405-408. See also Politics

Ujjaina, as world-city, 99

Ulemas, law-men, 71

Ulpian, as jurist, 71

Unam sanctam bull, 376

Understanding, and sensation, 6; language and emancipation, thought, 9, 10; and reason, 13; meaning, 133, 136; as causal, 266; and faith, 266, 269-271

United States. See Americans

Ur, tombs, 35 n.

Uxmal, and Mexican Culture, 45; as world-city, 99

Valentinian III, Law of Citations, 73, 248

Valentinus, period, 250; and substance, 256

Value, early lack of concept, 480; money and value-in-itself, 482; theories as subjective, 482 n.; money and standard, 485 n.; irrelation of Classical land and money, 487; Classical attitude toward art, 487; Western concept of work, 491-493. See also Economics

Varro, M. Terentius, era, 239

Varus, P. Quintilius, defeat, site, 48, 487

Vasari, Giorgio, and return to nature, 291

Vase-painting, Exekias, 135

Vasili Blazheny, style, 89

Vassalage, rise and significance, 349; change to money basis, 357. See also Feudalism; Slavery

Vegetable. See Plant

Venice, and money-outlook, 97 n.; small-scale traffic, 481 n.

Verbs, place in language development, 143

Vergennes, Comte de, as end of period, 398

Verres, Caius, wealth as object, 459

Vespasian, war on Judea, 210; and ideologues, 434

Vesta, and economics, 472

Village, and town, 91

Vindex, unimportance, 50

Virtue, change in concept, 307

Vladimir of Kiev, epic cycle, 192

Vohu Mano, as Word of God, 244

Voltaire, and Rationalism, 305

Vries, Hugo de, mutation theory, 32 n.

Waking-being, as microcosmic, and being, 7, 11, 13; visual thought, 7-9; language and thought, 9, 10, 114; life and thought, facts and truths, 11-13, 16; adjustment to macrocosm, 14, 24; and causality, 14; and problem of motion, death, 14-16; and intercultural history, 56; and money, 98; upward series of utterances, 116; and taboo, 117; willed activity, 133; and reflection, 141; cultural oppositions, 233; and religion, 265, 499; and priesthood, 335; and economics, 473; and sense, 499; ultimate fall, 507. See also Being; Causality; Economics; Intelligence; Language; Microcosm; Religion; Space; Town

Wallenstein, Albrecht von, idea, power and fall, 389

Wandering Jew, symbolism, 317

Wang, as title, 379

Wang-Cheng, rule, 41, 418, 423

War, and politics and economics, 330, 366, 440, 474; and nobility, 351; as great creator, 362; as normal Classical condition, 385; character of Baroque, 392; Pe-Ki as general, 417 n.; Sun-tse as authority, 417 n., 419 n.; change in character under Civilization, 419-422; nineteenth-century substitute, 428; expected Western period, 429; as cultural necessity, 429, 434; relation to press, 460; and hunger, 471. See also Army; Peace

Wartburg, cathedral art, 123

Washington, plan, 100 n.

Washington Conference, as prelude of war, 430

Wealth. See Economics; Money

Wedgwood, Josiah, ware, 491

Wei-Yang, character, 419

Weill, Raymond, on Hyksos, 428 n.

Weininger, Otto, Arabian metaphysic, 322

Weissenberg, Samuel, on Jewish type, 175

Wellington, Duke of, rise, 406

Welser, city nobility, 356

Wenceslaus, as emperor, 376

Wesley, John, practical Pietism, 308

Westermann, Diedrich, language investigation, 140

Western Culture, as historic, 28; and human and universal history, 28; individuality in historical attunement, 29, 30; future historical achievement, 30, 46, 47, 55; landscape and outside effect, 46; transfer of Christianity to, 59, 235, 237, 258; independent legal development, 75, 76; Roman law in, 76-78; effect of Roman law, 78-83; and antique, 79; future jurisprudence, 80-83, 505; future cities, 101; present stage of Civilization, 109; and mother tongue, 120; and script, 150; and people, 169; nations under, dynastic-idea, 179-181, 378, 381; races, nations, and dynasties, 181-183; dynastic-idea and overthrow of monarchy, language-idea, 183; Charles Martel and avoidance of pseudomorphosis, 192; and Russia, 192; newness of religion, depth-experience as symbol, 288, 294 n.; Mary-cult and Devil-cult, 290-294; guilt and free-will, sacraments, 292, 293; contrition, 293-295; personality-concept, 293; Calvin-Loyola opposition and world-politics, 299; and practical mechanics, 300; dynamic character of Rationalism, 309; probable character of second religiousness, 311 n.; religion and style of learning, 346; style of nobility, genealogical principle, 350; style of priesthood, 352; relation of primary estates, 353; capital city, 381; reading and writing, 413; money as function, 489-493; capital and financial organization, 493, 494; future, 507. See also Baroque; Cultures; Gothic; Politics; Technique

Westminster Confession, on Grace, 242

Westphalia, Peace of, effect on nobility, 391

Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von, on patriarchal kingdom, 380 n.

Will, Arabian attitude, submission, 235, 240; Arabian Grace, 241, 242; Western free-will and sacraments, 292, 293; Russian attitude, 295 n.

William I of England, and property, 371

William of Occam, will and reason, 241

Wilson, Woodrow, as tool, 475

Winchester, Eng., as royal residence, 92 n.

Winckler, Hugo, on post-exilic Jews, 205

Witchcraft, Western cult, 291; persecution, 302

Woman. See Sex

Words, cult-colouring of prime, 116; as language sound, 134; as to origin, 137, 138; and names, 138-141; and modern gesture, 140 n.; and sentence, 141; acquisition, 142; vocabularies and grammar, 147; alien provenance, 148; and conscious technique, 499. See also Language

Work, quantity and quality in Western concept of value, 491-493

Works, religious technique and moral, 272. See also Faith

World-city. See Megalopolitanism

World War, and passage to Cæsarism, 418; effect on universal military service, 429; and military art, 421; and Marxism, 455; guilt question, 461 n.; Allied press propaganda, 462 n., 463

Worms, Diet of, code, 76

Writing, cultural relation, 36, 146, 150; Arabian religions and scripts, 73, 150, 227 n.; Egyptian, 108; grammatical decomposition, 145, 146; technique of signs and thoughts, 146; and linguistic history, 147; and “present” training, 149; dependence on grammar, 149; and reading, 149; and extension and duration, 150; and historical endowment, 150; and colloquial language, 150; relation to race, as taboo, ornament, 151; city and utilitarian, standardization, 152, 155; stenography, 152; dependence of world history on, 153. See also Language

Wu, State, annihilation, 422

Wu-ti, as ruler, 41

Wullenweber, Jürgen, economics and politics, 475

Wundt, Wilhelm M., an origin of language, 138

Wyclif, John, and reform, 296

Xenophon, and class dictatorship, 404

Yahweh cult, 201

Yang-Chu, materialism, 309

Yellow Turbans, insurrection, 314

Yeomanry, lack in England and United States, 449 n. See also Peasantry

Yesirah, rational Mysticism, 316

Yiddish, character, 150 n.

Yorck von Wartenburg, Graf, and Napoleon, 406 n.

Zaddikism, 322

Zaleucus, laws, 64

Zama, battle, and Hellenism, 191, 422

Zarathustra, basis of religious reform, 168; Jewish contemporaries, 205. See also Mazdaism; Zend Avesta

Zechariah, Persian influence, 208

Zend Avesta, commentary, 247; new, Mazdaism, 251

Zeno, and property, 344

Zimmern, Heinrich, on Jesus as Mandæan, 214 n.

Zionism, character, 210

Zoroaster. See Zarathustra

Zrvanism, rise, 256

Zwingli, Ulrich, as Gothic, 296

[FOOTNOTES]

[1] In what follows I have drawn upon a metaphysical work that I hope shortly to be able to publish.

[2] For instance, Vol. I, p. 154.--Tr.

[3] See Vol. I, p. 54.--Tr.

[4] Even scientific astronomy, when applied to everyday work, states the movements of the heavenly bodies in terms referred to our perception of them.--Tr.

[5] See Vol. I, p. 172.--Tr.

[6] A very similar notion of the light-world diffused from the light-centre forms the cardinal point of the philosophy of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln (1175-1273).--Tr.

[7] The coming of radio broadcasting has in no way altered, but has rather confirmed, the validity of this. The listener either translates his aural impressions into those of the light-world or else yields even more readily than usual to the “illusion” here discussed.--Tr.

[8] The original reads: “An Stelle des völlig einheitlichen verstehenden Empfindens erscheint oft und öfter ein Verstehen der Bedeutung von kaum noch beachteten Sinneseindrücken.”--Tr.

[9] Hence we call that which we observe in the faces of men who have not the habit of thought “animal”--admiringly or contemptuously as the case may be.

[10] See Vol. I, p. 126.--Tr.

[11] See Vol. I, p. 102.--Tr.

[12] Hence Bayle’s profound observation that the understanding is capable only of discovering errors.

[13] See Vol. I, p. 94.--Tr.

[14] See Vol. I, pp. 53, et seq.--Tr.

[15] Original: “aus dem Erlebnis.”--Tr.

[16] A.D. 553 (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. xliii).--Tr.

[17] G. Le Bon’s Psychologie des Foules (which has been translated into English under the title The Crowd) is the pioneer work on this subject, and though unduly coloured perhaps by the author’s personal prepossessions, still retains its interest and value.--Tr.

[18] See Vol. I., pp. 139, et seq.--Tr.

[19] Meaning here names, dates, numbers--the chronology in the usual extensive sense, and not the intensive or deep sense. See Vol. I, pp. 97, 153 (foot-note).--Tr.

[20] He affirmed, on the first page of his history (about 400 B.C.), that before his time nothing of significance had happened (οὐ μεγάλα νομίζω γενέσθαι οὔτε κατὰ τοὺς πολέμους οὔτε ἐς τα ἄλλα. Thucydides, I, 1.)

[21] Original: “Alles Bedeutende, nämlich das Einmalige der Geschichte.”--Tr.

[22] I suppose the meaning of these words to be that generalization and flair are not really opposed, but interdependent.--Tr.

[23] Original: (“So geschieht dies stets ...) im Hinblick auf das im Augenblick geforderte Bild als der beständigen Funktion der Zeit und des Menschen.”--Tr.

[24] Even at the level of the Trojan War the timeless mythological figures of gods and demigods are still involved, intimately and in detail, in the human story. See, on the whole question of the Greek attitude towards time and history, Vol. I, p. 9 and passim.--Tr.

[25] See Chapter VIII below.--Tr.

[26] Introduced in Rome in 522 during the Ostrogoth domination, not until Charlemagne’s times did it make headway in the Germanic lands. Then, however, its spread was rapid.

[27] See Vol. I, p. 19.--Tr.

[28] On the other hand--and very significantly--the field of the history-picture livingly experienced in the consciousness of the sincere Renaissance classicist markedly contracted.

[29] See Vol. I, p. 16.--Tr.

[30] The Emperor Henry VI reigned 1190-7.--Tr.

[31] During his Italian sojourn of 1786-8 Goethe made up his mind to resign his political offices at Weimar, retaining merely a non-executive seat on the Council and definitely devoting himself to art and science. This resolution he carried into effect on his return to Weimar in 1788; Tasso finally appeared in 1790.--Tr.

[32] For the special sense in which the word “Civilization” is used throughout this work see Vol. I, p. 31. Briefly, the Civilization is the outcome of the Culture of which it is in one sense the final phase, but in another the distinct and unlike sequel.--Tr.

[33] Christian Leopold von Buch, 1774-1853; Cuvier, 1769-1832.--Tr.

[34] The first proof that the basic forms of plants and animals did not evolve, but were suddenly there, was given by H. de Vries in his Mutation Theory (1886). In the language of Goethe, we see how the “impressed form” [See Vol. I, p. 157.--Tr.] works itself out in the individual samples, but not how the die was cut for the whole genus.

[35] With this it becomes unnecessary to postulate vast periods of time for the original states of man, and we can regard the interval between the oldest man-type hitherto discovered and the beginning of the Egyptian Culture as a span, greater indeed, but certainly not unthinkably greater, than the 5,000 years of recognized cultural history.

[36] It is perhaps not unnecessary to remark that the word “epoch” is used throughout this book in its proper sense of “turning point” or “moment of change” and not in the loose sense of “period” which it has acquired.--Tr.

[37] Und Afrika Sprach (1912); Paideuma, Umrisse einer Kultur- und Seelenlehre (1920). Frobenius distinguishes three ages.

[38] This work appeared before the discovery of the Sumerian (or Pre-Sumerian) tombs of Ur.--Tr.

[39] See Vol. I, p. 108.--Tr.

[40] Goethe, in his little essay “Geistesepochen,” has characterized the four parts of a Culture--its preliminary, early, late, and civilized stages--with such a depth of insight that even to-day there is nothing to add. See the tables at the end of Vol. I, which agree with this exactly.

[41] Another blank is the history of the countryside or landscape (i.e., of the soil, with its plant-mantle and its weathering) in which man’s history has been staged for five thousand years. And yet man has so painfully wrested himself from the history of the landscape, and withal is so held to it still by myriad fibres, that without it life, soul, and thought are inconceivable.

So far as concerns the South-European field, from the end of the Ice Age, a hitherto rank luxuriance gradually gave place in the plant-world to poverty. In the course of the successive Egyptian, Classical, Arabian, and Western Cultures, a climatic change developed all around the Mediterranean, which resulted in the peasant’s being compelled to fight no longer against the plant-world, but for it--first against the primeval forest and then against the desert. In Hannibal’s time the Sahara lay very far indeed to the south of Carthage, but to-day it already penetrates to northern Spain and Italy. Where was it in the days of the pyramid-builders, who depicted sylvan and hunting scenes in their reliefs? When the Spaniards expelled the Moriscos, their countryside of woods and ploughland, already only artificially maintained, lost its character altogether, and the towns became oases in the waste. In the Roman period such a result could not have ensued.

[42] The new method of comparative morphology affords us a safe test of the datings which have been arrived at by other means for the beginnings of past Cultures. The same kind of argument which would prevent us, even in the absence of positive information, from dating Goethe’s birth more than a century earlier than the “Urfaust,” or supposing the career of Alexander the Great to have been that of an elderly man, enables us to demonstrate, from the individual characteristics of their political life and the spirit of their art, thought, and religion, that the Egyptian Culture dawned somewhere about 3000 and the Chinese about 1400. The calculations of French investigators and more recently of Borchardt (Die Annalen und die zeitliche Festlegung des Alten Reiches, 1919) are as unsound intrinsically as those of Chinese historians for the legendary Hsia and Shang dynasties. Equally, it is impossible that the Egyptian calendar should have been introduced in 4241 B.C. As in every chronology we have to allow that evolution has been accompanied by radical calendar changes, the attempt to fix the exact starting-date a posteriori is objectless.

[43] Eduard Meyer (Gesch. d. Altertums, III, 97) estimates the Persians, probably too highly, at half a million as against the fifty millions of the Babylonian Empire. The numerical relation between the Germanic peoples and legions of the third-century Roman emperors and the Roman population as a whole, and that of the Ptolemaic and Roman armies to that of the Egyptian people, was of much the same order.

[H. Delbrück, in his well-known Gesch. der Kriegskunst (1908), Vol. I, Part I, chapter i, and elsewhere, deals in considerable detail with the strengths of ancient armies.--Tr.]

[44] A.D. 378. See C. W. C. Oman, History of the Art of War: Middle Ages (1898), ch. i; H. Delbrück, Gesch. der Kriegskunst, Vol. II, book I, ch. x, and book II.--Tr.

[45] In the case of Rome, the idea of a fixed frontier against the barbarian emerged soon after the defeat of Varus, and the fortifications of the Limes were laid down before the close of the first century of our era.--Tr.

[46] For at that time imperialistic tendencies found expression even in India, in the Maurya and Sunga dynasty; these, however, could only be confused and ineffective, Indian nature being what it was.

[47] Chapters vii-ix below.

[48] On the history of the Avesta see Ency. Brit., XI ed., articles “Zend-Avesta” and “Zoroaster.”--Tr.

[49] Sir Thomas Roe, 1620. A similar mission went to Turkey on the part of Frederick and the Bohemian nobles to ask for assistance and to justify to the Turk their action in deposing the Habsburg King. The answer they received was what might be expected of a great imperialist power asked to intervene in the affairs of lesser neighbours--namely, material guarantees of the reality of the movement it was asked to support and pledges that no settlement would be made without its agreement.--Tr.

[50] Mexico City, or, better, the agglomeration of towns and villages in the valley of Mexico.--Tr.

[51] According to Prescott, Cortez’s force on landing had thirteen hand firearms and fourteen cannon, great and small, altogether. The whole of these were lost in the first defeat at Mexico. Later a pure accident gave Cortez the contents of a supply-ship from Europe. In a military sense horses contributed to the Spanish victories nearly if not quite as much as firearms, but these, too, were in small numbers, sixteen at the outset.--Tr.

[52] The following attempt is based upon the data of two American works--L. Spence, The Civilization of Ancient Mexico (Cambridge, 1912); and H. J. Spinden, Maya Art: Its Subject matter and Historical Development (Cambridge, 1913)--which independently of one another attempt to work out the chronology and which reach a certain measure of agreement.

[53] Since the publication of the German original, Spinden’s further researches (Ancient Civilizations of Mexico) have placed the historical zero date at 613 B.C. (and the cosmological zero of back-reckoning at 3373 B.C.). This historical zero seems to lie deep in the pre-Cultural period, if later events have the dates given in the text. But compare Author’s note on p. 39.--Tr.

[54] These are the names of near-by villages serving as labels; the true names are lost.

[55] And was there an element of panem et circenses in the mass-sacrifice of captives? May it be that the acceptance of the Spaniard as the expected manifestation of the god Quetzalcoatl (“redeunt Saturnia regna”), and the serious disputations on matters of religion that took place between Montezuma and the Christians, were presages of the phase which Spengler calls the “Second Religiousness” (see below, p. 310) of the Civilization?--Tr.

[56] “Zur Theorie und Methodik der Geschichte” (Kleine Schriften, 1910), which is by far the best piece of historical philosophy ever written by an opponent of all philosophy.

[57] Varus’s disaster in the Teutoburger Wald.--Tr.

[58] The Japanese belonged formerly to the Chinese Civilization and again belong to a Civilization--the Western--to-day. A Japanese Culture in the genuine sense there has never been. Japanese Americanism must, therefore, be judged otherwise than as an outgrowth of what never was there.

[59] Cæsars Monarchie und das Principat des Pompejus (1918) pp. 501, et seq.

[60] I.e., that sensation consists in the absorption of small particles radiated by the object.--Tr.

[61] See Ch. VIII below.--Tr.

[62] See R. Hirzel, Die Person (1914), p. 7.

[63] L. Wenger, Das Recht der Griechen und Römer (1914), p. 170; R. v. Mayr, Römische Rechtsgeschichte, II, 1, p. 87.

[64] A curious sidelight on this appears in the provisions of the savage law against recalcitrant debtors, who (after certain delays and formalities) could be put to death and even hewn in pieces by their creditors, or--“sold as slaves beyond the Tiber.”--Tr.

[65] A thirteenth-century collection by Eike von Repgow of German customs and customary law (ed. K. G. Homeyer, 1861).--Tr.

[66] And were judged by a different authority, the peregrin prætor.--Tr.

[67] The “dependence” of Classical law upon Egyptian is, as it chances, still traceable. Solon the wholesale merchant introduced into his Attic legislation provisions concerning debt-slavery, contract, work-shyness, and unemployment taken from Egypt. Diodorus, I, 77, 79, 94.

[68] The process is clearly explained in Goudy’s article “Roman Law,” Ency. Brit., XI ed. Very roughly, the prætor corresponded to the judge, and the judges to the jury, of modern English law, but such a parallel must not be pressed far.--Tr.

[69] L. Wenger, Recht der Griechen und Römer, pp. 166, et seq.

[70] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. XII, p. 502. Fragments of the older collection referred to were found in the vicinity.--Tr.

[71] In English legal theory the judge does not make law by a new decision, but “declares” the law--i.e., makes explicit what has been implicit in the law from the first, though the occasion for its manifestation has not hitherto arisen.--Tr.

[72] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol XXVI, p. 315.--Tr.

[73] See Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, I, 1, p. 350.

[74] The background of this is Etruscan law, the primitive form of the Roman. Rome was an Etruscan city.

[75] Busolt, Griechische Staatskunde, p. 528.

[76] Compare the famous ironical judgment of Mr. Justice Maule which led to the reform of the divorce laws in England (1857): “... It is true that the course which you should legally have taken would have cost you many hundreds of pounds, whereas probably you have not as many pence. But the Law knows no distinction between rich and poor.”--Tr.

[77] What is important to us, therefore, in the Law of the Twelve Tables is not the supposed contents (of which scarcely an authentic clause survived even in Cicero’s day), but the political act of codification itself, the tendency of which corresponded to that of the overthrow of the Tarquinian Tyrannis by senatorial Oligarchy--a success which, now endangered, it was sought to stabilize for the future. The text which schoolboys learned in detail in Cæsar’s time must have had the same destiny as the consular lists of the old time, in which had been interpolated names upon names of families whose wealth and influence was of much later origin. In recent years Pais and Lambert have disputed the whole story of the Twelve Tables, and so far as concerns the authenticity of the reputed text, they may well be right--not so, however, as regards the course of political events in the years about 450.

[78] Only half a century separates the traditional dates of these events (509, 451), in spite of the wealth of traditional history afterwards attached to the period. The “coup,” in the case of the Decemvirs, was the capture by the patricians of a machine set up for the redress of plebeian grievances.--Tr.

[79] Cf. Ch. IV below.

[80] Sohm, Institutionen (14) p. 101. [This is the edict of “Julian” (Salvius Julianus, urban prætor). Romanists are not agreed as to how far, if at all, it included material derived from the decisions of the peregrin prætor. See Professor Goudy’s article “Roman Law,” Ency. Brit., XI ed., p. 563.--Tr.]

[81] Lenel, Das Edictum perpetuum (1907); L. Wenger, p. 168.

[82] Even the multiplication table of the children assumes the elements of dynamics in counting.

[83] V. Mayr, II, 1, p. 85; Sohm, p. 105.

[84] Enzyklopädie der Rechtswissensch., I, 357.

[85] Egyptian law of the Hyksos period, and Chinese of the Period of Contending States, in contrast to the Classical and the Indian law of the Dharmasutras, must have been built up on basic ideas quite other than the idea of the corporeality of persons and things. It would be a grand emancipation from the load of Roman “antiquities” if German research were to succeed in establishing these.

[86] Sohm, p. 220.

[87] Acts XV. Herein lies the germ of the idea of a Church law.

[88] For Islam as a “juristic person” see M. Horten, Die religiöse Gedankenwelt des Volkes im heutigen Islam (1917), p. xxiv.

[89] See Ch. VII below. We can venture to make the label so positive because the adherents of all the Late Classical cults were bound together in devout consensus, just as the primitive Christian communities were.

[90] The Persian Church came into the Classical field only in the Classical form of Mithraism, which was assimilable in the ensemble of Syncretism.

[91] It is difficult to describe this class in a few words. Roughly, they (and the “Junian Latins,” so called, who were excepted with them) represented a stratum of Roman society, largely composed of “undesirables,” which was only just not servile. In the older legislation they were necessarily lumped with the outer world as peregrins, but when Caracalla made this outer world “Roman,” there were obvious reasons against bringing these people into the fold as well. In somewhat the same way the word “outsider” is used in colloquial English with the dual meaning of a foreigner or non-member, and a socially undesirable person.--Tr.

[92] In the Twelve Tables connubium was disallowed even between the patrician and plebian citizens of Rome itself. [The hold of the patricians on this privilege, however, was already exceedingly precarious, and it vanished a few years later in the lex Canuleia.--Tr.]

[93] Cf. Ch. VI below.

[94] Lenel, I, 380.

[95] Here, as in every line of the history of the “Pseudomorphosis,” we are reminded of Christ’s parable of new wine and old bottles (Matt. ix, 17), an expression not of mere abstract shrewdness, as it seems to us now, but of intense living force and even passion. It is only one short verse, not obligatory in its context, but leaping out of depths.--Tr.

[96] As long ago as 1891 Mitteis (Reichsrecht und Volksrecht, p. 13) drew attention to the Oriental vein in Constantine’s legislation. Collinet (Études historiques sur le droit de Justinien I, 1912), chiefly on the basis of German researches, throws an immense amount back on Hellenistic law; but how much, after all, of this “Hellenistic” was really Greek and not merely written in Greek? The results of interpolation-research have proved truly devastating for the “Classical spirit” in Justinian’s Digests.

[97] See Ch. VII below.

[98] Coupled with the destruction of all other documents.

[99] Fromer, Der Talmud (1920), p. 190. [The English student will find a fairly full account of the main groups of Jewish literature in the article “Hebrew Literature” and cognate articles in the Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[100] Mitteis (Röm. Privatrecht bis auf die Zeit Dioklezians (1908), preface) remarks how, “while the ancient law-forms were retained, the law itself nevertheless became something quite different.”

[101] Head of the exilic Jews under Persian overlordship.--Tr.

[102] Mayr, IV, pp. 45, et seq.

[103] Hence the fictitious names of authors on innumerable books in every Arabian literature--Dionysius the Areopagite, Pythagoras, Hermes Trismegistus, Hippocrates, Enoch, Baruch, Daniel, Solomon, the Apostle-names attached to the numerous gospels and apocalypses.

[104] For example, Hebrew was supplanted by Aramaic for all ordinary purposes as early as the Maccabees--and to such an extent that in the synagogues the Scriptures had to be translated for the people--but has held its ground as a religious vehicle, and above all as a script, even to this day. (The present use of a spoken Hebrew represents a revival in more recent times, after the wider dispersion of the early Middle Ages had broken the connexion with the Aramaic lands.) In the Persian field the older Zend survived alongside the newer Pehlevi. In Egypt somewhat similar influences were contemporaneously determining the evolution of popular Demotic and official Greek into the Coptic language with Greek characters.--Tr.

[105] M. Horten, D. rel. Gedankenwelt d. Volkes im heut. Islam, p. xvi. Cf. Chapter VII below.

[106] Mayr, IV, 45, et seq. [Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. XXIII, p. 570.--Tr.]

[107] 471. See Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Chalcedon, Council of,” and references therein.--Tr.

[108] Wenger, p. 180.

[109] Krumbacher, Byzantinische Literatur-Geschichte, p. 606.

[110] Sachau, Syrische Rechtsbücher, Vol. III.

[111] Bertholet, Kulturgeschichte Israels, pp. 200, et seq.

[112] We get a hint of this in the famous code of Hammurabi, though unfortunately we cannot tell in what relation this single work stood, in point of intrinsic importance, to the general level of contemporary jurisprudence in the Babylonian world.

[113] See Professor Maitland’s article “English Law” in Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. IX.--Tr.

[114] Sohm, Inst., p. 156.

[115] See J. Janssen, Hist. German People at the End of the Middle Ages, English translation, Book IV, Ch. I-II.--Tr.

[116] Lend, I, p. 395.

[117] The punning contrast of Lombard faex (excrement) and Roman lex is Huguccio’s (1200).

[118] W. Goetz, Arch. für Kulturgeschichte, 10, 28, et seq.

[119] See the article “Canon Law” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[120] See Sohm’s last work, Das altkatholische Kirchenrecht und das Dekret Gratians (1918).

[121] See Ch. VII below.

[122] See Ch. X below.

[123] The permanently valid element in English law is the constant form of an incessant development by the courts.

[124] If the higher courts alone are meant, the number is well below fifty for England and Wales. Scots law is independent of English and has its own jurisprudence.--Tr.

[125] Inst., p. 170.

[126] Similar problems are now (1927) arising in connexion with radio broadcasting.--Tr.

[127] Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, § 90.

[128] As evidenced in terms of French law like “Société anonyme,” “raison sociale,” “personne juridique.”--Tr.

[129] Note, in this connexion, the remarkable development in modern American industry of a professional managerial class, distinct from the capitalist, the technician, and the “worker.”--Tr.

[130] Published 1857. English translation, 1872.--Tr.

[131] Without Alexander, and even before him, for Alexander neither kindled nor spread that light; he did not lead, but followed its path to the East.

[132] See G. Glotz’s recent work La Civilisation égéenne, 1923 (English translation, 1927).--Tr.

[133] This is now recognized by art-research; cf. Salis, Die Kunst der Griechen (1919), pp. 3, et seq.; H. Th. Bosser, Alt-Kreta (1921), introduction.

[134] D. Fimmen, Die kretisch-mykenische Kultur (1921), p. 210.

[135] Dehio, Gesch. d. deutsch. Kunst (1919), pp. 16, et seq.

[136] Dieterich, Byzant. Charakterköpfe, pp. 136, et seq.

[137] Even admitting within itself the animals of its fields.--Tr.

[138] Dehio, Gesch. d. deutschen Kunst (1919), pp. 13, et seq.

[139] Eduard Meyer, Gesch. d. Altertums, I, p. 188.

[140] The English parallel is Winchester.--Tr.

[141] The phenomenon is perhaps too well known in our days to need exemplification. But it is worth while recalling that the usual form of disgrace for a minister or courtier of the seventeenth or eighteenth century was to be commanded to “retire to his estates,” and that a student expelled from the universities is said to be “rusticated.” Since this volume was written, a remarkable proof of the reality of this spiritual indrawing by the Megalopolis has been given by the swift spread of radio broadcasting over the West-European and American world. For the country-dweller, radio reception means intimate touch with the news, the thought, and the entertainment of the great city, and relieves the grievance of “isolation” that the older country-folk would never have felt as a grievance at all.--Tr.

[142] In the case of the Venetians the money-outlook was already potent during the earlier Crusades. But the fact that their financial exploitation of the great religious adventure was regarded as scandalous indicates sufficiently that the rural world of the West was not yet face to face with the money-idea.--Tr.

[143] See Ch. XIII below.

[144] Samarra exhibits, like the Imperial Fora of Rome and the ruins of Luxor, truly American proportions. The city stretches for 33 km. [20 miles] along the Tigris. The Balkuwara Palace, which the Caliph Mutawakil built for one of his sons, forms a square of 1250 m. [say, three-quarters of a mile] on each side. One of the giant mosques measures in plan 260 × 180 m. [858 × 594 ft.]. Schwarz, Die Abbasidenresidenz Samarra (1910); Herzfeld, Ausgrabungen von Samarra (1912). [Pataliputra, in the days of Chandragupta and Asoka, measured intra muros 10 miles × 2 miles (equal to Manhattan Island or London along the Thames from Greenwich to Richmond).--Tr.]

[145] Karlsruhe, with its fan-scheme, and Mannheim, with its rectangles, are earlier than Washington. But both are small places. The one is a sort of extension of the prince’s Rococo park and centred on his point de vue; the other, though its block-numbering, unique in Europe, seems to relate it to the American city, was really planned as a self-contained military capital, rectangular only within its oval enceinte, whereas the American rectangles are meant to be added to. The layout of Petersburg by Peter the Great (which has been adhered to to this day and is still incompletely filled in in detail) is a much more forcible example of the arbitrary planning of a megalopolis. Though outside the “European” world, it is of it, for it was the visible symbol of Peter’s will to force Europe upon Russia. It is contemporary with Mannheim and Karlsruhe (early eighteenth century), but its creator conceived of it as a city of the future.--Tr.

[146] In the case of Canada, not merely great regions, but the whole country has been picketed out in equal rectangles for future development.--Tr.

[147] It has been left to the Western Civilization of present-day Rome to build the garden suburbs that the Classical Civilization could have built.--Tr.

[148] Friedländer, Sittengeschichte Roms, I, p. 5. Compare this with Samarra, which had nothing like this population. The “Late Classical city on Arabian soil was un-Classical in this respect as in others. The garden suburb of Antioch was renowned throughout the East.”

[149] The city which the Egyptian “Julian the Apostate,” Amenophis IV (Akhenaton) built himself in Tell-el-Amarna had streets up to 45 m. [149 ft.] wide.

[150] Pöhlmann, Aus Altertum und Gegenwart (1910), pp. 211, et seq.

[151] Some years ago a French peasant was brought to notice whose family had occupied its glebe since the ninth century.--Tr.

[152] Shaw, The Quintessence of Ibsen.

[153] An ancient Hindu materialism.--Tr.

[154] For what follows see Eduard Meyer, Kl. Schriften (1910), pp. 145, et seq.

[155] Hist. Nat., XVIII, 7.--Tr.

[156] We know of measures to promote increase of population in China in the third century B.C., precisely the Augustan Age of Chinese evolution. See Rosthorn, Das soziale Leben der Chinesen (1919), p. 6.

[157] The amphitheatres of Nîmes and Arles were filled up by mean townlets that used the outer wall as their fortifications.--Tr.

[158] Strabo, Pausanias, Dio Chrysostom, Avienus, etc. See E. Meyer, Kl. Schriften, pp. 164, et seq.

[159] The Colosseum of Rome itself in due course fell into this decay and we read in the guide-books that “its flora were once famous”--420 wild species lived in its ruins. If this could happen in Rome, we need not be surprised at the quick, almost catastrophic, conquest of the Maya cities by tropical vegetation.--Tr.

[160] According to the researches of K. Sethe. Cf. Robert Eisler, Die kenitischen Weihinschriften der Hyksoszeit, etc. (1919).

[161] Henceforward, and indeed throughout this work, the word “language” is not to be regarded as limited to spoken and written language. As the above definition indicates, it includes all modes of intelligible conscious-expression--“affective language” in the widest sense.--Tr.

[162] Obviously, Totemistic facts, so far as they come under the observation of the waking-consciousness, obtain a significance of the Taboo kind also; much in man’s sexual life, for example, is performed with a profound sense of fear, because his will-to-understand is baffled by it.

[163] W. von Humboldt (Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues) was the first to emphasize the fact that a language is not a thing, but an activity. “If we would be quite precise, we can certainly say there is no such thing as ‘language,’ just as there is no such thing as ‘intellect’; but man does speak, and does act intellectually.”

[164] Hans Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), architect of the Opera House, the Altes Museum, and the Königswache of Berlin. Gottfried Schadow (1764-1850), sculptor (statues of Frederick II, Zieten, etc.; Quadriga of Brandenburger Tor), a classicist malgré lui (not to be confused with two other artists of the same name, quasi-contemporaries).--Tr.

[165] See p. 29 above.

[166] Gesch. d. Deutsch. Kunst (1919), pp. 14, et seq.

[167] This practice of inscription survives till deep into the Civilization. Even in 1914 the guns of the German Army, true products of the advanced machine-shop though they were, carried a Latin threat to the foe. From the magic rune of the blade it is a step to the motto on the shield, and then to the motto alone as unity-charm of the regiment or the Order.--Tr.

[168] W. Altmann, Die ital. Rundbauten (1906).

[169] A striking case in point is the Roman military camp. See Vol. I (English edition), p. 185, foot-note.--Tr.

[170] Bulle, Orchomenos, pp. 26, et seq.; Noack, Ovalhaus und Palast in Kreta, pp. 53, et seq. The house-plans still traceable in Latin times in the Ægean and Asia Minor may perhaps allow us to order our notions of human conditions in the pre-Classical period; but the linguistic remains, never.

[171] Medieval Rhodesia (London, 1906).

[172] Cf. Ch. X.

[173] Though magic or prestige may of course be involved in their ornamentation, these are supervening and not radical virtues.--Tr.

[174] In this connexion it ought to be someone’s business to undertake physiognomic studies upon the massy, thoroughly peasantish, Roman busts; the portraits of Early Gothic; those of the Renaissance, already visibly urban; and, most of all, the polite English portraiture from the late-eighteenth century onward. The great galleries of “ancestors” contain an endless wealth of material.

[175] The sudden fear of some animal or object seen, believed to result in her child’s bearing the mark of it. Cf. Jacob and the speckled cattle (Genesis xxx, 37). The attitude of biologists to this question is not negative, but non-committal.--Tr.

[176] J. Ranke, Der Mensch (1912), II, p. 205.

[177] This suggestive sentence should, of course, be read with its reservation. The cranial evidences of Crete are highly illustrative in this connexion; they would not indeed be trusted by a modern historian without weighty collateral evidence, but here this evidence exists. Up to the latter part of Middle Minoan, the “long” head predominated heavily, not only from the outset, but increasingly as the Culture rose, until it included two-thirds of the whole, intermediates forming a quarter and “short” heads a mere handful. But from about the time of the catastrophic fall of Late Minoan II, the long heads fall to a startlingly low figure, while intermediates account for half, and short heads for more than a third. It marks the end of Minoan Civilization and the coming of the Achæans. But just as the Minoan skull held its own throughout the Minoan Age, so now, after its fall, the short head maintained itself, as stated in the text, through all subsequent vicissitudes, from the “Sea-peoples” through Roman, Arab, and Turk, to this day. Thus the Cretan landscape has had two skull-types successively; but the change from one to the other occurred in connexion with an immense cataclysm, nothing less than the collapse of a Civilization. The rough deduction that seems to emerge from this case is that a great Culture holds its skull, no doubt in the course of its striving towards ideal physical type of its own (see p. 127), but that where that major organism does not exist, the skull endures as the land endures and the peasant endures. This applies also to the Alpine region, which has received the deposit of migrations, but has never been the centre of a high Culture.--Tr.

[178] Cf. D. Randall-MacIver, The Etruscans (1928), Ch. I.--Tr.

[179] Art is fully developed in the animals. So far as man can get at it by way of analogy, it consists for them in rhythmic movement (“dance”) and sound-formation (“song”). But this is by no means the limit of artistic impression on the animal itself.

[180] Jesus says to the Seventy whom he is sending out on mission: “And salute no man on the way” (Luke x, 4). The ceremonial of greeting on the high-road is so complicated that people in a hurry have to omit it. A. Bertholet, Kulturgeschichte Israels (1919), p. 162.

[181] Exekias--represented in the British Museum by his “Achilles and Penthesilea” (Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Ceramics,” Plate I)--stands at the end of Black Figure as the master of the possibilities of refinement in it--on the verge of the style-change to Red Figure, yet apart from it. Sebastian Bach is his “contemporary.”--Tr.

[182] “All forms, even those that are most felt, contain an element of untruth” (Goethe). In systematic philosophy the intent of the thinker coincides neither with the written words nor with the understanding of his readers, as it consists in his thinking meanings into words in the course of using the words themselves (da es ein Denken in Wortbedeutungen ist, im Verlauf der Darstellung mit sich selbst).

[183] Jespersen deduces language from poesy, dance, and particularly courtship. Progress in Language (1894), p. 357.

[184] See Vol. I, p. 80.--Tr.

[185] Sentence-like complexes of sound are known also to the dog. When the Australian dingo reverted from domestication to the wild state, he reverted also from the house-dog’s bark to the wolf’s howl--a phenomenon that indicates a transition to very much simpler sound-signs, but has nothing to do with “words.”

[186] The gesture-languages of to-day (Delbrück, Grundfragen d. Sprachforsch., pp. 49, et seq., with reference to the work of Jorio on the gestures of the Neapolitans) without exception presuppose word-language and are completely dependent upon its intellectual systematism. Examples: the mimicry of the actor, and the language which the American Indians have formed for themselves for the purpose of mutually understanding one another in spite of extreme differences and fluidity in the verbal languages of the various tribes. Wundt (Völkerpsychologie, I, p. 212) quotes the following to show how complicated sentences can be handled in this language: “White soldiers, led by an officer of high rank, but little intelligence, took the Mescalero Indians prisoners.”

[187] See Vol. I, p. 172.--Tr.

[188] The case of voice-differentiations of the same word in Chinese is not analogous. It arose only out of scholars’ work in the later phases of the Chinese Civilization as understood in this work. And it is a mechanical expedient and not a structural character--i.e., it lacks the polarity mentioned in the text. Voice-management distinguishes, not “great” from “small,” but “pig” from “God,” “bamboo” from “to dwell.” English students will find a clear and understandable account of this and other Chinese differential devices in Karlgren’s little book: Sound and Symbol in Chinese (English translation, 1923).--Tr.

[189] Possibly connected with this is the emphatic antithesis characterizing many of our proverbs and everyday idioms--e.g., “up hill and down dale” (“par monts et vaux,” “bergauf bergab”), meaning hardly more than “everywhere.”--Tr.

[190] Die Haupttypen des Sprachbaus, 1910.

[191] See the article “Bantu Languages,” by Sir H. H. Johnston, Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[192] Even calling something “invisible” is a definition of it under the light-aspect.

[193] Only technics are entirely true, for here the words are merely the key to actuality, and the sentences are continually modified until they are, not “truth,” but actuality. A hypothesis claims, not rightness, but usefulness.

[194] See pp. 29, et seq.

[195] The English reader may refer to Karlgren’s Sound and Symbol in Chinese, already mentioned, for details.--Tr.

[196] See the article “Indo-European Languages,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[197] Translation, it must be remembered, is normally from older into younger linguistic conditions.

[198] See p. 140 above.--Tr.

[199] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. XVI, p. 251b.--Tr.

[200] See the articles “Sanskrit” and “Indo-European Languages,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[201] P. Jensen, Sitz. Preuss. Akademie (1919), pp. 367, et seq.

[202] L. Hahn, Rom und Romanismus im griech-röm. Osten (1906).

[203] See the article “Book-keeping” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[204] Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Alt., I, §§ 455, 465.

[205] See below.

[206] Radio broadcasting does not controvert this. Its characteristic quality is not (as is often supposed) dissemination to vast numbers irrespective of physical distance, but a special intimacy of address to the listening individual.--Tr.

[207] See the article “Semitic Language,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[208] Similarly the modern Jews of the Dispersion write Yiddish, which is a modified German, in Hebrew characters.--Tr.

[209] See Lidzbarski, Sitz. Berl. Akad. (1916), p. 1218. There is plentiful material in M. Miese, Die Gesetze der Schriftgeschichte (1919).

[210] P. Kretschmer, in Gercke-Norden, Einl. i. d. Altertumswissenschaft, I, p. 551.

[211] See the articles “Romance Languages” and “Latin Language,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[212] Cf. p. 122.

[213] For this reason I am one of those who believe that, even quite late, Etruscan still played a very important part in the colleges of the Roman priesthood.

[214] Precisely for this reason it has to be recognized that the Homeric poems, which were first fixed in the colonization period, can only give us an urban literary language and not the courtly conversation-language in which they were originally declaimed.

[215] So much so that the workers of the great cities call themselves the People, thereby excluding the bourgeoisie, with which no community feeling conjoins them. The bourgeoisie of 1789 did exactly the same.

[216] The dominant nucleus within the Spartan ensemble.--Tr.

[217] Ed. Meyer, Ursprung und Geschichte der Mormonen (1912), pp. 128, et seq. [An extended summary of Mormon history will be found in the article “Mormons,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[218] Ex-mercenaries of Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, who seized and settled in Messina. The questions arising out of this act precipitated the First Punic War.--Tr.

[219] A still more celebrated case is the “ambulatory Polis” formed by Xenophon’s Ten Thousand.--Tr.

[220] And in numerous Classical instances.--Tr.

[221] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. IX, p. 860.--Tr.

[222] In Macedonia, in the nineteenth century, Serbs, Bulgars, and Greeks all founded schools for the anti-Turkish population. If it happens that a village has been taught Serb, even the next generation consists of fanatical Serbs. The present strength of the “nations” is thus merely a consequence of previous school-policy.

[223] For Beloch’s scepticism concerning the reputed Dorian migration see his Griechische Geschichte, I, 2, Section VIII. [A brief account of the question, by J. L. Myres, is in Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Dorians.”--Tr.]

[224] C. Mehlis, Die Berberfrage (Archiv für Anthropologie 39, pp. 249, et seq.) where relations between North German and Mauretanian ceramics, and even resemblances of toponymy (rivers, mountains) are dealt with. The old pyramid buildings of West Africa are closely related, on the one hand, to the Nordic dolmens (Hünengräber) of Holstein and, on the other, to the graves of the Old Kingdom (some illustrations in L. Frobenius, Der kleinafrikanische Grabbau, 1916).

[225] Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt (1886).

[226] Geschichte der Kriegskunst (from 1900).

[227] Rameses III, who defeated them, portrayed their expedition in the relief of Medinet Habet. W. M. Müller, Asien und Europa, p. 366.

[228] Which, therefore, have discovered for themselves the nonsensical designation “aristocracy of intellect” (Geistesadel).

[229] Although--or should we say “thus”?--Rome accorded citizenship to freedmen, who in general were of wholly alien blood, and sons of ex-slaves were admitted to the Senate even by Appius Claudius the Censor in 310. One of them, Flavius, had already been curule ædile.

[230] See articles “Persia (history: ancient),” “Behistun,” “Cuneiform,” in Ency. Brit., XI ed., or indeed almost any work upon Babylonian and Persian antiquities.--Tr.

[231] Sworn by Louis the German and Charles the Bald in both languages. The manuscript of the oath, however, is later--say, 950.--Tr.

[232] “Die ältesten datierten Zeugnisse der iranischen Sprache” (Zeitschr. f. vgl. Sprachf. 42, p. 26.)

[233] See above, p. 145.

[234] Ed. Meyer, op. cit., pp. 1, et seq.

[235] Compare the absorption of the Norman conquerors into England and the subsequent development of an English aristocracy.--Tr.

[236] For what follows, cf. Ch. VII-IX.

[237] Geschichte des Altertums, I, § 590, et seq.

[238] Andreas and Wackernagel, Nachrichten der Göttingischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1911), p. 1, et seq. [On the subject generally, see articles by K. Geldner, “Zend-Avesta” and “Zoroaster,” and by Ed. Meyer, “Parthia,” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[239] See, further, below.

[240] Dynasty I.--Tr.

[241] Albertus Magnus; St. Thomas Aquinas; Grosseteste, and Roger Bacon.--Tr.

[242] Cf. p. 105.

[243] Cf. Ch. X.

[244] See p. 60 above. The slave did not belong to the nation. On this account the enrolment of non-citizens in the army of a city, which on occasions of dire crisis was inevitable, was always felt as a profound blow to the national idea.

[245] Even in the Iliad we can perceive the tendency to the nation-feeling in the small, and even the smallest, aggregates.

[246] And she had rarely to deal with anything more formidable than a loose partial confederacy. Often Etruscan cities were in alliance with Rome against other Etruscan cities.--Tr.

[247] It is not to be overlooked that both Plato and Aristotle in their political writings were unable to conceive of the ideal people otherwise than in the Polis form. But it was equally natural for the eighteenth-century thinkers to regard “the Ancients” as nations after the fashion of Shaftesbury and Montesquieu--it is we their successors who ought not to have stayed on that note.

[248] Mommsen described the Roman Empire as a “universal Empire founded upon municipal autonomy.” And even Alexander’s empire was originally conceived, and to a great extent actually organized, in this spirit. See P. Jouguet, L’Impérialisme macédonien (1926), Ch. IV.--Tr.

[249] See p. 67.

[250] F. N. Finck, Die Sprachstämme des Erdkreises (1915), pp. 29, et seq.

[251] About the end of the second century of our era.

[252] See foot-note, p. 197, et seq.--Tr.

[253] A loose group of Edomite tribes which, with Moabites, Amalekites, Ishmaelites, and others, thus constituted a fairly uniform Hebrew-speaking population.

[254] See p. 167.

[255] Aristotle says that “philosophers are called Calani among the Indians, and Jews among the Syrians.” Exactly the same is stated by Megasthenes, the Seleucid ambassador at Pataliputra, of Brahmins and Jews.--Tr.

[256] The district south of Lake Van, of which the capital was Arbela, the old home of the goddess Ishtar.

[257] As evidenced by the Falasha, the black Jews of Abyssinia.

[258] Arch. f. Anthrop., Vol. XIX.

[259] Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. (1919).

[260] Digesta, 50, 15.

[261] Geffcken, Der Ausgang des griech.-röm. Heidentum (1920), p. 57 [English readers may refer to the article “Neoplatonism” and shorter articles under the personal names, in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[262] See Vol. I, pp. 63, 71.--Tr.

[263] Which we translate by “Gentiles,” but which literally means “the nations” or “peoples.”--Tr.

[264] See the article “Nestorians,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[265] See the articles “Jews” (§ 43), “Exilarch,” and “Gaon,” Ency. Brit., XI. ed. In Europe, too, far into the Dispersion, there are rabbis recognized by the State as governors of their communities, such as the famous Rabbi Löw of Prague (1513-1609).--Tr.

[266] It may not be at all fanciful to connect the Reception of “Roman” law in Germany and the rise of the doctrine of cujus regio, ejus religio which played so great a part in the religious wars and treaties of our sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. At any rate, “practical politics” so-called provides an inadequate motive by itself to account for the latter. Considering it in contrast to the notion of Mortmain, and having regard to the intensity of religious belief in many of the princes who applied it, the idea appears as something much more positive than a mere formula of compromise.--Tr.

[267] See p. 70. The “capitulations” under which until recently Europeans were exempt from the jurisdiction of Turkish courts are regarded nowadays as a right enforced by more civilized powers to protect their subjects from the laws of a less civilized state, and their abolition is a symbol of the rise of the latter to the rank of a civilized power. But originally it was quite the reverse. The first “capitulation” was sued for by France in an hour of danger when Turkish aid was essential to her. See Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Capitulations.”--Tr.

[268] See Vol. I., p. 212.

[269] The author’s meaning may perhaps be precised thus: so much of the old Magian nations as was not Arabized became fellah peoples, either outside the Magian sphere (as in Europe and India) or within it, under the Turkish (Mongol) domination, but even the old Arab-element itself was largely ripe for the change into the fellah condition when the Turks came.--Tr.

[270] I am convinced that the nations of China which sprang up in members in the middle, Hwang-Ho region at the beginning of the Chóu dynasty, as also the regional peoples of the Egyptian Old Kingdom (which had each its own capital and its own religion, and as late as Roman times fought each other in definitely religious wars), were in their inward form more closely akin to the peoples of the West than to those of the Classical and the Arabian worlds. However, research into such fields has hitherto been conspicuous by its absence.

[271] That the dynasts themselves have contributed heavily to the catalogue of perjury and bad faith only reinforces the argument.--Tr.

[272] His desertion of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in the Lombard war, 1176. The details of the long struggle between Frederick and Henry will be found in any fairly full history of Europe or in the respective articles devoted to them in the Ency. Brit., XI ed. While Frederick stood--and with real hopes as well as ideals--for the inclusive Empire, Henry through all his vicissitudes stood for Germany’s eastern expansion, the colonization of the Slavonic north-east, and the development of the Baltic.--Tr.

[273] In mediæval hymns the cross is symbolically regarded as a tree bearing Christ as its last and grandest fruit; it is identified, indeed, with the Tree of Knowledge. (See Yrjo Hirn, The Sacred Shrine.)--Tr.

[274] And every English schoolboy knows the meaning of the “Early Plantagenets.”--Tr.

[275] Against the Swedes, 1675.--Tr.

[276] Against the French and their German dependent allies, 1757.--Tr.

[277] See pp. 166, et seq., and 174, et seq.

[278] Less than one per cent of the population.

[279] It is to be noted that the home of the Babylonian Culture, the ancient Sinear, plays no part of any importance in the coming events. For the Arabian Culture only the region north of Babylon, not that to south, comes into question.

[280] The victory of L. Æmilius Paullus over Perseus, 168 B.C.--Tr.

[281] This has an important bearing also in the histories of the Western literatures. The German is written in part in Latin, and English in French.

[282] See Professor Geldner’s article “Zend-Avesta,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[283] See Wollner, Untersuchungen über die Volksepik des Grossrussen (1879). [A convenient edition of the Kiev Stories is Mary Gill, Les Légendes slaves (Paris, 1912).--Tr.]

[284] The former is dated about 800, the latter about 930.--Tr.

[285] These two figures--the one an authorized Mayor of the Palace before he was Tsar, the other a crude usurper--dominate the period of Russian history called the “Period of Troubles”--i.e., that between the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584 and the election of Michael Romanov in 1613.--Tr.

[286] Covering, before its later extensions, Persia and Iraq to the Euphrates.--Tr.

[287] The region south of Damascus and east of the Sea of Galilee.--Tr.

[288] Saba (Sheba) is, roughly, the modern Yemen, though the centre of gravity of the Sabæan Kingdom may earlier have been in northern Arabia. See Dr. D. H. Müller’s article “Sabaeans” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[289] Schiele, Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, I, 647.

[290] The “Minæan” and the Sabæan kingdoms were the two outstanding hegemonies of early Arabian history. Ma’in, in southern Arabia, should not be confused with the Ma’an which lies north-east of the Gulf of Akaba.--Tr.

[291] Bent, The Sacred City of the Ethiopians (London 1893), pp. 134, et seq., deals with the remains of Jeha, the inscriptions of which are dated by Glaser between the seventh and fifth centuries before Christ. See D. H. Müller, Burgen and Schlösser Südarabiens.

[292] Grimme, Mohammed, pp. 26, et seq.

[293] German Axum Expedition record (1913), Vol. II.

[294] An ancient trade-route from Persia crossed the straits of Ormus and of Bab-el-Mandeb, traversing South Arabia and terminating in Abyssinia and the Nile region. It is historically more important than the northern route over the Isthmus of Suez.

[295] So little is known as to these events by British (or any other) students that a brief record may be useful. The original Himaryites or Homerites, a people of the south-west angle of Arabia, had displaced the Sabæans in control of South Arabia in the second century B.C. The Himaryite hegemony was overthrown by invaders from Axum over the water about A.D. 300, and the Axumite rulers were, inter alia, kings of Hadramaut--hence the mention in the text of the Persian Gulf. But a Himaryite opposition continued, and, adopting Judaism as a counter-religion, it succeeded for a time in throwing off the Abyssinian rule. Axum, however (aided, as a Christian state, by Rome), reasserted her dominion in 525 and held it for fifty years, till an attack of Sassanid Persians displaced them again. Thereafter southern Arabia fell into the swaying chaos in which the coming of Mohammed found it.--Tr.

[296] The capital of Saba.--Tr.

[297] Grimme, p. 43. Illustrations of these immense ruins of Gomdan, ibid., p. 81, and reconstructions in the German Axum report.

[298] The country of Ghassan extends east of the Jordan, parallel to and inland of Palestine and Syria, approximately from Petra to the middle Euphrates.--Tr.

[299] The Lakhmids were the ruling dynasty, from the third to the sixth century after Christ, of the realm of Hira, which ran in a strip between the Euphrates and the present Nejd coast on the one hand and the desert of Arabia on the other.--Tr.

[300] Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, p. 34.

[301] The whole structure of Mithraism (so far as we know it) presents strong analogies with that of a military order.--Tr.

[302] As well as it is said 220,000 at Cyrene. At Alexandria, too, there were émeutes and counter-émeutes.--Tr.

[303] Roth, Sozial- und Kulturgeschichte des Byzantinischen Reiches, p. 15.

[304] Delbrück, Geschichte der Kriegskunst, II, p. 222. [For British students C. W. C. Oman’s Art of War: Middle Ages will be more readily available, although Oman treats the subject more as a matter of formal military organization than does Delbrück. Neither writer deals with any special features of the change as it worked itself out in the East, both being concerned almost entirely with its Western aspects and phases. The origin of the late-Byzantine army system, as military historians are aware, is an obscure and difficult subject. By what stages, after the decadence of the legion, was the “Landsknecht” army of Justinian reached? Like other elements of middle-East history in the epoch of the Arabian Culture, it still awaits the full investigation that the West has already had.--Tr.]

[305] Gesammelte Schriften, IV, 532.

[306] Gefolgstreuen in German. The choice of an equivalent mediæval term in English is difficult, since any one that may be selected carries with it certain implications for students of feudal origins.--Tr.

[307] Domaszewski, Die Religion der römischen Heeres, p. 49.

[308] The typical form, for instance, of the Swiss in their independence-battles, and of Western infantry generally in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, during the transition from hand-arm to fire-arm warfare.--Tr.

[309] Buccellarii; see Delbrück, op. cit., II, 354.

[310] Georg von Frundsberg (1473-1528). Short article in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[311] Gothic War, IV, 26. [The same holds good for Belisarius’s armies.--Tr.]

[312] Nisibis and Edessa in the up-country between Euphrates and Tigris are represented to-day by Nasibin (Nezib) and Urfa respectively; just to the west of them, east of the Euphrates above Sura, were the three Jewish academies, in which Talmudic Judaism took shape after the Dispersion. Kinnesrin lay just south of Aleppo. Ctesiphon is, of course, the classical city on the Tigris, still dominant under the Sassanids, and Resaina lies in the up-country south-west of Nisibis. Gundisapora is Gunder-Shapur (Jundaisapur), near the site of the old Elamite capital Susa in Arabistan.--Tr.

[313] Not “non-existent.” It would be a misconception of the Magian world-feeling to attach a Faustian-dynamic meaning to the phrase “true God.” In combating the worship of godlings, the reality of godlings and dæmons is presupposed. The Israelite prophets never dreamed of denying the Baals, and similarly Isis and Mithras for the Early Christians, Jehovah for the Christian Marcion, Jesus for the Manichæans, are devilish, but perfectly real, powers. Disbelieving in them would have had no meaning for the Magian soul--what was required was that one should not turn to them. To use an expression now long current, it is “Henotheism” and not Monotheism.

[314] Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, III, 499; Wendland, Die hellenistisch-römische Kultur, p. 192.

[315] Contrast with this the exactly opposite process in Jewry before the Pseudomorphosis had begun to affect it,--to wit, the battle against the local “high places” and the concentration of sanctity in Jerusalem.--Tr.

[316] With the result that Syncretism is presented as a mere hotchpotch of every conceivable religion. Nothing is further from the truth. The process of taking shape moved first from East to West and then from West to East.

[317] The Haoma plant symbolized the Tree of Life (Gaokerena) like the Soma plant of Brahmanism.--Tr.

[318] Hence the expression “profaning” the mysteries, which meant, not revealing them, but bringing them outside their fane.--Tr.

[319] J. Geffcken, Der Ausgang des griechisch-römischen Heidentums (1920), pp. 197, et seq.

[320] Geffcken, op. cit., pp. 131, et seq.

[321] Geffcken, op. cit., p. 292, note 149.

[322] “Res ipsa, quæ nunc religio Christiana nuncupatur, erat apud antiquos nec defecit ab initio generis humani, quousque Christus veniret in carnem. Unde vera religio, quæ jam erat coepit appellari Christiana” (Retractationes, I, 13).

[323] The name Chaldean signifies, before the Persian epoch, a tribe; later, a religious society. See p. 175 above.

[324] A. Bertholet, Kulturgeschichte Israels (1919), pp. 253, et seq. [Clear and useful English manuals are G. Moore, Literature of the Old Testament; R. H. Charles, Between the Old and the New Testaments. See also the article “Hebrew Religion” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[325] According to Williams Jackson’s Zoroaster (1901).

[326] Research has treated the Chaldean, like the Talmudic, as a stepchild. The investigator’s whole attention has been concentrated on the religion of the Babylonian Culture, and the Chaldean has been regarded as its dying echo. Such a view inevitably excludes any real understanding of it. The material is not even separated out, but is dispersed in all the books on Assyrian-Babylonian religion. (H. Zimmern, Die Keilinschriften und das alte Testament II; Gunkel, Schöpfung and Chaos; M. Jastrow, C. Bezold, etc.) On the other hand the subject is assumed by some (e.g., Bousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis, 1907) to have been exhausted.

[327] See Vol. I, p. 184.--Tr.

[328] The fact that Chaldean science was, in comparison with Babylonian empiricism, a new thing has been clearly recognized by Bezold (Astronomie, Himmelsschau und Astrallehre bei den Babyloniern, 1911, pp. 17, et seq.). Its data were taken and developed by different Classical savants according to their own way of reasoning--that is, as a matter of applied mathematics, and to the exclusion of all feeling for distance.

[329] See Jastrow’s articles “Babylonian and Assyrian Religion” and “Marduk” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[330] J. Hehn, Hymnen und Gebete an Marduk (1905).

[331] For Chaldeans and Persians there was no need to trouble here about proof--they had by their God conquered the world. But the Jews had only their literature to cling to, and this accordingly turned to theoretical proof in the absence of positive. In the last analysis, this unique national treasure owes its origin to the constant need of reacting against self-depreciation. [For example, the repeated restatement of the date of the Messiah’s advent in the successive works of the age of the prophets.--Tr.]

[332] Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien und in Afrika (1895), p. 124. Glaser is convinced that Abyssinian, Pehlevi, and Persian cuneiform inscriptions of the highest importance await discovery there.

[333] The inscription and sculptures of Behistun (on an almost inaccessible cliff in the Zagros range on the Baghdad-Hamadan road) were reinvestigated by a British Museum expedition in 1904; see The Inscription of Darius the Great at Behistun (London, 1907). “Thus saith Darius the King. That what I have done I have done altogether by the grace of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda and the other gods that be, brought aid to me. For this reason did Ahuramazda and the other gods that be bring aid to me because I was not hostile nor a liar nor a wrongdoer, neither I nor my family, but according to Rectitude have I ruled” (A. V. Williams Jackson, Persia Past and Present).--Tr.

[334] Isaiah xl-lxvi. For the critical questions arising on Deutero-Isaiah see Dr. T. K. Cheyne’s article “Isaiah” in the Encyclopedia Biblica, the same scholar’s summary in Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Isaiah,” or G. Moore’s summary, Literature of the Old Testament, Ch. XVI.--Tr.

[335] This “King of the Banishment” (Exilarch) was long a conspicuous and politically important figure in the Persian Empire. He was only removed by Islam.

[336] As Christian and Jewish theology both do--the only difference between these is in their respective interpretations of the later development of Israelite literature (recast in Judea as the literature of Judaism), the one inflecting it towards Evangelism, the others towards Talmudism.

[337] Later it occurred to some Pharisee mind to Judaize it by interpolating chs. xxxii-xxxvii.

[338] See the articles “Tobit,” etc., in Jewish Encyclopædia and Ency. Biblica.--Tr.

[339] If the assumption of a Chaldean prophecy corresponding to Isaiah and Zarathustra be correct, it is to this young, inwardly cognate, and contemporary astral religion (and not to the Babylonian) that Genesis owes its amazingly profound cosmogony, just as it owes to the Persian religion its visions of the end of the world.

[340] S. Funk, Die Entstehung des Talmuds (1919), p. 106.

[341] E. Sachau, Aramäische Papyros und Ostraka aus Elephantine (1911).

[342] Josephus, Antiq., 13, 10.

[343] Much as, say, the destruction of the Vatican would be felt by the Catholic Church.

[344] See p. 198.--Tr.

[345] Cf. p. 69.

[346] Pyrrho himself had studied under Magian priests. See, for Pyrrhonism, Ency. Brit., XI ed., articles “Scepticism,” “Megarian School,” “Pyrrho.”--Tr.

[347] Schiele (Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, III, 812) reverses the two latter names; this, however, does not affect the phenomenon in any way.

[348] The Cosmogony and the Law, in the Zoroastrian Scriptures.--Tr.

[349] Bousset, Rel. d. Jud., p. 532.

[350] Baruch, Ezra IV (2 Esdras), the original text of John’s Revelation.

[351] For instance, the Book of Naasenes (P. Wendland, Hellenistisch-römische Kultur, pp. 177, et seq.); the “Mithras Liturgy” (ed. A. Dieterich); the Hermetic Pœmander (ed. Reitzenstein), the Psalms of Solomon, the Gospels of Thomas and Peter, the Pistis-Sophia, etc. [Information as to these will be found in the articles “Ophites,” “Mithras,” “Hermes Trismegistus,” “Apocalyptic Literature,” “Apocryphal Literature,” “Gnosticism,” in the Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[352] Any more than Dostoyevski’s “Dream of a Ridiculous Person” is so.

[353] Our definitive ideas of this early Magian vision-world we owe to the manuscripts of Turfan, which have reached Berlin since 1903. It was these which at last freed our knowledge and, above all, our criteria from the deformations due to the preponderance of Western-Hellenistic material--a preponderance that had been augmented by Egyptian papyrus finds--and radically transformed all our existing views. Now at last the pure, almost unknown, East is seen operative in all the apocalypses, hymns, liturgies, and books of edification of the Persians, Mandæans, Manichæans, and countless other sects; and primitive Christianity for the first time really takes its place in the movement to which it owes its spiritual origins (see H. Lüders, Sitzungen der Berliner Akademie, 1914, and R. Reitzenstein, Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium, 1921).

[354] Lidzbarski, Das Johannesbuch der Mandäer, Ch. LXVI. Also W. Bousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis (1907) and Reitzenstein, Das Mandäische Buch der Herrn der Grösse (1919), an apocalypse approximately contemporary with the oldest Gospels. On the Messiah texts, the Descent-into-Hell texts, and the Songs of the Dead see Lidzbarski, Mandäische Liturgien (1920); also the Book of the Dead (especially the second and third books of the left Genza) in Reitzenstein’s Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium (especially pp. 43, et seq.). [The Mandæan religion survives to-day in the region of the Shatt-el-Arab and the Karun valley or Khuzistan.--Tr.]

[355] See Reitzenstein, pp. 124, et seq., and references there quoted.

[356] In the New Testament, of which the final redaction lies entirely in the sphere of Western-Classical thought, the Mandæan religion and the sects belonging thereto are no longer understood, and indeed everything Oriental seems to have dropped out. Acts xviii-xix, however, discloses a perceptible hostility between the then widespread John-communities and the Primitive Christians (see Dibelius, Die urchristliche Überlieferung von Johannes dem Täufer). The Mandæans later rejected Christianity as flatly as they had rejected Judaism. Jesus was for them a false Messiah. In their Apocalypse of the Lord of Greatness the apparition of Enosh was also announced.

[357] According to Reitzenstein (Das Buch von Herrn der Grösse) Jesus was condemned at Jerusalem as a John-disciple. According to Lidzbarski (Mand. Lit., 1920, XVI) and Zimmern (Ztschr. d. D. Morg. Gesellschaft, 1920, p. 429), the expression “Jesus the Nazarene” or “Nasorene,” which was later by the Christian communities referred to Nazareth (Matthew ii, 23, with a doubtful citation), really indicates the membership in a Mandæan Order.

[358] E.g., Mark vi; and then the great change, Mark viii, 27, et seq. There is no religion which has given us more honestly the tale of its birth.

[359] Similarly in Mark i, 38, et seq., when he arose in the night and sought a lonely place in order to fortify himself by prayer.

[360] The method of the present work is historical. It therefore recognizes the anti-historical as well as the historical as a fact. The religious method, on the contrary, necessarily looks upon itself as the true and the opposite as false. This difference is quite insuperable.

[361] Hence Mark xiii, taken from an older document, is perhaps the purest example of his usual daily discourse. Paul (1 Thess. iv, 15-17) quotes another, which is missing in the Gospels. With these, we have the priceless--but, by commentators dominated by the Gospel tone, misunderstood--contributions of Papias, who about 100 was still in a position to collect much oral tradition. The little that we have of his work suffices amply to show us the apocalyptic character of Jesus’s daily discourses. It is Mark xiii and not the Sermon on the Mount that reproduces the real note of them. But as his teaching became modified into a teaching of Him, this material likewise was transformed and the record of his utterances became the narrative of his manifestation. In this one respect the picture given by the Gospels is inevitably false.

[362] Jesus himself was aware of this (Matt. xxiv, 5, 11).

[363] Made more uncertain perhaps by the failure of previous prophecies that had been so confidently dated--e.g., Jeremiah xxv, 11; xxiv, 5-6; reinterpreted in Daniel vii, ix; 1 Enoch lxxxiii-xc; and again to be reinterpreted in 2 Baruch xxxvi-xl and 4 Ezra x-xii.--Tr.

[364] The designation “Messiah (Christ)” was old-Jewish, those of “Lord” (κύριος, divus) and “Saviour” (σωτήρ, Asklepios) were east-Aramæan in origin. In the course of the pseudomorphosis “Christ” became the name of Jesus, and “Saviour” the title; but already “Lord” and “Saviour” were titles current in the Hellenistic Emperor-worship; and in this was implicit the whole destiny of westward-looking Christianity (compare here Reitzenstein, Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium, p. 132, note).

[365] Acts xv; Gal. ii.

[366] Acts i, 14; cf. Mark vi.

[367] As against Luke, Matthew is the representative of this conception. His is the only Gospel in which the word “Ecclesia” is used, and it denotes the true Jews, in contradistinction to the masses that refuse to listen to Jesus. This is not the missionary idea, any more than Isaiah was a missionary. Community, in this connexion, means an Order within Judaism. The prescriptions of Matt. xviii, 15-20 are wholly incompatible with any general dissemination.

[368] It fell apart later into sects, amongst which were the Ebionites and the Elkazites (the latter having a strange sacred book, the Elxai; see Bousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis, p. 154). [See the articles “Ebionites” and “Sabians” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[369] Such sects were attacked in the Acts of the Apostles and in all Paul’s Epistles, and indeed there was hardly a Late Classical or Aramæan religion or philosophy which did not give rise to some sort of Jesus-sect. The danger was indeed real of the Passion story becoming, not the nucleus of a new religion, but an integrating element of all existing ones.

[370] Of this he was fully aware. Many of his deepest intuitions are unimaginable without Persian and Mandæan influences (e.g., Romans vii, 22-24; 1 Corinthians xv, 26; Ephesians v, 6, et seq., with a quotation of Persian origin. See Reitzenstein, Das iran. Erlös.-Myst., pp. 6, 133, et seq.). But this does not prove familiarity with Persian-Mandæan literature. The stories were spread in these days as sagas and folk-tales were amongst us. One heard about them in childhood as things of daily hearsay, but without being in the least aware of how deeply one was under their spell.

[371] The early missionary effort in the East has scarcely been investigated and is still very difficult to establish in detail. Sachau, Chronik von Arbela (1915) and “Die Ausbreitung der Christentums in Asien” in Abb. Pr. Akad. d. Wiss. (1919); Harnack, Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums, II, 117, et seq.

[372] The researchers who argue with such over-learnedness about a proto-Mark, Source Q, the “Twelve”-source, and so on, overlook the essential novelty of Mark, which is the first “Book” of Christendom, plan-uniform and entire. Work of this sort is never the natural product of an evolution, but the merit of an individual man, and it marks, here if anywhere, a historical turning-point.

[373] Mark is generally the Gospel; after him the partisan writings (Matthew, Luke) begin; the tone of narrative passes into that of legend and ends, beyond the Hebrew and John gospels, in Jesus-romances like the gospels of Peter and James.

[374] If the word “catholic” be used in its oldest sense (Ignatius ad Smyrn., 8)--namely, to signify the sum of the cult-communities, both the Churches were Catholic. In the East the word had no meaning. The Nestorian Church was no more a sum than was the Persian: it was a Magian unit.

[375] A brief survey of the Mary doctrine is given in article “Mary,” Ency. Brit., XI ed. The symbolism involved in the details of the story of Mary, as told in writing and in art, is very fully gone into in Yrjo Hirn, The Sacred Shrine.--Tr.

[376] Ed. Meyer, Ursprung und Anfänge des Christentums (1921), pp. 77, et seq.

[377] C. 85-155. See the recent work of Harnack, Marcion: Das Evangelium vom fremden Gott (1921). [Harnack’s article “Marcion” in Ency. Brit., XI ed., is dated 1910.--Tr.]

[378] Harnack, op. cit., pp. 136, et seq.; N. Bonwetsch, Grundr. d. Dogmengesch. (1919), p. 45, et seq.

[379] This is one of the profoundest ideas in all religious history, and one that must for ever remain inaccessible to the pious average man. Marcion’s identification of the “Just” with the Evil enables him in this sense to oppose the Law of the Old Testament to the Evangel of the New.

[380] About A.D. 150. See Harnack, op. cit., pp. 32, et seq.

[381] For the notions of Koran and Logos, see below. Again as in the case of Mark, the really important question is, not what the material before him was, but how this entirely novel idea for such a book, which anticipated and indeed made possible Marcion’s plan for a Christian Bible, could arise. The book presupposes a great spiritual movement (in eastern Asia Minor?) that knew scarcely anything of Jewish Christianity and was yet remote from the Pauline, westerly thought-world. But of the region and type of this movement we know nothing whatever.

[382] Vohu Mano, the Spirit of Truth, in the shape of the Saoshyant.

[383] See the article by Harnack and Conybeare “Manichæism,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[384] Bardesanes, too, and the system of the “Acts of Thomas” are very near to him and to “John.” [See the articles “Bardaisan,” “Thomas,” and “Gnosticism,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[385] Harnack, p. 24. The break with the established Church occurred at Rome, in 144.

[386] Harnack, pp. 181, et seq.

[387] It had, like each of the other Magian religions, a script of its own, and this script steadily came to resemble the Manichæan more and more closely.

[388] Matthew xi, 25, et seq., on which see Eduard Meyer, Urspr. u. Anf. d. Christ., pp. 286, et seq.; here it is the old and Eastern (i.e., the genuine) form of gnosis that is described.

[389] See further, below, p. 321.

[390] As a drastic instance, Galatians iv, 24-26.

[391] Loofs, Nestoriana (1905), pp. 176, et seq.

[392] The best exposition of the mass of thought common to both Churches is Windelband’s Geschichte der Philosophie (1900), pp. 177, et seq.; for the dogmatic history of the Christian Church see Harnack, Dogmengeschichte (1914), while--unconsciously--Geffcken (Der Ausgang des griechisch-römischen Heidentums, 1920) gives the corresponding “dogmatic history of the Pagan Church.”

[393] Geffcken, op. cit., p. 69 [article “Neoplatonism” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.].

[394] See the following chapter.

[395] Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, p. 165.

[396] See Vol. I, p. 209.

[397] The expression is Leo Frobenius’s (Paideuma, 1920, p. 91). [See Vol. I, p. 184.--Tr.]

[398] The soul-stones on Jewish, Sabæan, and Islamic tombs are also called nephesh. They are unmistakable symbols of the “upward.” With them belong the huge storeyed stelæ of Axum which belong to the first to third centuries of our era--i.e., the great period of the early Magian religions. The giant stele, long overthrown, is the largest monolith known to art-history, larger than any Egyptian obelisk (German Axum Expedition report, Vol. II, pp. 28, et seq.).

[399] On this rests the whole theory and practice of Magian law (see p. 72 above).

[400] Isaiah xxxii, 15; 4 Ezra xiv, 39; Acts ii.

[401] Reitzenstein, Das iran. Erlösungsmysterium, pp. 108, et seq.

[402] Bousset, Kyrios Christos, p. 142.

[403] Windelband, Gesch. d. Phil. (1900), pp. 189, et seq.; Windelband-Bonhöffer, Gesch. d. antiken Phil. (1912), pp. 328, et seq.; Geffcken, Der Ausgang des griech.-röm. Heidentums (1920), pp. 51, et seq.

[404] Jodl, Geschichte der Ethik, I, p. 58.

[405] M. Horten, Die religiöse Gedankenwelt der Volkes im heutigen Islam (1917), pp. 381, et seq. By the Shiites the Logos-idea was transferred to Ali.

[406] Wolff, Muhammedanische Eschatologie, 3, 2, et seq.

[407] Mandæan Book of John, Ch. LXXV.

[408] Usener, Vortr. u. Aufs., p. 217.

[409] The “devil-worshippers” in Armenia; M. Horten in Der neue Orient (March 1918). The name arose from the fact that they did not recognize Satan as a being, and accordingly derived the Evil, by a very complicated set of ideas, from the Logos itself. Under old Persian influences the Jews also busied themselves with the same problem--observe the difference between 2 Samuel xxiv, 1, and 1 Chron. xxi, 1.

[410] M. Horten, op. cit., p. xxi. This book is the best introduction to the actually existing popular religion of Islam, which deviates considerably from the official doctrines.

[411] Baumstark, Die christl. Literaturen des Orients, I, p. 64.

[412] Cf. p. 205. The Babylonian view of the heavens had not definitely distinguished between astronomical and atmospheric elements; e.g., the covering of the moon by clouds was regarded as a kind of eclipse. For this soothsaying the momentary figure of the heavens served only the same purpose as the inspection of the victim’s liver. But the Chaldeans’ intention was to forecast the actual course of the stars; here, therefore, astrology presupposed a genuine astronomy.

[413] B. Cohn, “Die Anfangsepoche der jüd. Kalenders” (Sitz. Pr. Akad., 1914). The date of the first day of Creation was on this occasion fixed by calculation from a total eclipse of the sun--of course with the aid of Chaldean astronomy. [See, in general, the articles “Chronology,” “Calendar,” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[414] The Persian notion of total time is 12,000 years. The Parsees of to-day consider A.D. 1920 as the 11,550th.

[415] M. Horten, Die religiöse Gedankenwelt des Volkes im heutigen Islam, p. xxvi.

[416] It shows a great gap in our research that although we possess a whole library of works on Classical religion and particularly its gods and cults, we have not one about Classical religiousness and its history.

[417] “He is in truth the conclusion and completion of the Christian Classical, its last and greatest thinker, its intellectual practitioner and tribune. This is the starting-point from which he must be understood. What later ages have made of him is another affair. His own real mind, the synthesizer of Classical Culture, ecclesiastical and episcopal authority, and intimate mysticism, could not possibly have been handed on by those who, environed by different conditions, have to deal with different tasks” (E. Troeltsch, Augustin, die christliche Antike und das Mittelalter, 1915, p. 7). His power, like Tertullian’s, rested also on the fact that his writings were not translated into Latin, but thought in this language, the sacred language of the Western Church; it was precisely this that excluded both from the field of Aramæan thought. Cf. p. 224 above.

[418] “Inspiratio bonæ voluntatis” (De corr. et grat., 3). His “good will” and “ill will” are, quite dualistically, a pair of opposite substances. For Pelagius, on the contrary, will is an activity without moral quality as such; only that which is willed has the property of being good or evil, and the Grace of God consists in the “possibilitas utriusque partis,” the freedom to will this or that. Gregory I transmuted Augustinian doctrines into Faustian when he taught that God rejected individuals because he foreknew their evil will.

[419] All the elements of the Magian metaphysic are to be found in Spinoza, hard as he tried to replace the Arabian-Jewish conceptual world of his Spanish masters (and above all Moses Maimonides) by the Western of early Baroque. The individual human mind is for him not an ego, but only a mode of the one divine attribute, the “cogitatio”--which is just the Pneuma. He protests against notions like “God’s Will.” His God is pure substance and in lieu of the dynamic causality of the Faustian universe he discovers simply the logic of the divine cogitatio. All this is already in Porphyry, in the Talmud, in Islam; and to Faustian thinkers like Leibniz and Goethe it is as alien as anything can possibly be. (Allgem. Gesch. d. Philos. in Kultur der Gegenwart, I, v, p. 484, Windelband.)

[420] Here, therefore, “good” is an evaluation and not a substance.

[421] The period at which it was written corresponds to our Carolingian. Whether the latter really brought forth any poetry of like rank we do not know, but that it may possibly have done so is shown by creations like the Voluspa, Muspilli, the Heliand, and the universe conceived by John Scotus Erigena.

[422] See, for example, Bertholet, Kulturgesch. Israels, p. 242.

[423] Horten, op. cit., p. xii.

[424] See p. 67 above.

[425] It is almost unnecessary to say that in all religions of the Germanic West the Bible stands in a quite other relationship to the faith--namely, in that of a source in the strictly historical sense, irrespective of whether it is taken as inspired and immune from textual criticism or not. The relation of Chinese thought to the canonical books is similar.

[426] The Holy Spirit, different from Ahuramazda and yet one with him, opposed to the Evil (Angra Mainyu).

[427] Identified by Mani with the Johannine Logos. Compare also Yasht 13, 31. Ahuramazda’s shining soul is the Word.

[428] Aletheia (Truth) is generally employed in this way in the John Gospel, and drug (= lie) is used for Ahriman in Persian cosmology. Ahriman is often shown as though a servant of the drug.

[429] Sura 96; cf. 80, 11 and 85, 21, where in connexion with another vision it is said: “This is a noble Koran on a treasured tablet.” The best commentary on all this is Eduard Meyer’s (Geschichte der Mormonen, pp. 70, et seq.).

[430] Classical man receives, in states of extreme bodily excitation, the power of unconsciously predicting future events. But these visions are completely unliterary. The Classical Sibylline books (which have no connexion with the later Christian works bearing that name) are meant to be nothing more than a collection of oracles.

[431] See p. 73.

[432] IV Ezra xiv; S. Funk, Die Entstehung des Talmuds, p. 17; Hirsch’s commentary on Exodus xxi, 2.

[433] Funk, op. cit., p. 86.

[434] For example, Ed. Meyer, Urspr. u. Anf. d. Christ., p. 95.

[435] In the West, Plato, Aristotle, and above all Pythagoras were regarded as prophets in this sense. What could be referred back to them, was valid. For this reason the succession of the heads of the schools became more and more important, and often more work was done in establishing--or inventing--them than was done upon the history of the doctrine itself.

[436] Fromer, Der Talmud, p. 190.

[437] We to-day confuse authorship and authority. Arabian thought knew not the idea of “intellectual property.” Such would have been absurd and sinful, for it is the one divine Pneuma that selects the individual as vessel and mouthpiece. Only to that extent is he the “author,” and it does not matter even whether he or another actually writes down the material. “The Gospel according to Mark” means that Mark vouches for the truth of this evangel.

[438] On the pseudonyma and anonyma of Biblical apocryphal literature the English reader will find much of interest in three small books (already referred to) of the “Home University” series: Moore, Literature of the Old Testament; Charles, Between the Old and the New Testaments; and Bacon, The Making of the New Testament.--Tr.

[439] See p. 73.--Tr.

[440] Vendidad 19, 1; here it is Zarathustra who is tempted.

[441] M. J. ben Gorion, Die Sagen der Juden (1913).

[442] It is reasonable to suppose that he must through oral tradition have had a very accurate knowledge of the fundamental doctrines of the John Gospel. Even Bardesanes (d. 254), and the “Acts of St. Thomas” that originated in his circle, are very far removed indeed from Pauline doctrines, an alienation that in Mani rose to downright hostility and to the historical Jesus’s being described as an evil demon. We obtain here a glimpse into the essence of the almost subterranean Christianity of the East, which was ignored by the Greek-writing churches of the Pseudomorphosis and for that reason has hitherto escaped the attention of Church history. But Marcion and Montanus also came from eastern Asia Minor; here originated the Naasene book, basically Persian, but overlaid first with Judaism and then with Christianity; and further east, probably in the Matthew monastery of Mosul, Aphrahat wrote, about 340, those strange epistles whose Christianity the Western development from Irenæus to Athanasius left wholly unaffected. The history of Nestorian Christianity, in fact, was already beginning in the second century.

[443] For the later writings of (for example) Tertullian and Augustine remained wholly without effect save in so far as they were translated. In Rome itself even, Greek was the true language of the Church.

[444] See p. 177.--Tr.

[445] The Faustian monk represses his evil will, the Magian the evil substance in himself. Only the latter is dualistic.

[446] The purity- and food-laws of the Talmud and the Avesta cut far deeper into everyday life than, for example, the Benedictine rule.

[447] Asmus, “Damaskios” (Philos. Bibl., 125 (1911)). Christian anchoritism is later than pagan: Reitzenstein, “Des Athanasius Werk über das Leben des Antonius” (Sitz. Heid. Ak. (1914), VIII, 12).

[448] Even to the point indicated in Matt. xix, 12, which Origen followed to the letter.

[449] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Qaraites.” The outlook of these Protestants so resembled that of the Western Protestants that their name was used as a term of contempt for the latter by the Catholics, and not greatly resented. It is significant also that this movement in Jewry almost coincided in date with the vaster Reformation of Islam.--Tr.

[450] The followers of Baal Shem above mentioned (p. 228) not to be confused with the Hasidim or Assideans of the second century.--Tr.

[451] Wissowa, Religion und Kulturs der Römer, p. 493; Geffcken, pp. 4, 144.

[452] This is the metaphysical basis also of the Christian image-worship, which presently set in and of the appearance of wonder-working pictures of Mary and the Saints.

[453] See p. 60.

[454] The Nestorians protested against Mary Theotokos (she who bore God), opposing to her the concept of Christ the Theophorus (he who carried God in him). The deep difference between an image-loving and an image-hating religiousness is here clearly manifested.

[455] Note the “Western” outlook on the substance-questions in the contemporary writings of Proclus--his double Zeus, his triad of πατήρ, δύναμις, νοήσις or νοητόν, and so forth (Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen, V, pp. 857, et seq.). Proclus’s beautiful “Hymn to Athene” is a veritable Ave Maria:

“But when an evil lapse of my being puts me into bondage (And, ah, I know indeed how I am tossed about by many unholy deeds that in my blindness I have done), Be thou gracious to me, thou gentle one, thou blessing of mankind, And let me not lie upon the earth as prey to fearful punishments, For I am, and I remain, thy chattel.”

(Hymn VII, Eudociæ Aug. rel. A. Ludwich, 1897.)

[456] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Apollinaris, the Younger.”--Tr.

[457] And Russia, too, though hitherto Russia has kept it as a buried treasure.

[458] The Christian missionary efforts of the West very generally followed the same method, maintaining the local places of prayer, and merely substituting crucifixes or relics for the idols. Gregory the Great even sanctioned the sacrifice of animals in Britain.--Tr.

[459] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., art. “Khazars.”--Tr.

[460] The Albigensian movement of the twelfth century.--Tr.

[461] Hermann, Chines. Geschichte (1912), p. 77.

[462] A third, “contemporary,” movement should follow in the Russian world in the first half of the coming millennium.

[463] Cf. pp. 3, et seq. and foot-note p. 3.

[464] See p. 116.

[465] “He who loves God with inmost soul, transforms himself into God” (Bernard of Clairvaux).

[466] For religious thought Destiny is always a causal quantity. Epistemology knows it, therefore, only as an indistinct word for causality. Only so long as we do not think upon it do we really know it.

[467] See p. 25.

[468] The distinction between the two is one of inner form. A sacrifice made by Socrates is at bottom a prayer; and generally the Classical sacrifice is to be looked upon as a prayer in bodily form. The ejaculated prayer of the criminal, on the contrary, is a sacrifice to which fear drives him.

[469] And herein philosophy differs not in the least from soil-sprung folk-belief. Think of Kant’s category-table with its 3 × 4 units, of Hegel’s method, of Iamblichus’s triads.

[470] See p. 133.

[471] Cf. p. 24.

[472] And even so the thought has a different disposition according as it is primitive or cultured; Chinese, Indian, Classical, Magian, or Western; and even German, English, or French. In the last resort, there are not even two individuals with exactly the same method.

[473] Anatole France’s story Le Jongleur de Notre Dame is something deeper than a beautiful fancy.--Tr.

[474] See p. 33.

[475] Was it that highly civilized Crete, the outpost of Egyptian modes of thought, afforded a pattern (see p. 87)? But, after all, the numerous local and tribal gods of the primitive Thinite time (before 3000), which represented the numina of particular beast-genera, were essentially different in meaning. The more powerful the Egyptian deity of this preliminary period is, the more particular individual spirits (ka) and individual souls (bai) he possesses, and these hide and lurk in the various animals--Bastet in the cat, Sechmet in the lion, Hathor in the cow, Mut in the vulture (hence the human-formed ka that figures behind the beast-head in the figures of the gods)--making of this earliest world-picture a very abortion of monstrous fear, filling it with powers which rage against man even after his death and which only the greatest sacrifices avail to placate. The union of the North and the South lands was represented by the common veneration of the Horus-falcon, whose first ka resided in the Pharaoh of the time. Cf. Eduard Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt., I, §§ 182, et seq. [See also Moret and Davy: Des clans aux empires and Moret: Le Nil et la civilisation égyptienne (available in English translations).--Tr.]

[476] Eumenides, 126.

[477] Moreover, in the full maturity of Athens, every little girl of the upper classes was consecrated as a bear to this Artemis.--Tr.

[478] For further information the reader may consult the articles “Demeter,” etc., in the Ency. Brit., XI ed.; and, for a suggestive introduction in the fewest possible words, Dr. Jane Harrison’s pamphlet, Myths of Greece and Rome.--Tr.

[479] Bernoulli, Die Heiligen der Merowinger (1900)--a good account of this primitive religion.

[480] For an account of Russian sectarian movements see A. P. Stanley, Hist. of the Eastern Church; for a summary, Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. XXIII, p. 886.--Tr.

[481] Kattenbusch, Lehrb. d. vgl. Konfessionsk., I (1892), pp. 234, et seq.; N. P. Milyukov, Skizz. russ. Kulturg. (1901) II, pp. 104, et seq.

[482] Borchardt, Reheiligtum des Newoserrê, I (1905). The Pharaoh is no longer an incarnation of godhead, and not yet, as the theology of the Middle Kingdom was to make him, the son of Re; notwithstanding all earthly greatness, he is small, a servant, as he stands before the god.

[483] Erman, “Ein Denkmal memphitsiche Theologie,” Ber. Berl. Ak. (1911), pp. 916, et seq.

[484] Not, of course, to be connected in any profound sense with that which emerged under the name in the Magian Culture.--Tr.

[485] And because they were the gods of the eternal peasant, they outlived the Olympians.

[486] Even though Hesiod is two centuries nearer to the source of his Culture than the German mystic is to that of our own. See the article “Boehme,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[487] Insolent prosperity tempting Nemesis.--Tr.

[488] The work of J. J. Bachofen in this field has recently been assembled in concentrated form under the title Mythus von Occident und Orient (1926).--Tr.

[489] Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, p. 41. What has been said above (p. 191) concerning the Talmudic religion applies also to the Etruscan religion by which all Italy--i.e., no less than half of the Classical field--was so deeply influenced. It lies outside the province of both the conventional “Classical” philologies and in consequence has been practically ignored, as compared with the Achæan and Doric religions. In reality (as its tombs, temples, and myths prove), it forms with them a single unit of spirit and evolution.

[490] It is immaterial whether or not Dionysus was “borrowed” from Thrace, Apollo from Asia Minor, Aphrodite from Phœnicia. It is the fact that out of the thousands of alien motives these particular few were chosen and combined in so splendid a unity that implies the fundamental newness of the creation--just as does the Mary-cult of the Gothic, although in that case the whole form-material was taken over from the East.

[491] As in De Groot’s Universismus (1918), where, in fact, the systems of Taoists, Confucians, and Buddhists are handled without a qualm as the religions of China. This amounts to the same as saying that the Classical religion dates from Caracalla.

[492] Conrady, in Wassiljew, Die Erschliessung Chinas (1909), p. 232; B. Schindler, Das Priestertum im alten China, I (1919).

[493] The Shu-Ching or Canon of History is a collection of ancient annals, the Shi-King a canonical anthology of rhymed tales made by Confucius.--Tr.

[494] Conrady, China, p. 516.

[495] Of which an outstanding example is the Edda.--Tr.

[496] See article “Heliand” in Ency. Brit., XI edit., and works there referred to. A handy edition of the text is included in the “Reclam” series.--Tr.

[497] This idea differs essentially from that of the Egyptian duality of the spiritual ka and the soul-bird bai, and still more so from the Magian duality of soul-substances.

[498] O. Franke, Studien zur Gesch. des Konfuzianischen Dogmas (1920), p. 202.

[499] Reference may again be made to Yrjo Hirn, The Sacred Shrine.--Tr.

[500] Consider, for example, the fantastic paintings of Hieronymus Bosch. Breughel’s similar humour, too, is unthinkable without the tradition of a rank-and-file of evil creatures.--Tr.

[501] So also in the Classical, the Homeric figures were for educated people of Hellenistic times nothing but literature, representation, artistic motive. Even for Plato’s period they were little more than this. But in 1100 B.C., Demeter and Dionysus were a fearful actuality before which men collapsed.

[502] The stern object of Roger Bacon’s science; see p. 502, foot-note.--Tr.

[503] This is the real conclusion that emerges from Burdach’s Reformation, Renaissance, Humanismus (1918).

[504] In this connexion, it is important to observe that the education-movement of Humanism took into its field modern Italian, Hebrew, etc., as well as the Classical knowledge. A Dante professorship was founded in Florence in 1373. As for the Classical itself, side by side with all the enthusiasm we find a significant note in Boccaccio, who thanks Jesus Christ for a victory over unbelief that has delivered up the enemy’s camp to the victor’s enjoyment. Burkhardt, Renaissance, Vol. I, p. 262 (Reclam edition).--Tr.

[505] Bezold, Hist. Zeitschr., 45, p. 208.

[506] Italian, “Anna Metterza.” The reference is to the St. Anne of the Louvre and the Royal Academy Diploma Gallery, London.--Tr.

[507] Cf. Vol. I, p. 232.--Tr.

[508] Fra Angelico and Luca Signorelli.--Tr.

[509] The sense of such a relativity led to a mathematic (the calculus) which is literally based on the ignoring of second- and third-order magnitudes.--Tr.

[510] See article “Mysticism” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[511] After its confirmation in 1311, the character of this festival as one of popular joy became still more marked by its association with the nascent drama (see Ency. Brit., XI ed., articles “Corpus Christi,” “Drama”; and Y. Hirn, op. cit., pp. 144-5).--Tr.

[512] Or even rediscovered it. For Classical man as a spirit-filled body is one amongst many quite independent units, while Faustian man is a centre in the universe, which with its soul embraces the whole. But personality (individuality) means, not something separate (einzelnes), but something single (einziges).

[513] Hence it is that this sacrament has conferred a position of such immense power upon the Western priest. He receives the personal confession, and speaks personally, in the name of the Infinite, the absolution, without which life would be unbearable.

The notion of confession as a duty, which was finally established in 1215, first arose in England, whence came also the first confession-books (Penitentials). In England, too, originated, the idea of the Immaculate Conception, and even the idea of the Papacy--at a time when Rome itself thought of it as a question of power and precedence. It is evidence of the independence of Faustian Christianity from Magian that its decisive ideas grew up in those remote parts of its field which lay beyond the Frankish Empire.

[514] The immeasurable difference between the Faustian and the Russian souls is disclosed in certain word-sounds. The Russian word for heaven is “nyebo,” which contains in its n a negative element. Western man looks up, the Russian looks horizontally into the broad plain. The death-impulse, too, of the respective souls is distinguishable, in that for the West it is the passion of drive all-ways into infinite space, whereas for Russians it is an expressing and expanding of self (Sichentäussern) till “it” in the man becomes identical with the boundless plain itself. It is thus that a Russian understands the words “man” and “brother.” He sees even mankind as a plane. The idea of a Russian’s being an astronomer! He does not see the stars at all, he sees only the horizon. Instead of the vault he sees the down-hang of the heavens--something that somewhere combines with the plain to form the horizon. For him the Copernican system, be it never so mathematical, is spiritually contemptible.

While our German “Schicksal” rings like a trumpet call, “Sud’bá” is a genuflection. There is no room for the upstanding “I” beneath this almost flat-roofed heaven. That “All are responsible for all”--the “it” for the “it” in this boundlessly extended plain--is the metaphysical fundament of all Dostoyevski’s creation. That is why Ivan Karamasov must name himself murderer although another had done the murder. The criminal is the “unfortunate,” the “wretch”--it is the utter negation of Faustian personal responsibility. Russian mysticism has nothing of that upstriving inwardness of Gothic, of Rembrandt, of Beethoven, which can swell up to a heaven-storming jubilation--its god is not the azure depth up above. Mystical Russian love is love of the plain, the love of brothers under equal pressure all along the earth, ever along and along; the love of the poor tortured beasts that wander on it, the love of plants--never of birds and clouds and stars. The Russian “volya,” our “will,” means principally non-compulsion, freedom not for something but from something, and particularly freedom from compulsion to personal doing. Free-will is seen as a condition in which no one else can command “it,” and in which, therefore, one may give way to one’s own disposition. “Geist,” “esprit,” “spirit,” go thus: ↗; the Russian “duch” goes thus: ↳. What sort of a Christianity will come forth one day from this world-feeling?

[515]

_“Und wenn die Welt voll Teufel wär’ Und wollten uns verschlingen So fürchten wir uns nimmermehr Es soll uns doch gelingen.”_

[516] And, as the secession of a reformed Church necessarily transforms the parent Church, there was a Magian counter-reformation also. In the Decretum Gelasii (c. 500, Rome) even Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and Lactantius, and in the Synod of Byzantium (543) Origen, were declared heretical.

[517] Boehmer, Luther im Lichte der neueren Forschung (1918), pp. 54, et seq.

[518] See, for instance, H. T. Buckle, Hist. Civilization in England, Vol. III, ch. iv, for the Scottish outlook, which at times attributed all this horror, not even to an anti-God, but to God himself. “Consider, who is the contriver of these torments. There have been some very exquisite torments contrived by the wit of men ... but all these fall as far short of the torments ye are to endure as the wisdom of man falls short of that of God.... Infinite wisdom has contrived that evil” (The Great Concern of Salvation, by T. Halyburton, 1722).--Tr.

[519] M. Osborn, Die Teufelsliteratur des 16. Jahrh. (1893).

[520] Clocks being an outstanding example. See Vol. I, p. 15, foot-note.--Tr.

[521] The famous Bishop of Lincoln (1175-1253), scholar and philosopher, scientist and statesman--the British Oresme.--Tr.

[522] A clear summary of Grosseteste’s, Pierre de Maricourt’s, and Roger Bacon’s work and outlook will be found in Ch. ix of E. Gilson’s short manual, La Philosophie au Moyen Âge (Paris, 1925). Ency. Brit., XI ed., may also be consulted for Roger Bacon, but the article “Grosseteste” deals almost entirely with the bishop’s political and ecclesiastical career.--Tr.

[523] M. Baumgartner, Gesch. der Philos. des Mittelalters (1915), pp. 425, 571, 620, et seq. [Brief account in Ch. xi (3) of Gilson’s manual above cited.--Tr.]

[524] See Ch. XIV below.--Tr.

[525] Nigantha. See Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Jains.”--Tr.

[526] 542. See p. 197.

[527] Mahommedanism must be regarded as an eccentric heretical form of Eastern Christianity. This in fact was the ancient mode of regarding Mahommet. He was considered, not in the light of the founder of a new religion, but rather as one of the chief heresiarchs of the Church. Among them he is placed by Dante in the “Inferno.” Dean Stanley, Eastern Church (1861), Lecture VIII.--Tr.

[528] Krumbacher, Byzant. Literaturgesch., p. 12.

[529] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., under these names.--Tr.

[530] Not to say the twentieth.--Tr.

[531] To which may be added Edinburgh.--Tr.

[532] πρὸς τὴν πειθὼ τῶν πολλῶν, Metaphysics XI, 8, p. 1074 (Bekker) 13.--Tr. {sic--XII, 1074b 1-5}

[533] Caliphs like Al Maimun (813-33) and the last Ommayads would have entirely approved of similar measures in Islam. In those times there was a club in Baghdad in which Christians, Jews, Moslems, and Atheists debated, and appeals to the authority of Bible or Koran were “out of order.”

[534] Whereas “virtù” in Dante always carries a connotation of vital force, as also does the older English use of the word; e.g., in Chaucer’s “of which vertue engendred is the flour,” (Canterbury Tales, Prol. 4) and in the Bible (Mark v, 30). In Mediæval Latin “virtutes” is used for miracles.--Tr.

[535] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Jains.”--Tr.

[536] E.g., “Given eye and visible object, visual consciousness arises; the conjunction of the three is contact; whereby conditioned, arises feeling; whereby conditioned, arises perception....” Majjima Nikhaya, I, 111 (quoted by Mrs. Rhys Davids, Buddhism).--Tr.

[537] Gercke-Norden, Einleit. in die Altertumswiss., II, 210.

[538] Compare the renewed controversy as to Transubstantiation in the English Church, 1926-8, in which a bishop actually proposed that physical tests could be applied to the altar-miracle.--Tr.

[539] Which was ordered no less than four times in the decade 58-49.

[540] Horace’s fine lady, Leuconoë.--Tr.

[541] It is perhaps possible for us to make some guess already as to these forms, which (it is self-evident) must lead back to certain elements of Gothic Christianity. But be this as it may, what is quite certain is that they will not be the product of any literary taste for Late-Indian or Late-Chinese speculation, but something of the type, for example, of Adventism and suchlike sects.

[542] Arnim, Stoic. vet. fragm., 537.

[543] See p. 202.

[544] The Lü-shi Chun-tsiu of Lü-pu-Wei (d. 237 B.C., Chinese Augustan Age) is the first monument of this syncretism, of which the final deposit was the ritual work Li-ki of the Han period (B. Schindler, Das Priestertum im alten China, I, 93).

[545] M. Horten, Die religiöse Gedankenwelt des Volkes im heutigen Islam (1917).

[546] 1018-78; cf. Dieterich, Byzant. Charakterköpfe (1909), p. 63. [Or Ency. Brit., XI ed., article “Psellus.”--Tr.]

[547] It was only in old age and after long and heavy warring that both these Cæsars gave themselves up to a mild and weary piety, and both of them held aloof from the more definite religions. From the point of view of dogma, Asoka was no Buddhist; what he did was to understand the currents and take them under his protection (Hillebrandt, Altindien, p. 143). [Asoka’s life is dealt with in several of the works of Rhys Davids; for example, Ch. xv of his Buddhist India.--Tr.]

[548] In so far as it is permissible to reckon Mithraism as Classical at all--for it is really a religion of the Magian Spring.

[549] De Groot, Universismus (1918), p. 134.

[550] P. 169.

[551] See the article “Maimonides” in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[552] Fromer, Der Talmud, p. 217. The “red cow” and the ritual of anointing a Jewish king were treated in this work with the same seriousness as the most important provisions of private law. [See J. and J. Tharaud, Petite Histoire des Juifs, Ch. I (1927).--Tr.]

[553] See, for the following paragraphs, the articles “Jews,” “Hebrew Religion,” “Hebrew Literature,” “Kabbalah,” “Qaraites,” etc., in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[554] Strunz, Gesch. der Naturwiss. im Mittelalter, p. 89.

[555] Only with Nicolaus Cusanus was this state of things reversed.

[556] P. 174.

[557] The reader is recommended to study, in the light of all this, recent literature of the type of Hajim Bloch’s Golem and the works of the brothers Tharaud.--Tr.

[558] See pp. 259, et seq.; 174, et seq.

[559] P. 127.

[560] P. 48.

[561] Prague contains a veritable corpus of commentary upon these pages.--Tr.

[562] A.D. 132. See Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. XV, p. 402, and Vol. III, p. 395.--Tr.

[563] Instances--besides that of Mithradates and the Cyprus massacre (p. 198) quoted above--are the Sepoy Mutiny in India, the Boxer Rebellion in China, and the Bolshevist fury of Jews, Letts, and other alien peoples against Tsarist Russia.

[564] P. Levertoff, Die religiöse Denkweise der Chassidim (1918), pp. 128, et seq.; M. Buber, Die Legende des Baalschem (1907). [Brief account in J. and J. Tharaud, Petite histoire des Juifs, Ch. vii.--Tr.]

[565] Levertoff, op. cit., p. 136.

[566] O. Weininger, Taschenbuch (1919), above all pp. 19, et seq.

[567] Their ship-building was in Roman times more Classical than Phœnician, their state was organized as a Polis, and their educated people, like Hannibal, were familiar with Greek.

[568] See p. 260, et seq.

[569] Cf. p. 3 and foot-note.

[570] And not until women cease to have race enough to have or to want children, not until they cease to be history, does it become possible for them to make or to copy the history of men. Conversely, it is deeply significant that we are in the habit of calling thinkers, doctrinaires, and humanity-enthusiasts of anti-political tendency “old women.” They wish to imitate the other history, the history of woman, although they--cannot.

[571] No exact equivalent exists in common English for the German word “Stand.” “Aristocracy” is too narrow, as under most aspects the clergy and under some even the Tiers have to be reckoned in. “Class” fails because, for logical completeness, it has to be stretched so as to bring in the qualitatively unclassed as a distinct category. (A whole social history is contained in the use of these and similar words at different periods.) The word “Estate” itself is used nowadays for the “masses” (“Fourth Estate” = “Proletariat”), but this very use, by Socialists, is an assertion that the masses, as workers, possess a qualitative peculiarity and condition of their own, and the word thus continues to connote ideas of differentiation, specific constitution, and oriented outlook. It may, therefore, be employed here without fear of misunderstanding or reproach of pedantry.--Tr.

[572] Cf. pp. 120, et seq.

[573] Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht (1891), p. 63.

[574] Sohm, Institutionen (1911), p. 614. [Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. XXIII, pp. 540-1.--Tr.]

[575] This principle formed the basis of the dynastic-idea of the Arabian world (Ommayads, Comneni, Sassanids), which is so hard for us to grasp. When a usurper had seized a throne, he hastened to marry one or another of the female members of the blood-community and so prolonged the dynasty; of law-made succession rights there was no question, nor under this idea could there be. (See also J. Wellhausen, Ein Gemeinwesen ohne Obrigkeit (1900).)

[576] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. XXIII, p. 574.--Tr.

[577] See p. 18.

[578] An inversion of Clausewitz’s famous expression that war is a continuation of policy by other means. (On War, I, i, § 24).--Tr.

[579] Not excluding art, although we are not conscious of them save through deduction from art-history.

[580] Original: “Sie liegen im gesteigerten Dasein von Einzelnen und Kreisen, eben in dem, was soeben ‘Dasein in Form’ genannt worden ist, und durch diese Höhe des Geformtseins erst die Kultur repräsentirt.”

[581] So in the German, but see foot-note p. 329. “Stand” would have expressed the sense better.--Tr.

[582] R. Fick, Die soziale Gliederung im nordöstlichen Indien zu Buddhas Zeit (1897), p. 201; K. Hillebrandt, Alt-Indien (1899), p. 82. [Also the article “Brahmanism,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.]

[583] See Vol. I, p. 157.--Tr.

[584]

_Got hât driu leben geschaffen Gebûre, ritter, phaffen._

[Note the collective ge- attached to the first-named.--Tr.]

[585] The ease with which Bolshevism extinguished the four so-called estates or classes of Petrine Russia--nobles, merchants, small townspeople, and peasants--shows that these were mere imitations and administrative conveniences, and destitute of all symbolism--for symbolism no power on earth can choke. They correspond to the outward differences of rank and possessions that existed in the Visigothic and Frankish Kingdoms, and--as glimpses afforded by the earliest parts of the Iliad show--in Mycenæan times. It is reserved for the future to develop a true nobility and clergy in Russia.

[586] As a treaty of reciprocal possession by the two parties which is made effective by the reciprocal use of their sex-properties.

[587] Oldenberg, Die Lehre der Upanishaden (1915), p. 5.

[588] P. 124.

[589] “So, then, because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue thee out of my mouth.”

[590] P. 4, et seq.

[591] The case of Egypt is of course similar.--Tr.

[592] Pp. 272, et seq.

[593] Jenseits von Gut und Böse, § 260.

[594] In contrast, the Spanish word “Hidalgo” means “son of somebody.”--Tr.

[595] Conversely, it can successfully be controverted--and often has been so in the Chinese and Classical, Indian and Western philosophies--but it does not get abolished.

[596] The possession of movable things (food, equipment, arms) comes later, and is of much lower symbolic weight. It occurs widely in the animal world. The bird’s nest, on the contrary, is a property of plantlike kind.

[597] Property in this most significant sense--the having grown up with something--refers therefore less to the particular person than to the family tree to which he belongs. In every quarrel within a peasant or even within a princely family, this is the deep and violent element. The master for the time being holds possession only in the name of the family line. Hence, too, the terror of death without heirs. Property also is a Time-symbol, and consequently it is closely related to marriage, which is a firm plantlike intergrowth and mutual possession of two human beings, so real as to be even reflected in an increasing facial similarity.

[598] See p. 248.

[599] See these headings in Ency. Brit., XI. ed.--Tr.

[600] After death the teachers of error are excluded from the eternal bliss of the text-book and cast into the purgatorial fires of foot-notes, whence, purged by the intercession of the believer, they ascend into the paradise of the paragraphs.

[601] Black Jews, who are smiths to a man.

[602] The genuinely primitive Mir, contrary to the assertions of enthusiastic socialists and pan-slavists, dates only from after 1600, and has been abolished since 1861. Here the soil is communal soil, and the villagers are as far as possible held fast, in order to ensure that the tilling of this soil shall cover the demands of taxation.

[603] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., Vol. XI, pp. 94, 786, or any histories of German literature.--Tr.

[604] See, further, below.

[605] Brentano, Byzant. Volkswirtschaft (1917), p. 15.

[606] Even I-wang (934-909) was obliged to leave conquered territories to his vassals, who put in counts and reeves of their own choice.

[607] See H. Delbrück, Gesch. der Kriegskunst, Vol. II, Book I, Ch. x; or C. W. C. Oman, Art of War: Middle Ages, Ch. i.--Tr.

[608] The slave in the Classical sense disappears automatically and completely in these centuries--one of the most significant indications that the Classical world-feeling, and with it its economic feeling, were extinct.

[609] Thus, later, under Justinian, Belisarius could furnish seven thousand cavalry from his own domains for the Gothic War. Very few German princes could have done so much in Charles V’s time. [The last of such armies in Western history was the army of the House of Condé in the seventeenth century. These centuries of ours “correspond” with the period that set in with Justinian.--Tr.]

[610] Pöhlmann, Röm. Kaiserzeit (Pflugk-Harttungs Weltgesch., I, pp. 200, et seq.).

[611] See p. 286.

[612] In spite of Ed. Meyer (Gesch. d. Altertums, I, § 243).

[613] Our marshal and the Chinese sse-ma, chamberlain and Chen, high steward and ta-tsai, high bailiff and nan, earl and peh (the Chinese ranks as in Schindler, Das Priestertum im alten China, p. 61, et seq.). Precisely corresponding Egyptian grades in Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Altertums, I, § 222; Byzantine in the “Notitia Dignitatum” (derived in part from the Sassanid Court). In the Classical city-states certain official titles of ancient origin suggest court functions (Colacretæ, Prytanes, Consuls). See further below.

[614] Hardy, Indische Religionsgesch., p. 260.

[615] M. Granet, Coutumes matrimoniales de la Chine antique, T’oung Pao (1912), pp. 517, et seq.

[616] The tournament was an institution in the other, western, half of the Magian world as well.--Tr.

[617] The life of John Chrysostom is an instance.

[618] Another example (beloved of artists) stands to this day in the town of San Gimigniano, which is almost nothing but a group of family towers ranging up to 150 ft. in height.--Tr.

[619] Ambrogio Spinola is a case in point.--Tr.

[620] The memoirs of the Duc de Saint Simon give a vivid picture of this evolution.

[621] P. 75.

[622] Corresponding to our seventeenth century.

[623] K. J. Neumann, Die Grundherrschaft der römischen Republik (1900); Ed. Meyer, Kl. Schriften, pp. 351, et seq.

[624] A. Rosenberg, Studien zur Entstehung der Plebs, Herm. XLVIII (1913), pp. 359, et seq.

[625] Pp. 102, et seq.

[626] See pp. 159, et seq.

[627] Pp. 170, et seq.

[628] See Vol. I, pp. 136, et seq.--Tr.

[629] Hence such codes throw out the privileges of nobility and clergy and sustain those of money and intellect, and display a frank preference for movable as against real property.

[630] Pp. 75, et seq. The corresponding attempt of the absolutist Stuarts to introduce Roman Law into England was defeated chiefly by the Puritan jurist Coke (d. 1634)--yet another proof that the spirit of laws is always a party-spirit.

[631] See pp. 65, et seq.

[632] Above all in connexion with divorce, in which the civil and the ecclesiastical views both hold good, literally side by side.

[633] See p. 330.--Tr.

[634] Thus come about the much satirized forms of the “patrol-” or “barrack-state,” as opponents call it with an unintelligent scorn. Similar points of view appear also in Chinese and Greek constitutional theories (O. Franke, Studien zur Geschichte des konfuzianischen Dogmas (1920), pp. 211, et seq.; Pöhlmann, Geschichte der sozialen Frage und der Sozialismus in der antiken Welt (1912)). On the other hand, the political tastes of, for example, Wilhelm von Humboldt, who as a Classicist opposed the individual to the State, belong, not to political history at all, but to literature. For what he looked at was, not the capacity of the State to thrive in the real State-world around it, but its private existence within itself, without regard to the fact that such an ideal could not endure for an instant in the face of a neglected outer situation. It is a basic error of the ideologues that, in concentrating on the private life and referring to it the whole inner structure of the State, they entirely ignore the latter’s position in point of outward power, though this in fact completely conditions its freedom for the inward development. The difference between the French and the German Revolutions, for example, consists in the fact that the one commanded the external situation and therewith the internal also, while the other commanded neither and was foredoomed to farce.

[635] Which is most definitely not identical with economic history in the sense of the materialist historian. More of this in the next chapter.

[636] It is to be noted that the author uses the terms “horizontal” and “vertical” here in the reverse sense to that in which they commonly figure in present-day political literature, although in economic works the usage is the same as that of the text.--Tr.

[637] Attention is drawn to this phrase, so as to avoid misconceptions as to the meaning of “subject” in the sequel.--Tr.

[638] Compare the position of the aristocratic families of the South in the history of the United States up to 1850-60.--Tr.

[639] For in those centuries the high dignities of the Church were invariably given to the nobility of Europe, who put the political qualities of the blood at her service. From this school in turn emanated statesmen like Richelieu, Mazarin, and Talleyrand, to name but a few.

[640] See p. 180.

[641] I.e., Domesday Book.--Tr.

[642] See p. 350.

[643] Ed. Meyer, Gesch. a. Altertums, I, § 244.

[644] Even by Chinese critics. See, however, Schindler, Das Priestertum im alten China, I, pp. 61, et seq.; Conrady, China, p. 533.

[645] See pp. 349, et seq.

[646] “Compotus,” “contrarotulus” (the counter-roll retained for checking), “quittancia,” “recordatum.”

[647] See p. 279.

[648] “For the ruler of the Middle there is no foreign land” (Kung-yang). “The heaven speaks not; it causes its thoughts to be promulgated by a man” (Tung Chung-shu). His errors affect the whole cosmos and bring about cataclysms in Nature (O. Franke, Zur Geschichte des konfuzianischen Dogmas (1920), pp. 212, et seq., 244, et seq.). Such mystic universalism was completely alien to Indian and Classical state-notions.

[649] It must not be forgotten that the immense domains of the Church had become hereditary fiefs of the bishops and archbishops, who were no more disposed than the lay peers to permit interferences on the part of the overlord.

[650] After the overthrow of the Tyrannis, c. 500, the two regents of the Roman patriciate bear the title prætor or judex. But it seems to me probable that these go back beyond the Tyrannis and even the preceding oligarchic period into that of the kingship proper, and that as court-offices they have the same origin as our Herzog, duke (præ-itor); Heerwart, in Athens polemarch; and Graf, earl (“Ding-graf,” hereditary arbiter, in Athens archon). The name “consul” (from 366) is philologically thoroughly archaic, and therefore implies no new creation, but the renascence of a title (king’s adviser?) which oligarchic sentiment had long repudiated.

[651] Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, I, 1, pp. 214, et seq.

[652] The Spartiates mustered in the best period of the sixth century some 4000 warriors, out of a total population of nearly 300,000, including Periœci and Helots (Ed. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt., III, § 264). The Roman families must at that time have been of about the same strength relatively to the clientela and the Latins.

[653] Men’s messes. See the article Συσσίτια in Smith’s Dictionary of Classical Antiquities.--Tr.

[654] Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alt., I, § 264.

[655] Ed. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt., I, § 267, et seq.

[656] See Ehrenberg, Die Rechtsidee im frühen Griechentum (1921), pp. 65, et seq.

[657] P. 18.

[658] Pp. 171, et seq.

[659] P. 181, et seq.

[660] F. Cumont, Mysterien des Mithra (1910), pp. 74, et seq. The Sassanid government, which about A.D. 300 changed from the feudal union to the aristocratic State, was in all respects the pattern for Byzantium in ceremonial, in the knightly character of its Empire, in administrative management, and above all in the type of its Ruler. Cf. also A. Christensen, L’Empire des Sassanides, le peuple, l’état, la cour (Copenhagen, 1907).

[661] Ed. Meyer, Kl. Shriften, p. 146.

[662] See p. 243.

[663] Krumbacher, Byzant. Literaturgesch., p. 918.

[664] A bright light is thrown upon the formation of this picture by the fact that the descendants of the repeatedly overthrown dynasties of Hia and Shang reigned in the states of Ki-Sung throughout the Chóu period (Schindler, Das Priestertum im alten China, I, p. 30). This shows, firstly, that the picture of the Empire was mirrored back on some earlier or even perhaps a contemporary eminence of these states; and, secondly and above all, that here too “dynasty” was not what we currently mean by the name, but followed some quite different idea of the family. We may compare the fiction which made the German King, who was always chosen on Frankish territory and crowned in the sepulchral chapel of Charlemagne, into a “Frank,” so that if circumstances had been different, there might have evolved the notion of a Frankish dynasty running from Charles to Conradin (see Amira, German. Recht in Herm. Paul, Grundriss, III, p. 147, note). From the Confucian age of enlightenment this picture became the basis of a State-theory, and later still it was turned to account by the Cæsars (p. 313).

[665] O. Franke, Studien zur Gesch. d. Konfuz. Dogmas, pp. 247, 251.

[666] An illuminating example is the “personal union” of the Ki and Tseng states, contested as contrary to law (Franke, op. cit., p. 251).

[667] Ed. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt., I, § 281.

[668] G. Busolt, Griech. Staatskunde (1920), pp. 319, et seq. U. von Wilamowitz (Staat und Gesellschaft der Griechen, 1910, p. 53), in disputing the existence of the patriarchal kingdom, misunderstands the immense difference between the conditions of the eighth century, indicated in the Odyssey, and those of the tenth.

[669] A. Rosenberg, Der Staat der alten Italiker, pp. 75, et seq.

[670] Estate or Class was the basis, too, of the two great political associations in Byzantium, which are quite wrongly described as “Circus parties.” These Blues and Greens called themselves “Demoi” and had their regular leaders. The circus was simply like the Palais Royal of 1789, the scene of public manifestations, and behind them were the class-associations of the Senate. When in 520 Anastasius I gave effect to the Monophysite tendency, the Greens sang orthodox hymns all day there, and so forced the Emperor publicly to cry off. The Western counterpart to this is formed by the Parisian parties under the “three Henries” (1580), the Guelphs and Ghibellines of Savonarola’s Florence, and above all the insurgent faction in Rome under Pope Eugene IV. The suppression of the Nika Rebellion by Justinian in 532 was thus also the foundation of State-absolutism vis-à-vis the Estates.

[671] This contrast gives rise to a corresponding contrast in idea of colonization. Whereas, e.g., the Prussian sovereigns invited settlers to their land (Salzburg Protestants, French Huguenots), Gelon forcibly transferred the populations of whole cities into Syracuse, which thus became the first megalopolis of the Classical world (c. 480).

[672] The Greek lecythi found in graves on the Esquiline date form this period.

[673] Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 242.

[674] W. Schulze, Zur Geschichte lateinischen Eigennamen, pp. 379, et seq., 580, et seq.

[675] See p. 351.

[676] This is seen also in the relation of the Pontifex Maximus to the Rex Sacrorum--the latter with the three great Flamens to the kingship, the Pontifices and the Vestals to the aristocracy.

[677] See p. 62, et seq.

[678] P. 173, et seq.

[679] This is clearly to be seen from Wilcken, Grundzüge der Papyruskunde (1912), pp. 1, et seq.

[680] Ed. Meyer, Cæsars Monarchie (1918), p. 308.

[681] Plutarch and Appian describe the masses of humanity that moved in by all the roads of Italy to vote on Tiberius Gracchus’s land-bills. But this in itself shows that nothing of the sort had ever happened before; and immediately after his violence upon Octavius, Tiberius Gracchus saw downfall staring him in the face because the masses had streamed off home again and were not to be assembled a second time. In Cicero’s day a Comitia often consisted only in speeches by a few politicians, without participation by others; but never did it occur to a Roman to transfer the place of voting to the residence of the individual voter--nor even to the Italians when they were fighting for citizenship in 90 B.C. So strong was the feeling of the Polis.

[682] In the Western dynasty-states the domestic law of each is valid for its territory and applies therefore to all persons present therein, irrespective of allegiance. In the city-state, on the contrary, the validity of its domestic law for a person arises from that person’s possession of citizenship; civitas, therefore, means infinitely more than present-day nationality, for without it a man was without rights at all--as a “person,” non-existent.

[683] See p. 60.

[684] Gercke-Norden, Einl. i. d. Alt.-Wiss., II, p. 202.

[685] Busolt, Griech. Geschichte, II, pp. 346, et seq.

[686] Cf. pp. 282 and 305. Fronde and Tyrannis have as intimate a connexion with Puritanism--the same epochal phase, but in the religious instead of the political world--as the Reformation with the aristocratic State, and the “Second Religiousness” with Cæsarism.

[687] G. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, pp. 297, et seq.

[688] Beloch, Griech. Geschichte, I, 1, p. 354.

[689] Ed. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt., § 281.

[690] Ibid., §§ 280, et seq.

[691] On the means taken to secure the succession, cf. p. 379.

[692] Ed. Meyer, op. cit., § 286.

[693] Ibid., § 283. A. Erman, Die Mahnworte eines ägyptischen Propheten (Sitz. Preuss. Akad.), 1919, pp. 804, et seq.

[694] S. Plath, Verfassung und Verwaltung Chinas (Abb. Münch. Ak., 1864), p. 97, O. Franke, Studien z. Gesch. d. Konfuz. Dogmas, pp. 255, et seq.

[695] After armed rebellion.--Tr.

[696] The fifty-year interval of these critical points, which is seen with special distinctness in the clear historical structure of the Baroque, but is recognizable also in the sequence of the three Punic Wars, is yet another hint that the Cosmic flowings in the form of human lives upon the surface of a minor star are not self-contained and independent, but stand in deep harmony with the unending movedness of the universe. In a small but noteworthy book, R. Mewes, Die Kriegs- und Geistesperioden im Völkerleben unde Verkündigung des nächsten Weltkrieges (1896), the relation of those war-periods with weather-periods, sun-spot cycles, and certain conjunctures of the planets is established, and a great war foretold accordingly for the period 1910-20. But these and numerous similar connexions that come within the reach of our senses (cf. pp. 5, et seq.) veil a secret that we have to respect and not to infringe with causal expositions or mystical brain-spectres.

[697] See C. von B(inder)-K(rieglstein), Geist und Stoff im Kriege (1896); F. N. Maude, War and the World’s Life (1907), and other works by the same author; also, in more summary terms, the articles “Army” and “French Revolutionary Wars” by the present translator in Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[698] “Rule, Britannia” is an eighteenth-century product.--Tr.

[699] For this, and what follows, see my Preussentum und Sozialismus, pp. 31, et seq.

[700] Mr. Asquith (Lord Oxford) was the first British Prime Minister to be officially so styled.--Tr.

[701] “Landed” and “funded” interests (J. Hatschek, Engl. Verfassungsgeschichte, 1913, pp. 589, et seq.). Walpole, the organizer of the Whig party after 1714, used to describe himself and Townshend as “the Firm;” and this “firm” with various changes of proprietorship governed without limitation till 1760.

[702] R. von Pöhlmann, Griech. Gesch. (1914), pp. 223-45.

[703] Ed. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt. V § 809. If Latin became a literary language, only very late--after Alexander--the only deduction to be made from the fact is that under the Tarquins Greek and Etruscan must have been in general use--which, after all, goes without saying for a city that was of a size and position to have relations with Carthage; that waged war in alliance with Cyme and made use of the Treasury of Massalia at Delphi; whose standard weights and measures were Dorian; whose mode of warfare was Sicilian; and whose walls contained a large foreign colony. Livy (IX, 36), following older statements, observes that about 300 the Roman boy was still brought upon Etruscan culture, as he was later on Greek. The ancient form “Ulixes” for Odysseus shows that the Homeric sagas were not only known, but popularly known here (cf. p. 284). The provisions of the Twelve Tables (c. 450) agree with the more or less contemporary law of Gortyn in Crete (cf. p. 63), not merely as to substance, but even stylistically--so exactly that the Roman patricians who drew them up must have been entirely at home with juristic Greek.

[704] This measure--a usurpation of the administration by the “nation in arms”--corresponds to the setting-up of Consular Tribunes in Rome in the military disturbances of 438.

[705] According to B. Niese. Modern investigators are right in the view that the Decemvirate was at first intended to be temporary; but the question is--what were the views of the party that backed them concerning the new constitutional order that was to follow. It was on that that a crisis had inevitably to come.

[706] A. Wahl, Vorgeschichte d. franz. Revolution, II (1907); this work is the only presentation of the subject from the world-historical point of view. All Frenchmen, even the most modern, such as Aulard and Sorel, see things from one or another partisan angle. It is materialistic nonsense to talk of economic causes for a Revolution like this. Even the peasantry was better off than in most other countries, and in any case it was not among them that it began. It was amongst the educated that the catastrophe started, the educated of all the classes--in the high nobility and the clergy even sooner than in the higher bourgeoisie, because the course of the first assembly of Notables (1787) had disclosed the possibility of radically reshaping the form of government according to class-desires.

[707] Even the highly provincial March Revolution of 1848 in Germany was a purely urban matter; hence the vanishingly small proportion of the population involved as participants.

[708] Hence also the exclusive bourgeois character of the National Guard in France from 1815 to 1851, the period between two phases of popular Tyrannis. In the coup d’état by which Napoleon III seized the throne, Paris was filled with regular troops, and the National Guard was forbidden to assemble on pain of death.--Tr.

[709] Pp. 97, and 305.

[710] See pp. 348.

[711] J. Hatschek, Engl. Verfassungsgesch., p. 588.

[712] On the other side of the Channel, it is well known that the Rothschild fortune was founded in a dramatic play upon the varying news from the front in Belgium.

In the second phase of the Franco-German War of 1870-1 the bankers of Frankfurt took up holdings in the loans floated by the French Government of National Defence.--Tr.

[713] But even during the Reign of Terror in the middle of Paris, there flourished the establishment of Dr. Belhomme, in which members of the highest aristocracy ate and drank and danced out of all danger for so long as they could pay (G. Lenôtre, Das revolutionäre Paris, p. 409).

[714] The great movement which makes use of the catchwords of Marx has not delivered the entrepreneur into the power of the worker, but both into that of the Bourse.

[715] Both the old parties possessed clear lines of tradition back to 1680.

[716] The moral and political “Enlightenment” movement was in England also a product of the Third Estate (Priestley and Paley, Paine, Godwin), and for that reason was unable to grasp things with the fine discrimination of a Shaftesbury.

[717] Pelham, the successor of Walpole, paid to members of the Commons, through his secretary, £500 to £800 at the end of each session according to the value of the services rendered by each recipient to the Government--i.e., the Whig party. The party agent Dodington described his parliamentary activities in these words: “I never attended a debate if I could help it, and I never missed a division that I could possibly take part in. I heard many arguments that convinced me, but never one that influenced my vote.”

[718] Here it was actually the interest of bourgeois and “enlightenment” ideals that the personal régime of dictatorship was thought to favour, for the opposition to these ideas lay in the strict state-ideal of the Polis, which according to Isocrates was marked with the curse of inability to die.

[719] Diodorus XIV, 7. The drama was repeated in 317, when Agathocles the ex-potter let loose his mercenary bands and the mob upon the new upper classes. After the massacre the “people” of the “purified city” assembled and conferred the dictature upon the “saviour of true and genuine freedom” (Deodorus XIX, 6, et seq.). On the whole movement see Busolt, Griech. Staatskunde, pp. 396, et seq., and Pöhlmann, Gesch. d. soz. Frage, I, pp. 416, et seq.

[720] Already that part of the Prussian army which had been in Russia had declared against Napoleon--and that, though its general, Yorck, was no liberal, but the old strict type of the Frederician officer.--Tr.

[721] Ed. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt., IV, §§ 626, 630.

[722] H. Delbrück, Gesch. d. Kriegskunst (1908), I, p. 142.

[723] Three to six “tribuni militares consulari protestate” instead of the Consuls. Just at this juncture, as the result of the introduction of pay and longer duration of service with the colours, there must have come into being a nucleus of true professional soldiers, who would have the election of centurions in their own hands and by whom the spirit of the army was determined. It is entirely erroneous to speak of a peasant-levy at this stage, quite apart from the fact that the four great city-tribes contributed a considerable part of the rank and file and a part, too, whose influence was even greater than its numerical strength. Even in the “good old days” picture presented to us by Livy and others we can clearly perceive the influence exerted by the standing formations upon the contests of parties.

[724] It is perhaps not a mere coincidence that 367 is the year of Dionysius’s death.

[725] According to K. J. Neumann, this goes back to the great Censor.

[726] According to Roman law, the freed slave at once acquired citizenship, with some few limitations. As the slave-material came from all over the Mediterranean region and most of all from the East, it was a vast rootless mass that collected in the four urban tribes, alien from all the tendencies of the old Roman blood; and it quickly destroyed these when, after the Gracchan movement, it had succeeded in bringing its weight of numbers to bear with effect.

[727] From the end of the fourth century the nobility developed into a closed circle of families that had, or claimed to have, consuls among their ancestors. The more strictly this condition was enforced, the more frequent were the falsifications of the old consul-lists in order to “legitimize” rising families of strong race and talent. The first (and truly revolutionary) outburst of forgery occurs in the epoch of Appius Claudius the Censor, when the curule ædile C. Flavius, the son of a slave, put the list in order--that was the time when even royal cognomina were discovered amongst plebeian families. The second was in the days of the battle of Pydna (168), when the dominance of the nobility began to assume Cæsarian forms (E. Kornemann, Der Priesterkodex in der Regia, 1912, pp. 56, et seq.). Of the 200 Consulates between 232 and 133, 159 fell to 26 families, and thereafter blood-quality being exhausted, but the form as such being all the more studiously preserved in consequence--the rise of novi homines like Cato and Cicero became a rare phenomenon.

[728] Another instance, among many, is its rôle in preparing the German crash of 1918.

[729] And even in France, where the judicial class in the parlements openly scorned the Government, and with impunity tore down royal proclamations from the walls and put up their own arrêts instead (R. Holtzmann, Französ. Verfassungsgesch., 1910, p. 353); where “orders were given, but not obeyed, laws enacted, but not executed” (A. Wahl, Vorgesch. d. franz. Revolution, I, 29 and passim); where high finance could overthrow Turgot and anyone else whose reform-schemes disquieted it; where the whole educated world, headed by princes and nobles, prelates and generals, was Anglomaniac and applauded opposition in any shape or form--even there nothing would have happened but for the sudden concurrence of a set of incidents--the fashion which set in amongst French officers of aiding the American republicans in their struggle with the English King; the diplomatic reverse in Holland (27 Oct. 1787) in the middle of the reforming activity of the Government; and the perpetual change of ministers under pressure from irresponsible quarters. In the British Empire, the falling-away of the Colonies was the result of attempts of high-Tory circles (in collusion with George III, but in reality of course in their own interests) to strengthen the Royal power. This party possessed in the Colonies a strong contingent of royalists, notably in the South: these elements, fighting on the British side, decided the battle of Camden, and after the final victory of the rebels mostly emigrated to Canada, which had remained loyal.

[730] In 1793 there were 306 members of the House of Commons who were elected by 160 persons in all. Old Sarum, the constituency of the elder Pitt, consisted of one tenement, returning two members.

[731] Afterwards--from 1832--the English nobility itself, through a series of prudent measures, drew the bourgeoisie into co-operation with it, but under its continued guidance and, above all, in the framework of tradition, within which consequently the young talent grew up. Democracy thus actualized itself here so that the Government remained strictly “in form”--the old aristocratic form--while the individual was free to practise politics according to his bent. This transition, in a peasantless society dominated by business interests, was the most remarkable achievement of inner politics in the nineteenth century.

[732] Early, that is, in the post-revolutionary era here considered.--Tr.

[733] The reassertion of this tradition after the emergency-army of the Wars of Liberation (1812-15) had dispersed into the body of the community is a remarkable story, in which military and political standpoints cannot be separated. See Vidal de la Blache, La Régéneration de l’Armée Prusse (1910), Ch. vi.--Tr.

[734] See Preussentum und Sozialismus, pp. 40, et seq.

[735] The genesis of the Roman Tribunate was a blind incident, the happy consequences of which no one really foresaw. Western Constitutions, on the contrary, have been thoroughly thought out and their effects precisely calculated--whether the calculation proved to be correct or incorrect, the care is undeniable.

[736] From the few European works that concern themselves with questions of ancient Chinese history, it emerges that Chinese literature contains a very great amount of material bearing on this period, which corresponds in innumerable parallels to our own present time. But there is a total lack of any political treatment of it that can be taken seriously. References: Hübotter, Aus den Plänen der Kämpfenden Reiche (1912); Piton, “The Six Great Chancellors of Tsin,” China Review, XIII, 202, 255, 365, XIV, 3; Ed. Chavannes, Mém. hist. de Se-ma-tsien (1895 and following); Pfizmair, Sitz. Wien Akad., XLIII (1863) (“Tsin”), XLIV (“Tsu”); A. Tschepe, Histoire du royaume de Ou (1896), and de Tchou (1903).

[737] Corresponding more or less to the province of Shen-si.

[738] On the middle Yang-tse-kiang.

[739] Biography 13 of Sze-ma-tsien. So far as the translated evidences allow us to judge, the preparation and dispositions of these campaigns, the boldness of the operations by which he drove the enemy on to ground where he could beat him, and the novel tactical execution of the separate battles, stamp Pe-Ki as one of the greatest military geniuses of all time, a figure worthy indeed of adequate treatment by a military expert. It is from this period that we have the authoritative work of Sun-tse on War: Giles, Sun-Tse on the Art of War (1910). [Or Capt. E. R. Calthrop, The Book of War--Sun and Wu (1908).--Tr.]

[740] See pp. 312, et seq.

[741] Now approximately Shan-tung and Pe-chi-li.

[742] Piton, “Lu-puh-Weih,” China Rev. XIII, pp. 365 et seq.

[743] Even if the Chinese authors themselves misunderstood the expression in the same, or anything like the same, way as their Western translators, the fact would only prove that the appreciation of political problems vanished as rapidly in the Chinese Imperial Age as in fact it did in the Roman--because they were no longer personally and livingly experienced. The much-admired Sze-ma-tsien is after all a compiler of the same rank as Plutarch (with whom he corresponds in date also). The high point of historical comprehension, which presumes an equivalent experience in life, must for China have lain in the period of the Contending States, as it lies for us in the nineteenth century and after.

[744] Both, like most of the leading statesmen of the time, were pupils of Kwei-ku-tse, whose knowledge of men, deep sense of the historically possible, and command of the diplomatic technique of the age (the “Art of the vertical and the horizontal”) must have made him one of the most influential personalities of the period. Another figure of the same sort of weight after him was the thinker and war-theorist above alluded to, Sun-tse, who amongst others was the tutor of the Chancellor Lui-Si.

[Sun-Tse’s book of war, as presented in Calthrop’s translation, is comparable to nothing in Western military literature short of Clausewitz’s Vom Kriege. Clausewitz was a contemporary and product of the Napoleonic epoch, and the glow of Romanticism has not yet passed from him; Sun, on the other hand, came “later,” and his atmosphere is the shrewd factual atmosphere of pre-Cæsarism.--Tr.]

[745] A story is told of Sun, that when for a jest (or a demonstration of tactics) opposed forces were made up from the court ladies, one of the commanders, the sovereign’s favourite wife, was executed by Sun’s command for disobeying an order.--Tr.

[746] Frederick’s “conscripts” (Landeskinder) were a long-service element, small in proportion to the population, and of serf status. Only the relative poverty of Prussia compelled this much of departure from the then normal procedure of recruiting volunteers, to which the Prussian army reverted as soon as its treasury could afford to do so. Maurice de Saxe is the one outstanding soldier of the period who advocated universal citizen service. But the famous “Rêveries” were written (“in thirteen sleepless nights”) in 1732, before he had held high command. The military works of Leibniz touch upon the subject, but he was a practical man as well as a philosopher, and his detailed proposals are in the spirit of the time. On the contrary, the pure philosopher Spinoza definitely advocated universal service.--Tr.

[747] Large, that is, relatively to the general development of Classical technics in other fields, which was of the slightest--not in any way outstanding if judged by, say, Assyrian or Egyptian standards.

[748] The book of the Socialist Moh-ti, of this period, treats of universal love of mankind in its first part, of fortress artillery in its second--a singular example of contraposition of truths and facts. Forke in Ostasiat. Ztschr., VIII (Hirth number).

[749] A whole literature exists for Napoleon’s “case-shot attack,” which was closely studied in the years before 1914 with the definite aim of finding a key to victories that the mechanical developments in the defensive rifle had made doubtful.--Tr.

[750] On the side of the North, more than 1½ million men out of barely 20 million inhabitants.

[The total of men of military age in the North was 4,600,000, of whom 2,780,000 actually enlisted. The figure of 1,700,000 is a reduction to a three-year level--i.e., men who served throughout the war counting as 1⅓ each and men who served for one year as ⅓ each. The Southern states put into the field, on the same three-years’ basis, 900,000 out of 1,065,000 men of military age. (Dodge, Birds Eye View of our Civil War.)--Tr.]

[751] To which should be added, though on a small scale, the first serious attempts at submarines, machine-guns, and magazine rifles.--Tr.

[752] Amongst the wholly new problems was that of rapidly restoring railways and bridges; the bridge at Chattanooga, for the heaviest military trains, 240 metres long and 30 metres high, was built in 4½ days.

[753] Modern Japan belongs to the Western Civilization no less than “modern” Carthage of the third century to the Classical.

[754] For the politico-social history of the Arabian World there is the same lack of deep and penetrating research as for the Chinese. Only the political evolution of the Western margin up to Diocletian, regarded hitherto as within the Classical pale, is an exception.

[755] It was a few thousands only that accompanied the first conquerors and spread themselves from Tunis to Turkestan, and these everywhere constituted themselves a self-contained and close Estate in the entourage of the new potentates. An “Arabian Völkerwanderung” is out of the question.

[756] J. Wellhausen, Das arabische Reich und sein Sturz (1902), pp. 309, et seq.

[757] Compare the inner divisions of the English Parliamentary army in and after the Civil Wars.--Tr.

[758] See p. 261.

[759] K. Dieterich, Byz. Charakterköpfe, p. 54: “Since thou wilt have an answer from us, receive it then! Paul has said some in the Church are ordained by God to be Apostles, some prophets, but he said nothing about Emperors--we will not follow though it were an angel that bade us; how much less if thou!”

[760] Cf. p. 316.

[761] Huart, Gesch. d. Araber (1914), I, p. 299.

[762] See Ency. Brit., XI ed., art. “Carmathians.”--Tr.

[763] Krumbacher, Byz. Lit.-Gesch., p. 969.

[764] For all this see Krumbacher, op. cit., pp. 969-90; C. Neumann, Die Weltstellung des Byz. Reiches vor den Kreuzzügen (1894), pp. 21, et seq.

[765] Krumbacher, op. cit., 993.

[766] And perhaps not in Baghdad alone, for the gifted Maniakes, who was hailed by the army in Sicily as Emperor and fell in 1043 in his march on Byzantium, must have been a Turk.

[767] 1785-1580. See, for the following, Ed. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt. §§ 298, et seq.; Weill, La Fin du moyen empire égyptien (1918). That Ed. Meyer’s assignment is correct as compared with the 1670 years of Petrie has long been proved by the thickness of the strata in which objects have been found and the tempo of the style-evolution (Minoan included). Here it is demonstrated afresh by comparison with corresponding sections in the other Cultures.

[768] P. 387.

[769] Erman, “Mahnworte eines ägypt. Propheten” (Sitz. Preuss. Akad., 1919, pp. 804, et seq.): “The higher officials are displaced, the land robbed of its royalty by a few madmen, and the counsellors of the old state pay their court to upstarts; administration has ceased, documents are destroyed, all social differences abolished, the courts fallen into the hands of the mob. The noble classes go hungry and in rags, their children are battered on the wall, and their mummies torn from the grave. Mean fellows become rich and swagger in the palaces on the strength of the herds and ships that they have taken from their rightful owners. Former slave-girls become insolent and aliens lord it. Robbery and murder rule, cities are laid waste, public buildings burned down. The harvest diminishes, no one thinks now of cleanliness, births are few--and oh, that mankind might cease!” Here is the very picture of the megalopolitan and Late revolution, as it was enacted in the Hellenistic (p. 405) and in 1789 and 1871 in Paris. It is the world-city masses, will-less tools of the ambition of leaders who demolish every remnant of order, who desire to see in the outer world the same chaos as reigns within their own selves. Whether these cynical and hopeless attempts start from alien intruders like the Hyksos or the Turks, or from slaves as in the case of Spartacus and Ali; whether the division of property is shouted for as at Syracuse or has a book for banner like Marxism--all this is superficial. It is wholly immaterial what slogans scream to the wind while the gates and the skulls are being beaten in. Destruction is the true and only impulse, and Cæsarism the only issue. The world-city, the land-devouring demon, has set its rootless and futureless men in motion; and in destroying they die.

[770] The Papyrus says: the “archer-folk from without”--that is, the barbarian mercenary troops. To these the native youth attached itself.

[771] Glance also at the Negro-state in Irak and the “contemporary” attempts of Spartacus, Sertorius, and Sextus Pompey, and we get a fair idea of the variety of the possibilities. Weill assumes, 1785-1765, the collapse of the Kingdom, a usurper (a general); 1765-1675, numerous small potentates, in the Delta wholly independent; 1675-1633, struggle for unity, especially the rulers of Thebes, with an ever-increasing retinue of dependent rulers, including the Hyksos; 1633, victory of the Hyksos and defeat of the Thebans; 1591-1571, final triumph of the Thebans.

[772] As an inspiriting idea it may be retained; translated into actuality it will never be again.

[773] Piton, op. cit., p. 521.

[774] Hist., III, 1.

[775] Including the constitution of the United States of America. Only thus can we account for the reverence that the American cherishes for it, even where he clearly sees its insufficiency.

[776] Cæsar recognized this clearly. “Nihil esse rem publicam, appellationem modo sine corpore ac specie” (Suetonius, Cæsar, 77).

[777] See p. 48.

[778] See p. 48.

[779] Cicero, in his Pro Sestio, draws attention to the fact that five people for each tribe attended plebiscites, and these really belonged to tribes other than that which they were representing. But these five were present only in order to have themselves bought by the possessors of the real power. Yet it was hardly fifty years since the Italians had died in masses for this franchise.

[780] And, strangely, Ed. Meyer also, in his masterpiece Cæsars Monarchie, the one work of statesmanlike quality yet written about this epoch--and previously in his essay on Augustus (Kleine Schriften, pp. 441, et seq.).

[781] De Re Publica, 54 B.C., a monograph intended for Pompey.

[782] P. 395.

[783] See p. 409.

[784] In Somnium Scipionis, VI, 26, he is a god who so rules the State quam hunc mundum ille princeps deus.

[785] It was with every justification that, in the presence of the corpse, Brutus called out the name of Cicero, while Antony, on his side, denounced him as the intellectual author of the deed. But this “freedom” meant nothing but the oligarchy of a few families, for the masses had long ago become tired of their rights. Nor is it in the least surprising that Money was behind Intellect in the murder, for the great fortunes of Rome saw in Cæsarism the beginning of the end of their power.

[786] Taoism, on the other hand, was supported, as preaching the entire renunciation of politics. Said Shakespeare’s Cæsar:

“Let me have men about me that are fat, Sleek-headed men and such as sleep o’nights.”

[787] Tacitus, even, failed to understand. He hated these first Cæsars, because they defended themselves by every imaginable means against a stealthy opposition--in his own circles--an opposition that from Trajan’s time no longer existed. (Yet a little longer, and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius could himself be a Stoic.--Tr.)

[788] P. 329.

[789] Pp. 89 and 349.

[790] P. 310.

[791] “Empires perish, but a good verse stands,” said W. von Humboldt on the field of Waterloo. But, all the same, the personality of Napoleon preformed the history of the next century. Good verses!--he should have questioned a peasant by the way-side. They “stand”--for literary teaching. Plato is eternal--for philologists. But Napoleon inwardly rules us, all of us, our states and our armies, our public opinion, the whole of our political outlook, and the more effectually the less we are conscious of it.

[792] P. 361.

[793] P. 116 and 339.

[794] P. 363.

[795] This is what is expressed in the English proverb: “Men, not measures,” which is the very key to the secrets of all political achievement.

[796] Pp. 18 and 364.

[797] See p. 341.

[798] The same, too, holds good of the Churches, which are different in kind from the Religion--namely, elements of the world of facts and, therefore, political and not religious in the type of their leadership. It was not the Christian evangel, but the Christian martyr, who conquered the world, and that which gave him his strength was not the doctrine, but the example, of the Man on the Cross.

[799] It should scarcely need to be emphasized that this is the basic principle, not of an aristocratic régime, but of government itself. Cleon, Robespierre, Lenin, every gifted mass-leader, has treated his office thus. Anyone who genuinely felt himself as the delegate of the multitude, instead of as the regent of such as do not know what they want, would not remain master of his house for one day. The only question is whether the great popular leaders apply their powers for their own benefit or for that of others; and on that much might be said.

[800] Originally an assembly of nineteen princes and free cities (1529).

[801] See pp. 355, 398, et seq.

[802] Hence it is that on the soil of burgher equality the possession of money immediately takes the place of genealogical rank.

[803] See p. 354.

[804] Pp. 424, et seq. Compare also Wellhausen, Die relig.-polit. Oppositionsparteien im alten Islam (1901).

[805] It is an important factor in the democracy of England and America that in the first the yeomanry had died out and in the second has never existed. The “farmer” is spiritually a suburban and in practice carries on his farming as an industry. Instead of villages, there are only fragments of megalopolis.

[806] And wherever, as in Egypt, India, and the West, there exists a political opposition between the two primary Estates, there is also a clerical party--the party, so to speak, of the Church as distinct from religion and of the priest as distinct from the believer.

[807] And with its content of race-strength it has an excellent chance of successfully doing so.

[808] P. 409.

[809] Plebs corresponds to the “Tiers” (burghers and yeomen) of the eighteenth century, populus to the megalopolitan masses of the nineteenth. The difference manifested itself in their respective attitudes towards the freed slaves, mostly of non-Italian origin. These the Plebs, as an order, sought to thrust away into as few tribes as possible, but in the Populus as a party they very soon came to play the decisive rôle.

[810] P. 412.

[811] Simultaneously, too, the Roman Catholic Church quietly changed the basis of its politics from a class to a party, and did so with a strategic sureness that cannot be too much admired. In the eighteenth century it had been, as regards the style of its diplomacy, the allocation of its offices and the spirit of its higher circles, aristocratic through and through. Think of the type of the abbé, and of the prince-prelates who became ministers and ambassadors, like the young Cardinal Rohan. Now, in the true liberal fashion, opinions took the place of origins, working-power that of taste, and the great weapons of democracy--press, elections, money--were handled with a skill that liberalism proper rarely equalled and never surpassed.

[812] For what follows see M. Gelzer, Die Nobilität d. röm. Republik (1912), pp. 43, et seq.; A. Rosenberg, Untersuchungen zur röm. Centurienverfassung(1911), pp. 62, et seq.

[813] The reputation of Tammany Hall in New York is universal, but the relations approximate to this condition in all countries ruled by parties. The American Caucus, which first distributes the offices of State amongst its members and then forces their names upon the mass-electorate, was introduced into England by Joseph Chamberlain in his “National Liberal Federation,” and in Germany its advances have been rapid since 1919.

[814] P. 305.

[815] P. 18, et seq.

[816] For the story of this tragic experiment, see Ed. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt., § 987, et seq.

[817] See p. 417. The “plans of the Contending States,” the Tchun-tsiu-fan-lu, and the biographies of Sze-ma-tsien are full of examples of the pedagogic in interventions of “wisdom” into the province of politics.

[818] For this “Sun-state” formed of slaves and day-labourers see Pauly-Wissowa, Realencycl., 2, 961. Similarly, the revolutionary King Cleomenes III of Sparta was likewise under the influence of a Stoic, Sphærus. One can understand why “philosophers and rhetors”--i.e., professional politicians, fantastics and subverters--were expelled again and again by the Roman Senate.

[819] P. 310.

[820] P. 114.

[821] The early democracy, which in our case reaches up to Lincoln, Bismarck, and Gladstone, has to learn this by experience. The later democracy, in our case mature parliamentarism, starts out from it; here truths and facts finally separate out in the form of party ideals and party funds. It is the money that gives the real parliamentarian his sense of being freed from the dependence which is implicit in the naïve idea that the elector has of his delegate.

[822] P. 452.

[823] P. 354.

[824] That the mass all the same feels itself as freed is simply another outcome of the profound incompatibility between megalopolitan spirit and mature tradition. Its acts, so far from being independent, are in inward relation with its subjection to money-rule.

[825] The German Constitution of 1919--standing by virtue of its date on the verge of the decline of democracy--most naïvely admits a dictature of the party machines, which have attracted all rights into themselves and are seriously responsible to no one. The notorious system of proportional election and the Reichslist [see Ency. Brit., 1922 Supplement, II, 249.--Tr.] secures their self-recruitment. In place of the “people’s” rights, which were axiomatic in the Frankfurt Constitution of 1848, there is now only the right of parties, which, harmless as it sounds, really nurses within itself a Cæsarism of the organizations. It must be allowed, however, that in this respect it is the most advanced of all the constitutions. Its issue is visible already. A few quite small alterations and it confers unrestricted power upon individuals.

[826] And legislation, too, was bound up with an office. Even when, as a formality, acceptance or rejection by an assembly was requisite, the law in question could be brought in only by an official; for example, a Tribune. The constitutional demands of the masses, therefore (which in any case were mostly instigated by the real power-holders), expressed themselves in the issue of the elections to office, as the Gracchan period shows.

[827] Even Cæsar, at fifty years of age, was obliged to play this comedy at the Rubicon for his soldiers because they were used to it and expected it when anything was asked of them. It corresponds to the “chest-tones of deep conviction” of our political assemblies.

[828] But the Cleon type must obviously have existed also in contemporary Sparta, and in Rome at the time of the Consular Tribunes.

[829] Gelzer, Nobilität, p. 94; along with Ed. Meyer’s Cæsar this book gives the best survey of Roman democratic methods.

[830] “Inaurari,” to which end Cicero recommended his friend Trebatius to Cæsar.

[831] “Tributim ad prandium vocare,” Cicero, Pro Murena, 72.

[832] For from that time sesterces flowed through his hands by the million. The votive treasures of the Gallic temples which he put up for sale in Italy sent down the value of gold with a rush. From King Ptolemy he and Pompey extorted 144,000,000 (and Gabinius another 240,000,000) as the price of recognition. The Consul Æmilius Paullus (50) was bought for 36,000,000, Curio for 60,000,000. We can guess from such figures how enviable was the position of his closer associates. At the triumph of 46 every soldier in an army of well over 100,000 men received 24,000 sesterces, officers and other leaders much more. Yet at his death the state treasury was still full enough to secure Antony’s position.

[833] Gelzer, op. cit., p. 68.

[834] Extortion and corruption were the usual charges. As in those days these things were identical with politics, and the judges and plaintiffs had acted precisely in the same way as the defendants, the art consisted in using the forms of a well-acted ethical passion to cover a party speech, of which the real import was only comprehensible to the initiated. This corresponds entirely with the modern parliamentary usage. The “people” would be very much astonished to see party opponents, after delivering wild speeches in the chamber (for the reporters) chatting together in the lobbies, or to be told how a party passionately champions a proposal after it has made certain by agreement with the other side that it will not be passed. In Rome, too, the judgment was not the important thing in these “trials”; it was enough if a defendant voluntarily left the city and so retired from the occupancy of, or candidature for, office.

[835] See Pöhlmann, Griech. Gesch. (1914), pp. 236, et seq. [Cf. Aristophanes, Wasps.--Tr.]

[836] Thus it was possible for Rutilius Rufus to be condemned in the notorious case of 93, because as proconsul he had in accordance with his duty proceeded against the extortions of the concessionnaire associations.

[837] Radio broadcasting has now emerged to enable the leader to make personal conquests of the million, and no one can foretell the changes in political tactic that may ensue therefrom.--Tr.

[838] The most striking example of this for future generations will be the “War-guilt” question, which is the question--who possesses the power, through control of press and cable in all parts of the world, to establish in world-opinion that truth which he needs for his political ends and to maintain it for so long as he needs it? An altogether different question (which only in Germany is confused with the first) is the purely scientific one--to whose interest was it that an event about which there was already a whole literature should occur in the summer of 1914 in particular?

[839] In preparation for the World War the press of whole countries was brought financially under the command of London and Paris, and the peoples belonging to them reduced to an unqualified intellectual slavery. The more democratic the inner form of a nation is, the more readily and completely it succumbs to this danger. This is the style of the twentieth century. To-day a democrat of the old school would demand, not freedom for the press, but freedom from the press; but meantime the leaders have changed themselves into parvenus who have to secure their position vis-à-vis the masses.

[840] The great Burning of the Books in China (p. 433) was innocuous by comparison.

[841] P. 434.

[842] Herein lies the secret of why all radical (i.e., poor) parties necessarily become the tools of the money-powers, the Equites, the Bourse. Theoretically their enemy is capital, but practically they attack, not the Bourse, but Tradition on behalf of the Bourse. This is as true of to-day as it was for the Gracchan age, and in all countries. Fifty per cent of mass-leaders are procurable by money, office, or opportunities to “come in on the ground-floor,” and with them they bring their whole party.

[843] P. 415.

[844] See Preussentum und Sozialismus, p. 41, et seq.

[845] Political Discourses, 1752.

[846] The celebrated Wealth of Nations, 1776.

[847] It was the opinion of the expert, almost everywhere, that the economic consequences of general mobilization would compel the breaking-up of hostilities within a few weeks.

[848] P. 81.

[849] Pp. 1, et seq., and 335.

[850] P. 327, et seq.

[851] Pp. 95, 120, et seq.

[852] P. 5.

[853] “Negotium” (by which is meant every form of gainful activity; business is commercium) “negat otium neque quærit veram quietem quæ est deus,” are the words of the Decretum Gratiani (cf. p. 77).

[854] Pilate’s question settles also the relation of economy to science. The religious man will always try in vain, catechism in hand, to improve the instincts of his political environment. But it goes on its way undisturbed and leaves him to his thoughts. The saint can only choose between adapting himself to this environment--and then he becomes a Church politician and conscienceless--and fleeing from it into a hermitage or even into the Beyond. But the same happens also--and here not without a comic side to it--in the intellectualism of the city. The philosopher who has built up an ethical-social system that is replete with virtue and (of course) the only true one, may enlighten the economic life as to how it should behave and at what it should aim. It is even the same spectacle, whether labelled liberal, anarchistic, or socialistic, or derived from Plato, Proudhon, or Marx. Here, too, economy carries on undisturbed and leaves the thinker to choose between withdrawing to pour out on paper his lamentations of this world, and entering it as an economic politician, in which case he either makes himself ridiculous, or else promptly throws his theory to the devil and starts to win himself a leading place.

[855] See pp. 1, et seq.

[856] See p. 6.

[857] Exactly the same is true of wandering bands of hunters and pastorals. But the economic foundation of the great Culture is always a mankind that adheres fast to the soil, and nourishes and supports the higher economic forms.

[858] See p. 331.

[859] Undershaft in Shaw’s Major Barbara is a true ruler-figure of this realm.

[860] P. 344. As a means for governments it is called finance-economy (financial policy). Here the whole nation is the object of a levy of tribute, in the forms of taxes and customs, of which the purpose is not to make, so to say, the upkeep of its life more comfortable, but to secure its historical position and to enhance its power.

[861] Using the phrase widely, as including, for instance, the rise of workmen, journalists, and men of learning to positions of leadership.

[862] P. 331.

[863] P. 31.

[864] See pp. 172 and 280.

[865] Including the medical profession, which indeed is indistinguishable in primitive times from the priests and magicians.

[866] Herdsmen, fishermen, and hunters included. There is, moreover, a strange and very profound relation between peasant and miner, evidenced in ancient sagas and rites. The metals are coaxed out of the shaft as the corn out of the earth, and the game out of the thicket. And for the real miner even metal is something that lives and grows.

[867] This is true from the earliest sea-voyaging to the Bourse of the world-city, and all traffic, whether by river, road, or rail belongs with it.

[868] With this belong the machine industry, with its purely Western type of the inventor and engineer, and practically, also, a great part of the modern agronomy, as, for instance, in America.

[869] Even to-day the mining and metal industries are felt to be somehow nobler than, for example, the chemical and electrical. They possess the most ancient patent of nobility in the technical world, and a relic of cult-mystery lies over them.

[870] That is, up to the limit of servage and slavery, although very often--as in the present-day East and as in Rome in the case of “vernæ”--slavery itself may be nothing but a form of compulsory-labour contract and, apart from that, hardly sensible. The free employee often lives in far stricter subjection and enjoys far less respect, and his formal right to “give notice” is in many cases practically valueless to him.

[British readers will recall in this connexion the “Chinese slavery” controversy in South Africa in 1904, and the questions of indentured labour that come to the surface not infrequently in Australian politics. And in an older generation defenders of slavery as practised in the sugar islands of the West Indies are still to be found--not to mention the survivors and tradition-bearers of the “Old South” in the United States.--Tr.]

[871] P. 60.

[872] We know this accurately for the Egyptian and the Gothic beginnings, and in general terms for the Chinese and the Classical; as for the economic pseudomorphosis of the Arabian (see pp. 189, et seq., 349) it may be summarized, after Hadrian, as a process of disintegration of the highly civilized Classical money-economy culminating in the appearance, under Diocletian, of a Springtime barter-economy with, in the East, the true Magian element of bargaining visibly superposed.

[873] P. 343.

[874] Neither the copper pieces of the Italian Villanova-graves of early Homeric times (Willers, Gesch. d. röm. Kupferprägung, p. 18) nor the early Chinese bronze coins in the form of women’s drapery (pu), bells, rings, or knives (tsien, Conrady, China, p. 504) are described as money, but quite distinctly symbols of goods. And the coins struck by the governments of early Gothic times (in imitation of the Classical) as signs of sovereignty figured in economic life only as wares; a piece of gold is worth as much as a cow, but not vice versa.

[875] Hence it is that so often he is not an outcome of the fixed and self-contained life of the countryside, but an alien appearing in it, an alien having neither importance nor antecedents. This is the rôle of the Phœnicians in the earliest period of the Classical; of the Romans in the East in Mithradates’s time; of the Jews, and with them Byzantines, Persians, and Armenians, in the Gothic West; of the Arabs in the Sudan; of the Indians in East Africa; and of the West-Europeans in present-day Russia.

[876] And, consequently, on a very small scale. As foreign trade was in those days highly adventurous and appealed to the imagination, it was as a rule immensely exaggerated. The “great” merchants of Venice and the Hansa about 1300 were hardly the equals of the more distinguished craftsmen. The turnover of even the Medici or the Fugger about 1400 was equivalent to that of a shop-business in a small town to-day. The largest merchant vessels, in which usually several traders held part shares, were much smaller than modern German river-barges, and made only one considerable voyage each year. The celebrated wool-export of England, a main element of Hanseatic trade, amounted about 1270 to hardly as much as the contents of two modern goods-trains (Sombart, Der moderne Kapitalismus, I, pp. 280, et seq.).

[877] P. 91.

[878] Cf. Vol. I, Ch. II.

[879] Marks and dollars are no more “money” than metres and grammes are “forces.” Pieces of money are real values. It is only our ignorance of Classical physics that has saved us from confusing gravitation with a pound-weight--in our mathematics, with its Classical basis, we still mix number with magnitude, and our imitation of Classical coinage has brought about the same confusion between money and pieces of money.

[880] Conversely, therefore, we can call the metric system (cm., g.) a valuation, and in fact all money-measures proceed from the weight theories of physics.

[881] Similarly all value-theories, however objective they are meant to be, are developed--and inevitably so--out of a subjective principle. That of Marx, for example, defines value in the way that promotes the interest of the manual worker, the effort of the discoverer or the organizer seeming to him, therefore, valueless. But it would be wrong to describe this as “erroneous.” All these theories are “right” for their supporters and “wrong” for their opponents, and it is not reasons but life that settles whether one is a supporter or an opponent.

[882] The Western introduced (on a very modest scale) by the Bank of England from the end of the eighteenth century, the Chinese dating from the period of the Contending States.

[883] And is thought of as “amount,” whereas we speak of the “extent” of a property in goods.

[884] Even to the modern pirates of the money-market who intervene amongst the interveners and gamble with money as “wares.”

[885] Preisigke, Girowesen im griechischen Ægypten (1910). These trading forms of the Ptolemaic period were already in vogue, and at the same high level, under the XVIIIth Dynasty.

[886] So also with the bourgeois ideal of freedom. In theory and, therefore, constitutionally, a man may be free in principle, but actually, in the economic private-life of the cities, he is made free only by money.

[887] The name “bourse” can be applied even in other Cultures, if by that word we mean the thought-organ of a developed money-economy.

[888] Preface to Major Barbara (Constable, London 1909).

[889] P. 343.

[890] The “farmer” is the man whose connexion with the piece of land is no longer anything more than practical.

[891] The increasing intensity of this thinking appears in the economic picture as a growth of the available money-mass, which is abstract and imagined and has nothing to do with the visible supply of gold as a ware. The “stiffening” of the money-market, for example, is a purely intellectual process played out in the hands of a small handful of men. The increasing energy of money-thinking consequently awakens, in every Culture, the feeling that the “value of money is going down”--enormously so, for example, in the time between Solon and Alexander--with reference, namely, to the unit of calculation. What actually happens is that the mercantile units of value have become artificial and no longer comparable with the primary and livingly experiential values of the peasant economy. In the end it ceases to matter in what figures the Attic treasure of the Delian League (454) or the sums involved in the peace-treaties of 241 and 201, or the booty of Pompey in 64 are reckoned, and whether we ourselves shall pass in a few decades from the milliards--still unknown in 1850, but commonplace to-day--to the billions. There is no common standard for the value of a talent in 430 and in 30 B.C., for gold, like cattle and corn, has continually altered not only its own numeration, but its significance within an ever-advancing urban economy. The only steady element is the fact that quantity of money--not to be confused with the stock of tokens and the means of payment--is an alter ego mirroring thought in money.

[892] Cf. Vol. I, Ch. II.

[893] Friedländer, Röm. Sittengesch., IV (1921), p. 301.

[894] Sallust, Catilina, 35, 3.

[895] P. 458.

[896] How difficult it was for Classical man to figure to himself the transformation of a physically indefinable asset like land into bodily money is shown by the stone posts (ὅροι) on land in Greece, which were meant to represent the mortgages on it, and by the Roman method of sale per æs et libram, in which a clod of earth was handed over for a coin in the presence of witnesses. Consequently, trade in goods (properly so called) never existed, nor anything like, for example, a current price for arable land. A regular relation between land-value and money-value was as unthinkable to the Classical mind as such a relation between artistic value and money-value. Intellectual--i.e., incorporeal--products like dramas and frescoes possessed economically no value at all. For the Classical idea of law, cf. p. 81.

[897] Not very much can have been left of Classical art-treasures even by Augustus’s time. The refined Athenians themselves thought far too unhistorically to be moved to spare a chryselephantine statue merely because it was the work of Phidias. It is worth remembering that the gold parts of the famous Athene-figure of the Parthenon cella were made removable and tested for weight from time to time. Economic use of them, therefore, was provided for from the outset.

[898] Ges. Schriften, IV, 200, et seq.

[899] P. 600.

[900] The belief that slaves ever constituted, even in Athens or Ægina, as much as a third of the population is a complete delusion. On the contrary, the revolutions of the period after 400 presuppose an enormous surplus of free paupers.

[901] P. 480.

[902] Herein lies the difference between this slavery and the sugar-slavery of our own Baroque. The latter represents a threshold phase of our machine industry, an organization of “living” energy, which began with man-fuel, but presently passed over to coal-fuel; and slavery came to be considered immoral only when coal had established itself. Looked at from this angle, the victory of the North in the American Civil War (1865) meant the economic victory of the concentrated energy of coal over the simple energy of the muscles.

[903] Pp. 371, et seq. The resemblance with the Egyptian administration under the Old Kingdom and the Chinese in the earliest Chóu period is unmistakable.

[904] The clerici of these exchequer offices were the archetype of the modern bank-clerk. Cf. p. 371.

[905] Hampe, Deutsche Kaisergeschichte, p. 246. Leonardo Pisano, whose Liber Abaci (1202) was authoritative in accountancy till well beyond the Renaissance, and who introduced, besides the Arabian system of numerals, negative numbers to indicate debit, was promoted by the great Hohenstaufen.

[906] P. 75.

[907] Sombart, Der moderne Kapitalismus, II, p. 119.

[908] There is a close relation between our picture of the nature of electricity and the process of the “clearing-house,” in which the positive and negative money-positions of several firms (centres of tension) are equated amongst themselves by a purely mental act and the true position made presentable by a booking. Cf. Vol. I, Ch. XI.

[909] Vol. I, ch. II.

[910] P. 81.

[911] In our Culture the credit of a country rests upon its economic capacity and the political organization thereof--which imparts to the operations and bookings of finance the character of real money-creations--and not on any quantity of gold that may be put into this or that. It is the Classicist superstition that raises the gold reserve to the status of an actual measure of credit--actual in that the level of credit is thereby made dependent, not upon “will,” but upon “can.” But the current coins are wares, which, relatively to national credit, possess a price--the poorer the credit, the higher the price of gold--so that thenceforth it can only be upheld against that of other wares. Thus gold is measured like other wares against the unit of book-reckoning, and not vice versa as the term “gold standard” suggests. It serves also as means of payment in minor transactions, as for that matter a postage-stamp does. In old Egypt (whose money-thought is astoundingly like the Western) there was nothing resembling the coin even under the New Empire. The written transfer was entirely sufficient, and the Classical coins that filtered in from 650 to the founding of Alexandria and the Hellenistic régime were usually cut to pieces and reckoned by weight as a ware.

[912] That is why it does not exist for our (present) jurisprudence.

[913] All this equally holds good for the case of “workers” taking over the leadership of the works. Either they are incapable of management, and the business collapses, or they are capable of something, and then they themselves become inwardly entrepreneurs and think thenceforward only of maintaining their power. No theory can eliminate this fact from the world, for so life is.

[914] Thus it is only since 1770 that the banks have become centres of an economic power which made its first intervention with politics at the Congress of Vienna. Till then the banker had in the main concerned himself with bill business. The Chinese, and even the Egyptian, banks had a different significance, and the Classical banks, even in the Rome of Cæsar’s day, may best be described as cash-tills. They collected the yield of taxes in cash, and lent cash against replacement; thus the temples, with their stock of precious metal in the form of votive offerings, became “banks.” The temple of Delos, through several centuries, lent at ten per cent.

[915] The idea of the Firm took shape even in Late Gothic times as “ratio” [hence the modern French phrase “raison sociale”--Tr.] or “negotiatio.” It is impossible to render it exactly in a Classical language. Negotium meant for the Romans a concrete process, a “deal” and not a “business.”

[916] Pöhlmann, griech. Geschichte (1914), p. 216, et seq.

[917] Gercke-Norden, Einl. in der Altertumswissensch., III, p. 291.

[918] Kromayer, in Hartmann’s Röm. Gesch., p. 150.

[919] The “Jews” of those times were the Romans (p. 318), and the Jews themselves were peasants and artizans and small traders (Pârvan, Die Nationalität der Kaufleute im röm. Kaiserreiche, 1909; also Mommsen, Röm. Gesch., V, p. 471); that is, they followed the very callings that in the Gothic period became the object of their merchant activity. Present-day “Europe” is in exactly the same position vis-à-vis the Russians whose profoundly mystical inner life feels “thinking in money” as a sin. (The Pilgrim in Gorki’s Night-asylum, and Tolstoi’s thought generally; pp. 194, 278.) Here to-day as in the Syria of Jesus’s time we have two economic worlds juxtaposed (pp. 192, et seq.): an upper, alien, and civilized world intruded from the West (the Bolshevism of the first years, totally Western and un-Russian, is the lees of this infiltration), and a townless barter-life that goes on deep below, uncalculating and exchanging only for immediate needs. We have to think of the catchwords of the surface as a voice, in which the Russian, simple and busied wholly with his soul, hears resignedly the will of God. Marxism amongst Russians is based on an inward misunderstanding. They bore with the higher economic life of Petrinism, but they neither created it nor recognized it. The Russian does not fight Capital, but he does not comprehend it. Anyone who understands Dostoyevski will sense in these people a young humanity for which as yet no money exists, but only goods in relation to a life whose centre of gravity does not lie on the economical side. The horror of values supervening from nowhere which before the war drove many to suicide is a misconstrued literary disguise of the fact that, for a townless barter-thinking, money-getting by means of money is an impiety, and (from the view-point of the coming Russian religion) a sin. To-day, with the towns of Tsarism in ruin and the mankind in them living the village life under the crust (temporarily) of urban-thinking Bolshevism, he has freed himself from the Western economy. His apocalyptic hatred--the same that the simple Jew of Jesus’s day bore to the Roman--is directed against Petersburg, as a city and the seat of a political power of Western stamp, but also as the centre of a thinking in Western money that has poisoned and misdirected the whole life. The Russian of the deeps to-day is bringing into being a third kind of Christianity, still priestless, and built on the John Gospel--a Christianity that stands much nearer to the Magian than to the Faustian and, consequently, rests upon a new symbolism of baptism, and looks neither at Rome nor at Wittenberg, but past Byzantium towards Jerusalem, with premonitions of coming crusades. This is the only thing that this new Russia really cares about. And it will no doubt let itself fall once again under the economy of the West, as the primitive Christian submitted to the Romans and the Gothic Christian to the Jews. But inwardly it has no part nor lot therein. (Cf. pp. 192, 226, 278, 293, 295.)

[920] See the article “Diocletian, Edict of,” Ency. Brit., XI ed.--Tr.

[921] P. 6.

[922] Pp. 9 et seq.

[923] P. 25.

[924] P. 25.

[925] P. 268.

[926] P. 134.

[927] Pp. 25, et seq.; 267, et seq.

[928] And not vice versa. Cf. p. 268.

[929] The “correctness” of physical data (i.e., their applicability never disproved up to date, and therefore ranking as an interpretation) is wholly independent of their technical value. An undoubtedly wrong, and even self-contradictory, theory may be more valuable for practical purposes than a “correct” and profound one, and physical science has long been careful to avoid applying the words “right” and “wrong” in the popular sense, and to regard their syntheses as images rather than flat formulæ.

[930] What Diels has managed to assemble in his work Antike Technik amounts to a comprehensive nullity. If we take away from it what belongs to the older Babylonian Civilization (such as water clocks and sun-dials) and to the younger Arabian Springtime (such as chemistry or the wonder-clock of Gaza), there is nothing left but devices, such as door-locks of a sort, that it would be an insult to attribute to any other Culture.

[931] The Chinese Culture, too, made almost all these European discoveries on its own account--including compass, telescope, printing, gunpowder, paper, porcelain--but the Chinese did not wrest, but wheedled, things out of Nature. No doubt he felt the advantages of his knowledge and turned it to account, but he did not hurl himself upon it to exploit it.

[932] P. 301.

[933] It is the same spirit that distinguishes the Jewish, Parsee, Armenian, Greek, and Arab ideas of business from that of the Western peoples.

[934] P. 301. Albertus Magnus lived on in legend as the great magician. Roger Bacon meditated upon steam-engines, steamships, and aircraft. (F. Strunz, Gesch. d. Naturwiss. im Mittelalter, 1910, p. 88.)

[935] P. 268. According to Roger Bacon the “third rôle of science,” which is not relative to the other sciences, consists in the power that makes it to search the secrets of nature, to discover past and future, and to produce so many marvellous results that power is assured to those who possess it.... The Church should take it into consideration in order to spare Christian blood in the struggle with the infidel and above all in preparation for the perils that will menace us in the days of Antichrist (E. Gilson, Philosophie au Moyen Âge, p. 218).--Tr.

[936] P. 288.

[937] Greek fire was only to terrify and to ignite, but here the tense force of the gases of explosion are converted into energy of motion. Anyone who seriously compares the two does not understand the spirit of the Western technique.

[938] Marx is quite right; it is one of the creations (and what is more, the proudest creation) of the bourgeoisie. But, spellbound as he is by the ancient-mediæval-modern scheme, he has failed to note that it is only the bourgeoisie of this one single Culture that is master of the destiny of the Machine. So long as it dominates the earth, every non-European tries and will try to fathom the secret of this terrible weapon. Nevertheless, inwardly he abhors it, be he Indian or Japanese, Russian or Arab. It is something fundamental in the essence of the Magian soul that leads the Jew, as entrepreneur and engineer, to stand aside from the creation proper of machines and devote himself to the business side of their production. But so also the Russian looks with fear and hatred at this tyranny of wheels, cables, and rails, and if he adapts himself for to-day and to-morrow to the inevitable, yet there will come a time when he will blot out the whole thing from his memory and his environment, and create about himself a wholly new world, in which nothing of this Devil’s technique is left.

[939] Compared with this mighty contest between the two handfuls of steel-hard men of race and of immense intellect--which the simple citizen neither observes nor comprehends--the battle of mere interests between the employing class and the workers’ Socialism sinks into insignificance when regarded from the distant world-historical view-point. The working-class movement is what its leaders make of it, and hatred of the owner has long enlisted itself in the service of the bourse. Practical communism with its “class-war”--to-day a long obsolete and adulterated phrase--is nothing but the trusty henchman of big Capital, which knows perfectly well how to make use of it.

[940] In this sense the interest-politics of the workers’ movements also belong to it, in that their object is not to overcome the money-values, but to possess them.

[941] P. 345.

Transcriber’s notes

Apparent typographical errors in English were silently corrected, while non-English text is almost always rendered as printed, with occasional corrections (especially in citations) when further inquiry was made. The index contained dozens of incorrectly spelled or variant proper nouns; where this was noticed, the index spelling was made consistent with the main text. The index entry was not moved even if the new spelling would require it.

Any “{sic}” in this text is the transcriber’s.

Redundant part-title pages for chapters have been removed. This accounts for three-page gaps in page numbering (including associated blank pages) in the formats that display page numbers.

Chapter XI lacks a section numbered IX. This error was not corrected in later reprints (e.g. Knopf 1965). Chapter IV does not have an explicit section I.