Opening
(To face p. 1.)
[All rights reserved.
=THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN:=
=A COMPENDIUM PREPARED BY OFFICERS OF THE SUDAN GOVERNMENT.=
EDITED BY LIEUT.-COLONEL COUNT GLEICHEN, C.V.O., C.M.G., D.S.O. (Late Director of Intelligence, Sudan Government and Egyptian Army, and Sudan Agent, Cairo.)
* * * * * IN TWO VOLUMES. * * * * *
=VOLUME I.= (GEOGRAPHICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, AND HISTORICAL.) (With eighty-two illustrations.) * * * * *
LONDON: PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE, BY HARRISON AND SONS, ST. MARTIN’S LANE, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY. * * * * * And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from WYMAN AND SONS, LTD., FETTER LANE E.C.; or OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH; or E. PONSONBY, 116, GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN. * * * * * 1905. Price Ten Shillings.
(Wt. 8207 1500 9 | 05—H & S 3874)
PREFACE. * * * * *
The following pages contain a comprehensive description of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1905. This includes revision and amplification of the “Handbook of the Sudan” (1898) and of the “Supplement to the Handbook of the Sudan” (1899), besides a great deal of additional information as to the resources, development, administration, commerce, etc., of the country, shewing its progress since 1899. It may, however, be well understood that the description of many parts of the country is still far from complete.
The chapters have been compiled by various officers in the Sudan Administration; but the main work of editing and revision has fallen on Lieut.-Colonel Count Gleichen (the Editor), who, from the somewhat indiscriminate mass of reports, documents and books at his disposal, has evolved a compendium which cannot fail to be of great use and value to the officers and officials of the Sudan Government. I even venture to hope that such of the general public as may be interested in this vast country, its history, and its future, will find in the following pages a useful work of reference until a more complete and comprehensive work is forthcoming.
[The loss to the Sudan Government of the services of Count Gleichen, who, since he undertook this work, has been transferred to the Military Attachéship at Berlin, is much to be regretted, and that he should have been able to continue the compilation in his new position speaks volumes for his industry and capacity.]
The Editor’s thanks are particularly due to Sir William Garstin, G.C.M.G., and Captain Lyons (Director of Egyptian Government Surveys) for a mass of valuable information about the White Nile, and to Captain H. H. S. Morant (Assistant Director of Intelligence), for assistance rendered in compiling and editing.
The work has been divided into three Parts (Geographical and Descriptive, Historical, and Routes); the last Part, for convenience of practical reference, being bound separately (by chapters) as the second volume.
[For practical purposes of travel, sport, etc., the books noted on p. 213 will be found indispensable.]
REGINALD WINGATE, Major-General,
Sirdar and Governor-General of the Sudan.
Khartoum, 9th January, 1905.
EDITORIAL NOTE.—The indulgence of readers is requested in the matter of possible small errors in cross references, Index, etc., for, during the progress of the work through the press in London, the majority of the compilers and proof-correctors have been in the Sudan and the Editor in Germany.—G.
Berlin, 23rd March, 1905.
Part I
=TABLE OF CONTENTS.=
* * * * *
Part I
(GEOGRAPHICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE.)
* * * * *
I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
(The Editor.)
PAGE
Boundaries; Population; Towns; Administration 1
Army 3
Revenue and Expenditure. (Bernard) 4
Communications 7
Resources and Commerce 7
Justice. (Bonham-Carter) 9
Religion 10
Education; Climate 11
Game; Slavery; Forests. (Broun) 12
II. THE WHITE NILE
(The Editor.)
(i) Introductory — General — Flood — Historical 15
(ii) General Description (down stream); Albert Nyanza to Mediterranean 16
(iii) River Discharges 17
(iv) Navigability: Boats and Steamers; Landing Places 19
(v) Climate: Winds; Temperature 21
(vi) Detailed Description (up stream);
Section (1). — Halfa to Merowe 22
(2). — Merowe to Khartoum 35
Description of Khartoum and Omdurman 47
(3). — Khartoum to Lake No 52
(4). — Lake No to Gondokoro. (Garstin and Lyons) 73
III. NORTH-EASTERN SUDAN
(Morant.)
(Country bounded on the north by the Sudan-Egyptian frontier, on the west by the Nile from that frontier to the mouth of the Atbara, on the south by the Atbara and Abyssinian and Eritrean frontiers, and on the east by the Red Sea.)
Section 1. — Country between Halfa and the Atbara mouth, along the Nile banks. (Jackson, Hayes-Sadler, etc.) 83
„ 2. — Country between Halfa, Berber, Suakin, and the intersection of the 22nd parallel with the Red Sea:—
(a) Between the Railway and the Nile. (Talbot) 85
(b) East of the Railway (or “the Atbai”). (Talbot, Bramly, Longfield) 86
(c) The Bisharin. (Bramly) 91
(d) The Ababda. (Hopkinson and Bramly) 93
„ 3. — Suakin and District (Playfair, Kerr, etc.) 94
„ 4. — Country between the Berber-Suakin road, the Atbara, and the Abyssinian and Eritrean frontiers:—
(a) Country between the Berber-Suakin road and latitude of Kassala. (Parker) 96
(b) Kassala 97
(c) The Khor Gash 99
(d) Country south of Kassala to the Setit 99
(e) „ „ the Setit 99
(f) The Atbara and Tributaries 100
IV. CENTRAL EASTERN SUDAN
(Morant.)
(Country between the Nile and Abyssinia, bounded by the Atbara and the Blue Nile.)
Section 1. — Country between the Atbara and the Niles, from El Damer southwards to the Abu Haraz-Sofi line 103
„ 2. — Gedaref and District 106
„ 3. — Gallabat and District 107
„ 4. — Country between Blue Nile, Dinder, and Rahad, with description of these rivers 109
Table of distances on the Blue Nile 115
V. CENTRAL SUDAN
(Morant.)
(Country between the White Nile and Abyssinia, bounded by the Blue Nile and Sobat.)
Section 1. — The Gezira (Khartoum to the Sennar-Goz Abu Guma line) 117
„ 2. — Country south of Sennar-Goz Abu Guma line:—
(a) General Description 119
(b) Dar Fung (including Burun and Keili). (Gwynn and Gorringe) 122
(c) Fazogli. (Smyth) 123
(d) The Dinkas on White Nile. (Wilson) 126
(e) Selim Baggara 130
VI. SOUTH-EASTERN SUDAN
(Morant.)
(The Sobat and tributaries, and country south of the Sobat and north of N. lat. 5° between the Abyssinian frontier and the Bahr El Jebel, including description of the Bahr El Zeraf, R. Atem, etc.)
Section 1. — Sobat and tributaries 131
„ 2. — The country south of the Sobat and north of N. lat. 5°, between Bahr El Jebel and Abyssinian frontier:—
(a) General description 141
(b) Bahr El Zeraf. (Wilson) 142
(c) R. Awai or Atem. (Liddell) 144
(d) Bor and south. (Türstig and Borton) 144
(e) The Beri tribe. (Borton) 147
(f) Country south of the Akobo. (Austin) 148
(g) The Upper Pibor. (Comyn) 151
Table of distances on the Sobat 152
VII. SOUTH-WESTERN SUDAN
(Boulnois.)
(THE BAHR EL GHAZAL.)
1. Introductory 153
2. General Description 153
3. Rivers and Water Supply 154
4. Administration 154
5. Resources. (Boulnois and Broun) 154
6. Climate and Hygiene. (Haymes) 156
7. Forestry. (Broun) 157
8. Communications and Transport 159
9. Tribes 159
10. Game 161
11. Religious Beliefs. (Cummins) 162
12. Dinka and Bongo Vocabulary. (Cummins and Türstig) 163
13. Itinerary of Bahr el Ghazal River:—Lake No to Meshra el Rek. (Garstin, Peake, Editor, etc.) 165
VIII. WESTERN SUDAN
(The Editor.)
(KORDOFAN, DARFUR, AND SHILLUK COUNTRY.)
Section 1. — Kordofan. (Lloyd):—
1. General Description 173
2. Inhabitants 178
3. Towns 181
4. Animals 182
5. Climate and Health. (Stallard) 183
„ 2. — Darfur. (Morant) 184
„ 3. — The Shilluks and their Country. (Editor, etc.) 192
Appendix: History and Religion of Shilluks. (Banholzer, Giffen, etc.) 197
IX. NORTH-WESTERN SUDAN
(Morant.)
(Country west of the Nile, south of latitude 22° and north of Kordofan.)
Section 1. — Desert west of the Nile and north and west of Wadi El Gab). (Hodgson, Currie, etc.) 201
„ 2. — Wadi El Gab. (Turner, Colvile, Hunter, Garstin) 204
„ 3. — “Bayuda Desert.” (Fowler, etc.) 207
Report on El Ein. (Carey) 210
X. COMMUNICATIONS
(The Editor.)
Section 1. — Railways. (Macauley) 213
„ 2. — River Communications. (Bond) 215
„ 3. — Roads 217
„ 4. — Riding and Transport Animals 217
„ 5. — Posts and Telegraphs. (Liddell) 218
* * * * *
Part II
(HISTORICAL.)
(The Editor.[1])
* * * * *
Chapter I
From the earliest times to the Arab Invasion (A.D. 640) 221
Chapter II
From the Arab Invasion to the time of Mohammed Ali 227
Chapter III
From Mohammed Ali’s conquest (1819) to the end of 1882 231
Chapter IV
Events on the Nile from 1882 to May, 1898 247
Chapter V
The remainder of the Sudan from 1882 to May, 1898:—
(a) Darfur, Kordofan and Dar Fertit 255
(b) The Eastern Sudan 257
(c) Bahr el Ghazal and Equatoria 259
Chapter VI
From May, 1898, to the final destruction of the Dervish power (end of 1899) 265
Chapter VII
From 1900 onwards 273
Governors-General of the Sudan 280
APPENDICES TO VOL. I.
* * * * *
A.—TEXTS OF TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS REGARDING THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN.
1. Sudan Agreement, 19.1.99 (Great Britain and Egypt) 283
2. Suakin Annex to above, 10.7.99 (Great Britain and Egypt) 285
3. Declaration re Spheres of Influence, 21.3.99 (Great Britain and France) 285
4. Agreement re Bahr El Ghazal, 12.5.94 (Great Britain and Congo Free State) 286
4A. Withdrawal of clause of above, 22.6.94 „ „ „ 288
5. Agreement re Tribes between Khor Baraka and Red Sea (Kitchener—Baratieri), 25.6.95/7.7 (Egypt and Eritrea) 288
6. Agreement re Frontier between Red Sea and Khor Baraka (Parsons—Martini), 7.12.98 (Egypt and Eritrea) 289
7. Delimitation of Frontier between Khor Baraka and Sabderat (Walter—Bongiovanni), 1.6.99 (Sudan and Eritrea) 289
8. Description of Frontier between Sabderat and Todluk (Talbot—Colli), 16.4.01 (Sudan and Eritrea) 290
9. Description of Frontier between Abu Gamal and Setit (Talbot—Martinelli), 18.2.03 (Sudan and Eritrea) 290
10. Declaration re Sudan—Eritrean—Abyssinian Frontier, Rome, 22.11.01 (Sudan and Eritrea) 291
11. Grazing Agreement (Collinson—Martini), 28.2.01 (Sudan and Eritrea) 291
12. Customs Convention, Rome, 26.11.01 (Sudan and Eritrea). (Martini—Gleichen) 292
13. Postal „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 294
14. Telegraph „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 294
15. Treaty re Frontier, etc., 15.5.02 (Great Britain and Abyssinia) 295
16. „ „ „ (Great Britain, Eritrea, and Abyssinia) 296
17. Duties on Uganda goods, 21.4.02 (Sudan and Uganda) 297
TREATIES INDIRECTLY AFFECTING THE SUDAN.
18. Agreement re Bahr El Ghazal, etc., 14.8.94 (France and Congo Free State) 297
19. „ Frontier, 10.7.00 (Eritrea and Abyssinia) 298
20. [2]Berlin Act, 26.2.85: Free Trade in Congo Basin, etc. —
21. [2]Brussels Act, 2.7.90 (in force since 2.4.94): Slave Trade, Firearms, Ammunition, etc. Amongst others, Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Turkey and Abyssinia are Signatories —
B. — THE SUDD. (Garstin, Broun, the Editor, etc.) 299
C. — ZOOLOGY OF THE SUDAN. (Butler) 307
D. — ANTIQUITIES OF THE SUDAN. (Crowfoot and Editor) 311
E. — ETHNOLOGY OF THE SUDAN. (Crowfoot) 317
F. — LIST OF TRIBES AND SHEIKHS. (Slatin, Morant, etc.) 322
G. — BOUNDARIES OF PROVINCES 335
H. — BIBLIOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY. (The Editor) 339
INDEX 351
General Map of Sudan (1:4,000,000) at end.
* * * * *
Part III
(Bound as Vol. 2.)
(ROUTES.)
(Arranged in Chapters corresponding to Chapters III to IX (inclusive) of Part I., besides an Appendix, describing routes partly outside the Sudan. For detail, see “Contents” in Vol. 2.)
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. * * * * *
PAGE
The Sovereigns of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (frontispiece) to face 1
Khartoum Palace, from the river. (D. J.) 1
Market scene, Gezira. (D. J.) 8
The Earl of Cromer and Sir W. Garstin to face 15
The Eastern Nile bank, south of Halfa. (K.) 22
Jaalin Shepherd scene; corn-grinding stones, Omdurman. 46 (T.)
The Governor-General and Sirdar 48
Khartoum, looking north from the War Office roof over 51 Tuti Island. (K.)
„ Palace, and garden, from the south-west. (K.) 51
Jebelein (G.); Wooding station near Goz Abu Guma; Jebel 61 Ahmed Agha. (G.)
Akunere, Shilluk village (T.); Shilluk maiden with 65 household utensils. (T.)
Kodok: Roman Catholic Mission Station, Lul. (T.) 69
Taufikia. (G.) 71
Lake No; Shambe 72
Kiro. (P.); Lado. (P.) 78
Gondokoro 81
Mongalla. (G.) 82
On the Blue Nile. (T.) 110
Forest scenery, west bank, Upper Blue Nile. (D. J.) 112
On the Blue Nile. (D. J.) 112
Scenes in the Southern Gezira. (D. J.) 116
In the Dar el Fung; village scene, Burun country. (D. J.) 121
Ingássana village; hill scenery, Dar el Fung (D. J.) 124
Dinka: man and girl. (T.) 127
American Protestant Mission, Sobat. (M.) 133
The Bahr el Zeraf. (G.) 141
Anuak women at Itang. (M.) 150
Woman of Dar Fertit. (T.) 164
Bahr el Ghazal. (G.); River Rohl. (G.) 171
Kordofan Arabs with Chief. (S. D.) 174
Taaisha (Baggara) girl. (T.) 178
Nuba woman, daughter, and baby. (T.) 180
Darfur girl. (T.) 186
Old woman, Darfur. (T.) 187
The Darfur Mahmal passing through Omdurman 188
Shilluk. (T.) 192
„ warriors. (T.) 195
Mek Kur wad Nedok. (T.); Shilluks on a visit. (T.) 198
Shilluk village scene. (T.) 200
Dongolawi merchant. (T.) 203
Bayuda Desert Arabs. (S. D.) 207
Colossal ram of Amenhotep III., Jebel Barkal. (W.) 223
Ethiopian King from Meroe. (W.) 224
One of the animals at Nagaa. (W.) 226
Stone lamb from Soba. (W.) 228
Sudanese women. (T.) 233
„ maiden. (T.) 244
Sir R. von Slatin Pasha 245
General Gordon to face 247
F.-M. Viscount Wolseley 249
Types of Sudanese soldiers.—The raw material. (T.) 250
„ „ „ —The finished article. (T.) 251
Khalifa’s house, Omdurman. (S. D.) 252
Captured Dervish Emirs. (J. K. W.) 254
Old woman of Dar Nuba. (T.) 264
General Viscount Kitchener to face 265
The Mahdi’s tomb, 3rd September, 1898. (S. D.) 266
The late Emir Ahmed Fedil. (J. K. W.) 267
After Um Debreikat; body of the Khalifa in foreground. 269 (J. K. W.).
The end of the Mahdist dominion. (J. K. W.) 272
Sons of the Mahdi and Khalifa 275
Lord Kitchener at the Gordon College, Khartoum. (K.) 281
Sudd-scape 299
Ambach 302
Papyrus. (G.) 305
Balaeniceps Rex at Khartoum. (W.) 309
Nagaa: Egypto-Roman buildings in the desert. (L.) 314
The above are from photographs by the following gentlemen, to all of whom, especially to the three first named, the warm thanks of the Editor are due for the kind permission granted to him to use the photographs, and in many cases the blocks themselves. Those not initialled above are acknowledged on the illustrations themselves.
T. Mr. B. Türstig, Omdurman.
G. Sir Wm. Garstin.
D. J. Mr. Digby Jones.
K. Mr. Hallil Kemeid, Editor “Standard Guide to Egypt and Sudan.”
L. Captain Longfield, Egyptian Army.
M. Captain H. H. S. Morant, Egyptian Army.
P. Major Phipps, Egyptian Army.
S. D. Lt.-Col. Stanton, Egyptian Anny, per Mr. Dennis, Scarborough.
W. Mr. John Ward, F.S.A., Belfast.
J. K. W. Lt.-Col. Watson, Egyptian Army.
Those entirely unacknowledged are by the Editor and his sister.
ABBREVIATIONS (v. APPENDIX H.). * * * * *
H. S. C. History of Sudan Campaign. (Colvile.)
O. G. H. The Nile above the 2nd Cataract. (O’Grady Haly.)
N. O. Report on the Nile and Country between Dongola, Suakin, Kassala and Omdurman (Gleichen).
H. S. Handbook of the Sudan (Gleichen).
S. H. S. Supplement to Handbook of the Sudan. (Gleichen.)
A. Arabic.
D. Dinka.
S. Shilluk.
N.B.—According to the latest system of transliteration, many words formerly spelt with a “k” (Kâf ق are now spelt with a “g,” e.g., Wadi el Gab, Yagub, etc. The word for hill is always spelt Jebel, whether pronounced hard or soft.
* * * * *
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO VOL. I.[3] * * * * *
E.A. = Egyptian Army; S.G. = Sudan Government.
Mr. C. H. Armbruster, Deputy Inspector, Kassala.
Attia Effendi, Intelligence Department.
Maj. Austin, C.M.G., D.S.O.
Rev. Father Banholzer, R.C. Mission, Lul.
Dr. A. Balfour, Sanitary Adviser to S.G.
Lt.-Col. E. E. Bernard, Financial Secretary S.G.
Lieut. Bond, R.N., Director of Steamers and Boats.
Capt. N. Borton, Inspector, Mongalla.
Maj. W. Boulnois, Governor Bahr el Ghazal Province.
Mr. A. Jennings-Bramly, Deputy Inspector S.G.
Mr. A. F. Broun, Director of Woods and Forests.
Mr. Bulpett.
Mr. A. L. Butler, Superintendent Game Preservation Department.
Mr. G. R. Carey, Mining Engineer.
Mr. C. E. Bonham-Carter, Legal Secretary S.G.
The Earl of Cromer, G.C.B., etc., etc.
Mr. J. W. Crowfoot, Sudan Education Department.
Col. H. E. Colvile.
Lieut. D. Comyn, Inspector, Upper Nile Province
Capt. S. L. Cummins, R.A.M.C., E.A.
Mr. J. Currie, Director of Education.
Capt. W. Doran, late E.A.
Capt. Dugmore.
Sir J. Fowler, C.E.
Sir W. Garstin, G.C.M.G., Under Secretary of State for Public Works (Egypt).
Rev. J. K. Giffen, American Protestant Mission, Sobat.
Lt.-Col. Count Gleichen, C.V.O., C.M.G., D.S.O., Editor.
Lt.-Col. G. F. Gorringe, C.M.G., D.S.O., R.E., Governor Sennar Province.
Maj. C. W. Gwynn, C.M.G., D.S.O., R.E., Sudan Surveys.
Rev. Ll. Gwynne, Chaplain, Khartoum.
The late Capt. Haymes, R.A.M.C.
Col. St. G. C. Henry, C.B., A.G., late Governor of Kassala.
Maj. Sir H. B. Hill, Bt., Governor of Berber.
Capt. H. G. Hodgson, Inspector, Dongola.
Maj. H. C. B. Hopkinson, Commandant Alexandria Police, late E.A.
Col. A. Hunter, late E.A.
Col. H. W. Jackson, C.B., Governor of Dongola.
Mr. B. H. Jessen.
Capt. Julien, French Army.
Mr. Kerr, Deputy Inspector, S.G., Suakin.
Commander Colin Keppel, R.N.
Capt. C. H. Leveson, Inspector, Kordofan.
Capt. J. S. Liddell, Director Posts and Telegraphs.
Capt. H. D. W. Lloyd, Inspector, Nahud.
Capt. W. E. Longfield, S.G. Railways.
Capt. H. G. Lyons, late R.E., Director Egyptian Government Surveys.
Maj. G. B. Macauley, Director Sudan Railways.
Maj. G. E. Matthews, Governor of Upper Nile Province.
Maj. W. S. R. May, A.F.S., S.G.
Capt. H. H. S. Morant, Assistant Director of Intelligence, Sudan.
Naum Bey Shoucair, Sudan Agent’s Office.
Mr. Oscar Neumann, Berlin.
Maj. M. Peake, C.M.G., Director of Artillery, E.A.
Capt. A. C. Parker, Deputy Assistant Secretary, S.G.
Capt. N. Playfair, late Acting Governor, Suakin.
Commander R. Poore, R.N.
Capt. W. Hayes-Sadler, Governor, Halfa Province.
Capt. R. V. Savile, Inspector, Kassala.
Maj. Slade, R.A.
Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pasha, K.C.M.G., Inspector General, S.G.
Maj. N. M. Smyth, V.C., late E.A.
Col. W. S. Sparkes, C.M.G., late Governor Bahr el Ghazal.
Mr. Spires, Collector, Gondokoro.
Capt. H. G. F. Stallard, R.A.M.C.
Maj. E. A. Stanton, Governor of Khartoum.
Col. Hon. M. G. Talbot, Director of Surveys, Sudan.
Lt.-Col. A. E. Turner, late R.A.
Mr. R. Türstig, Photographer, Omdurman.
Mr. J. Ward, F.S.A.
Maj. E. B. Wilkinson, Governor of Kassala.
Capt. H. H. Wilson, Inspector, Sobat.
Maj.-Gen. Sir F. R. Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O., Sirdar and Governor-General, Sudan.
[Footnote 1: Except part of Chapter II and most of Chapter III (taken from “Report on Egyptian Provinces of Sudan,” I.D.W.O., 1884).]
[Footnote 2: Not printed here, but text may be found in Hertslet’s “Map of Africa by Treaty,” 1896 Edition, pp. 20 to 47, and pp. 48 to 106 respectively.]
[Footnote 3: Including those whose works or reports have been utilised.]
=PART I.=
* * * * *
Chapter I
* * * * *
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
[Sidenote: Boundaries.]
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan comprises that country which is bounded on the north by the 22nd parallel of north latitude; on the east by the Red Sea, Eritrea, and Abyssinia; on the west and south-west by a line running through the Libyan Desert (defined by the Anglo-French Agreement of March, 1899), by the Sultanate of Wadai, and by the line of rising ground forming the watershed between the Congo and Shari on one side, and the Nile on the other; and on the south by the Lado Enclave[4] and east of the Nile, the 5th parallel of north latitude.
The greatest length from north to south is about 1,250 miles, and from east to west about 1,080 miles. (Vide Appendix A for text of Frontier treaties.)
[Sidenote: Area and population.]
The estimated area of the territory is about 1,006,000 square miles, and the population about 2,000,000. For distribution of population vide Appendix F., p. 322.
[Sidenote: Capital and main towns.]
The capital and seat of Government of the country is Khartoum, situated at the junction of the White and Blue Niles (lat. 15° 36′, long. 32° 32′), and distant, as the crow flies, about 1,250 miles from the Mediterranean Sea. (For description see Chap. II, p. 49.)
The other chief towns of the country are Khartoum North (formerly termed Halfaya) and Omdurman (close to Khartoum), Halfa, Merowe, Berber, Wad Medani, Kassala, Suakin, Dueim, and El Obeid. (Detailed descriptions will be found in the various chapters dealing with them.)
ADMINISTRATION.
The Sudan is administered by a Governor-General (who is at present also Sirdar of the Egyptian Army) and under him by Mudirs (governors of provinces), assisted by inspectors and deputy inspectors[5] (British: military and civilian), and by Mamurs (Egyptian or Native officers).
The text of the agreement of 1899, on which the administration is based, provides for the administration of the territory south of the 22nd parallel of latitude by a Governor-General, appointed by Egypt with the assent of Great Britain, and declares the general principles in accordance with which the administration shall be carried on. The British and Egyptian flags shall be used together; laws shall be made by proclamation; no duties shall be levied on imports from Egypt, and duties on imports from other countries shall not exceed those levied in Egypt; the import and export of slaves is prohibited, and special attention shall be paid to the Brussels Act of 1890 respecting the import and export of arms, ammunition, and spirits.
The “Capitulations” are not in force in the Sudan, nor are there any foreign Consuls.
The Sudan is divided into eight first class and four second class Provinces, as follows:—
-------------------------------+-------------- Province. | Chief Town. -------------------------------+-------------- FIRST CLASS. | | Bahr El Ghazal | Wau | Berber | El Damer | Dongola | Merowe | Kassala | Kassala | Khartoum | Khartoum | Kordofan | El Obeid | Sennar | Senga | Upper Nile | Kodok | SECOND CLASS. | | Halfa | Halfa | Suakin | Suakin | Gezira (Blue Nile) | Wad Medaui | White Nile | Dueim -------------------------------+--------------
Each Province is divided into a varying number of Districts, each of which is under an Egyptian or native Mamur, as follows:—
--------------------+--------------------------- Province. | District. --------------------+--------------------------- FIRST CLASS. | | |{ Deim Zubeir |{ Bahr El Ghazal |{ Wau |{ |{ Rumbek | |{ Robatab |{ |{ Berber Town |{ Berber |{ „ District |{ |{ El Damer |{ |{ Shendi | |{ Argo |{ |{ Dongola |{ |{ Khandak Dongola |{ |{ Debba |{ |{ Korti |{ |{ Merowe | |{ Kassala |{ Kassala |{ Gedaref |{ |{ Gallabat | |{ Khartoum |{ Khartoum |{ Omdurman |{ |{ Wad Ramla | |{ El Obeid |{ |{ Bara |{ |{ Khursi (Um Dam) |{ |{ Taiara Kordofan |{ |{ Nahud |{ |{ Dilling |{ |{ Tendik |{ |{ Nuba Mountains (Talodi) | |{ Sennar |{ |{ Senga |{ |{ Abu Naama Sennar |{ |{ Dinder (Abu Hashim) |{ |{ Roseires |{ |{ Dar Fung (Soda) | |{ Renk |{ |{ Kodok |{ Upper Nile |{ Taufikia |{ |{ Sobat |{ |{ Mongalla | SECOND CLASS. | | |{ Abu Deleig |{ |{ Kamlin |{ |{ Rufaa Gezira (Blue Nile) |{ |{ Mesellemia |{ |{ Wad Medani |{ |{ Managil | |{ Halfa |{ Halfa |{ Mahas (Dalgo) |{ |{ Sukkot (Kosha) | |{ Suakin Suakin |{ |{ Tokar | |{ Geteina |{ |{ Dueim White Nile |{ |{ Kawa |{ |{ Gedid --------------------+---------------------------
The chief Government officials, besides the Governor-General, are the Secretary-General, the Director of Intelligence and Agent-General (Cairo), the Inspector-General, the Legal Secretary, Financial Secretary, Director of Surveys, Director of Works, Director of Education, Director-General of Irrigation,[6] Principal Medical Officer, Director of Woods and Forests, Director of Agriculture and Lands, Director of Railways, Director of Steamers and Boats, Director of Telegraphs and Posts, Director of Customs, Principal Veterinary Officer, Director of Slavery Repression Department[6], and Superintendent of Game Preservation Department.
The duties of these officials sufficiently explain themselves by their titles.
The following are the names, at present (1904), of the chief officials:—
Governor-General Major-General Sir F. Reginald Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O.
Secretary-General Colonel F. J. Nason, D.S.O.
Inspector-General El Lewa Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pasha, K.C.M.G, C.V.O., C.B.
Legal Secretary E. Bonham-Carter, Esq.
Agent-General, Cairo Lieut.-Colonel Lord E. Cecil, D.S.O.
Financial Secretary „ „ E. E. Bernard.
All the above (with the exception of the Legal Secretary, the Directors of Education, Woods and Forests, Superintendent of Game Preservation, and Director of Agriculture and Lands, who are civilians) are at present British[7] officers attached to the Egyptian Army.
In addition to one British battalion, at present furnished by the British Army of Occupation in Egypt and The Army quartered at Khartoum, nearly the whole of the Egyptian Army may be said to be in the Sudan. The normal garrisons of the Sudan are as follows:—
[B.: British. E.: Egyptian. S.: Sudanese. H.B.: Horse Battery. F.B.: Field Battery. G.C.: Garrison Company. Misc.: Miscellaneous]
----------+--------------+-----------+--------------------+----------- | Battalions. |Squadrons. | Artillery. | Misc. Province.+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+Additional | B. | E. | S. | E. | S. | H.B. | F.B. | G.C. |Troops.[8] ----------+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+----------- Bahr El | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |276 men, Ghazal | | | | | | | | |Gehadia. | | | | | | | | | Berber | — | ½ | — | 3 | 1 | — | 1 | — | — | | | | | | | | | Dongola | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | | | | | | | | Halfa | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |1 Railway | | | | | | | | |Battalion. | | | | | | | | | Kassala | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |1 | | | | | | | | |Battalion | | | | | | | | |Arab | | | | | | | | |Camel | | | | | | | | |Corps. | | | | | | | | | Khartoum | 1 | 4 | 1 | — | — | 1 | 2 | 2 |Hd.-Qrs. | | | | | |(Max.)| | |A.G.’s | | | | | | | | |Dept. and | | | | | | | | |Works | | | | | | | | |Dept. | | | | | | | | | Kordofan | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |4 | | | | | | | | |Companies | | | | | | | | |Camel | | | | | | | | |Corps (3 | | | | | | | | |Arab, 1 | | | | | | | | |Sudanese). | | | | | | | | | Sennar | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | — | | | | | | | | | Suakin | — | ½ | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | | | | | | | | Upper | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | — Nile | | | | | | | | | +----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+ Totals | 1 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | ----------+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+-----------
As a rule, the Governor of the Province, being the senior British officer, is in Military command of the troops in his Province.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
The following gives a table of revenue and expenditure since 1899:—
----------+----------+--------------+----------- Year. | Revenue. | Expenditure. | Deficit. ----------+----------+--------------+----------- | £E. | £E. | £E. | | | 1899 | 126,596 | 511,693 | 385,097 | | | 1900 | 156,888 | 614,780 | 457,892 | | | 1901 | 242,309 | 629,969 | 387,660 | | | 1902 | 270,226 | 639,493 | 369,267 | | | 1903 | 462,605 | 810,019 | 347,414 | | | 1904 | 531,000 | 815,500 | 284,500 | | | 1905[9] | 535,883 | 915,646 | 379,763 ----------+----------+--------------+----------- 1 £E. = 100 piastres = £1 0_s._ 6_d._
The deficit is made up by the Egyptian Government, which now contributes annually to the cost of Civil and Military Administration in the Sudan the nominal sum of about £E.380,000. The actual sum contributed is, however, not really so large as this, for about £E.60,000 is paid in Customs dues in Egypt on goods going to the Sudan, which sum is absorbed by the Egyptian Government; and the Sudan Government pays the Egyptian Government an annual amount of between £E.122,000 and £E.282,000 (£E.186,757 in 1905) for the maintenance of that portion of the army which is in the Sudan.
Some changes were introduced into the system of accounts in 1903 which caused a considerable increase in the figures on both sides of the Budget of that year as compared with those for previous years, but this increase was apparent only and did not affect the amount of the contribution by the Egyptian Government towards the Civil and Military expenditure of the Sudan Government.
Besides the above budgetary expenditure, additional credits to the extent of £E.1,060,114 have been authorised since 1899, principally for completing and improving the railway between Halfa and Khartoum, for telegraph extensions, public works and for other purposes. Moreover, the entire cost of the railway now in course of construction between Suakin on the Red Sea and the Nile at a point near the Atbara River in the Berber Province, and expenditure connected with the new harbour works at Sheikh Barghout to the North of Suakin, will be borne by the Egyptian Government.
SOURCES OF REVENUE AND TAXATION.
The revenue is derived at present from the following taxes, etc., which are imposed according to the circumstances of the Province:—
Land Tax.
Date Tax.
Animal Tax.
Road Tax.
House Tax.
Boat Tax.
Tribute from Tribes.
Royalties.
Customs.
Sales (of Government properties, etc.).
Woods and Forests.
Miscellaneous, including rents, ferries, licences, stamped paper, market and court fees, slaughtering dues, etc., etc.
LAND TAX.—A proportion of this tax is derived in certain Provinces from the “Ushur,” or tenth part, tax. This is assessed on the value of the products of the land, and is paid sometimes in kind, but generally in cash.
The land tax is assessed on the extent and value of the irrigated land, and varies from 10 piastres to 60 piastres a feddan (acre). Rain lands pay less than irrigated lands, whilst those only recently coming under cultivation pay less than those already long cultivated, etc., etc.
The DATE TAX is levied on date palms, at the rate of 2 piastres per tree, whether male or female.
ANIMAL TAX is levied on camels, mules, sheep, horses, etc., etc., at the following rates:—
Piastres. | Piastres. | Camel 20 | Sheep 1 | Horse 3 | Head of Cattle 5 | Mule or donkey 3 | Goat ½
The ROAD TAX is a light tax levied in certain places with the object of keeping the roads open and safe, and the wells dug and in good order.
The BOAT TAX amounts to 2 piastres per ardeb capacity.
The HOUSE TAX amounts to one-twelfth of the annual rental value of the building.
The TRIBUTE FROM TRIBES is levied on those nomad tribes who own no lands or are not agriculturists. It is assessed by the Governor broadly on the value of their possessions in herds and other property.
Gum, ivory, ostrich feathers and india-rubber[10] are the articles at present which pay a ROYALTY of 20 per cent. ad valorem to Government. The Royalty on ivory has been recently reduced to 15 per cent. as a temporary and tentative measure.
SALES AND MISCELLANEOUS explain themselves.
[Sidenote: Budget.]
The following are the special services and estimated receipts and expenditure for 1904-5:—
SPECIAL SERVICES.
------------------------------------+---------------+----------------- | 1905. | 1904. ------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+-------- I.—Loans not yet wholly expended.| | | | | | | | | £E. | £E. | £E. | £E. | | | | _Loan for the development of the | | |55,000| Sudan Railway_ | | | | | | | | _Loan for the purchase of iron | | |18,500| bases for Telegraph poles_ | | | | | | | | Loan for improving the Sudan |528,000| | 528,000| Railway and purchasing Rolling | | | | Stock | | | | | | | | Advance for special survey, | 10,000| | 10,000| Suakin-Berber projected Railway | | | | | | | | Advance for the construction of | 30,985| | 30,985| the Suakin Port | | | | | | | | Advance for the construction of | 15,800| | 15,800| Light-houses at Suakin | | | | | | | | Advance for the excavation of a | 16,000| | 16,000| cutting and for improving and | | | | digging wells on the Suakin-Atbara | | | | line | | | | +-------+ +--------+ | |600,785| |674,285 | | | | _II.—Credits not yet wholly | | | | expended._ | | | | | | | | Credit from Wakfs Administration | 5,000| | 10,000| for building mosques | | | | | | | | Credits from the Egyptian | | | | Government:— | | | | | | | | 1. Relief of poor Refugees | 4,000| | 4,000| | | | | 2. Extension of Telegraph line | 12,150| | | to the Bahr-el Ghazal | | | | Province | | | | | | | | 3. Partial cost of a steamer | 2,850| | | for development of trade | | | | on the Upper Nile (total | | | | cost being £E.4,000) | | | | | | | | Credits sanctioned against the | 68,200| | | surpluses of the years 1902 and | | | | 1903 | | | | +-------+ +--------+ | | 92,200| | 14,000 | | | | III.—Services outside the Budget.| | | | | | | | Gordon Memorial College | 3,590| | 3,590| +-------+ +--------+ | | 3,590| | 3,590 | +-------+ +-------- GRAND TOTAL | |696,575| |691,875 ------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
TABLE SHOWING THE SUDAN GOVERNMENT BUDGET FOR THE YEARS 1904-5.
RECEIPTS. ------------------------------------+---------------+----------------- | 1905. | 1904. ------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+-------- | £E. | £E. | £E. | £E. | | | | Khartoum | 10,657| | 9,660| | | | | Gezira (Blue Nile) | 18,049| | 25,000| | | | | Sennar | 22,489| | 22,126| | | | | White Nile | 27,833| | | | | | | Kordofan | 43,122| | 55,390| | | | | Upper Nile | 7,700| | 8,300| | | | | Bahr-el-Ghazal | 5,990| | 5,500| | | | | Kassala | 10,425| | 8,310| | | | | Berber | 18,820| | 18,000| | | | | Dongola | 32,900| | 30,900| | | | | Halfa | 12,730| | 11,300| | | | | Suakin | 10,845| | 16,000| +-------+ +--------+ | |221,560| |210,486 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Secretary General’s Department | 800| | | (Stores Section) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Legal Department | 4,000| | 3,000| | | | | Controller of Stores’ Department | | | 1,000| | | | | Education Department | 250| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Agriculture and Lands Department | 1,550| | | | | | | Game Preservation Department | 1,200| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Customs | 12,000| | | | | | | Hospitals | 795| | 600| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Khartoum Town | 8,055| | 6,000| | | | | General Central Receipts | 8,700| | 9,090| | | | | | | | | | | | | Steamers and Boats | 97,031| | 75,554| | | | | Posts and Telegraphs | 25,771| | 22,155| | | | | Railways |154,171| | 141,237| +-------+ +--------+ | |314,323| |258,636 | +-------+ +------- | |535,883| |469,122 | | | | Contribution by Egyptian Government | |379,763| |379,763 | +-------+ +------- TOTAL | |915,646| |848,885 ------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
[Continued]
EXPENDITURE. ------------------------------------+---------------+----------------- | 1905. | 1904. ------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+-------- | £E.| £E.| £E.| £E. | | | | Khartoum | 16,952| | 14,862| | | | | Gezira (Blue Nile) | 16,796| | 18,220| | | | | Sennar | 28,383| | 21,647| | | | | White Nile | 13,495| | | | | | | Kordofan | 25,352| | 24,557| | | | | Upper Nile | 18,853| | 12,617| | | | | Bahr-el-Ghazal | 25,503| | 19,117| | | | | Kassala | 16,937| | 14,615| | | | | Berber | 20,180| | 17,909| | | | | Dongola | 19,350| | 18,045| | | | | Halfa | 9,210| | 6,279| | | | | Suakin | 16,092| | 14,364| +-------+ +--------+ | |227,103| |182,232 | | | | Central Administration | | |47,187| | | | | Governor General’s Office | 5,808| | | | | | | Inspector General’s Office | 2,723| | | | | | | Secretary General’s Department | 33,358| | | | | | | Finance Department | 17,681| | | | | | | Legal Department | 18,630| | 15,760| | | | | Controller of Stores’ Department | | |16,680| | | | | Education Department | 12,806| | 8,552| | | | | Forestry Department | 15,602| | 14,289| | | | | Agriculture and Lands Department | 4,639| | | | | | | Game Preservation Department | 1,051| | 840| | | | | Prisons Department | | |12,568| | | | | Customs | 6,237| | | | | | | Hospitals | 13,584| | 10,523| | | | | Cattle Plague | 1,670| | 1,622| | | | | Survey Department | 7,909| | 5,045| | | | | Khartoum Town | 16,002| | 10,385| | | | | General Central Expenditure | 38,259| | 29,407| | | | | Public Works | 47,314| | 47,245| | | | | Steamers and Boats | 92,975| | 90,864| | | | | Posts and Telegraphs | 32,260| | 31,508| | | | | Railways |133,278| | 140,478| +-------+ +--------+ | |501,786| |482,953 | +-------+ +------- | |728,889| |665,185 | | | | Egyptian War Department for | | | | maintenance of Army in the Sudan | |186,757| |183,700 | +-------+ +------- TOTAL | |915,646| |848,885 ------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
COMMUNICATIONS.
(See Chapter X for details.)
Communication in the Sudan is maintained by:—(I) Railways; (II) River; (III) Roads.
(I) THE RAILWAY.—The Sudan Government Railway, a single line completed on the last day of 1899, runs from Halfa, crossing the Nubian desert, to Abu Hamed along the Nile bank to Khartoum North on the right bank of the Blue Nile opposite Khartoum (575 miles).
Another branch, also single, 203 miles, runs from Halfa to Kerma (35 miles north of Dongola) following the Nile. This is to be abandoned after the 31st December, 1904.
A line of railway joining Suakin on the Red Sea to the Nile near the mouth of the Atbara is now under construction; it will be of the greatest benefit to the trade and development of the Sudan. Other railway projects at present under consideration are:—Abu Hamed to Merowe, Thamiam (near Suakin) to Kassala, and Omdurman to El Obeid.
The distance between Halfa and Aswan forms the only break in the railway communication between Khartoum and the Mediterranean Sea; a service of Sudan steamers plies on this reach.
(II) RIVER.—North of Khartoum the river is navigable throughout except at the five cataracts; at certain times of the year most of these are navigable, with difficulty. South of Khartoum communication is maintained along the White and Blue Niles and their affluents. During low Nile—January to June—the Blue Nile is not navigable. The White Nile is navigable up to Gondokoro in Uganda, though there are some difficulties in the way of navigation (vide p. 73). The Sobat and Baro are not navigable from January to beginning of May.
(III) ROADS.—Roads are, and must be for some time to come, the principal means of communication in the Sudan. Transport is chiefly performed by camels, mules and donkeys. The greater part of the Sudan, being level, lends itself without much difficulty to the making of roads suitable for carriages, though draught transport has not been in use hitherto to any extent. Bullock wagons are in use in the Bahr El Ghazal.
Some automobile carriages are now being tried in the different parts of the Sudan, and have so far given fairly good results.
RESOURCES AND COMMERCE.
The chief natural resources of the Sudan at present lie in the forests of Kordofan and the Blue Nile, which produce gum (Hashab and Talh), ebony, furniture woods and fibre; and in those of the Bahr El Ghazal, which produce india-rubber, gutta-percha, etc.; also in the products of animals, such as ivory, ostrich feathers, rhinoceros horns, skins, etc.
There are large quantities of fine cattle in the country, especially on the Upper White Nile, but export of these is for the present forbidden.
As regards agricultural products, only the country lying close to the Nile and its tributaries is, as a rule, cultivated, and the people do not, so far, grow more than is necessary for their own use. The principal crops are dura (a kind of millet), beans, lentils, dukhn, sesame, onions, melons, and a little wheat and barley. In the Gezira, however, between the White and Blue Niles, and in the Gedaref district, large tracts are cultivated.
The Dongola Province is rich in date palms, and exports large quantities of dates.
There is a large opening for the growth and export of cotton. Little is grown at present, but the soil is favourable and the quality is good. Inducements, therefore, in the way of seed and promises to purchase what is grown, are being offered to the natives to cultivate this invaluable plant, and it is expected that the opening of the Nile-Red Sea Railway will considerably increase its production.
Sugar could also be grown: there was formerly a sugar factory at Kamlin.
[Sidenote: Land and settlement.]
The fertility of the land in the Sudan varies enormously, from the sterile desert wastes of Northern Kordofan and the Eastern Sudan to the rich soil bordering the river banks. There are also large tracts of fertile soil round Gedaref, Kassala and Tokar, where rich crops are grown with little effort.
Inducements are, according to circumstances, held out by the Government to would-be settlers in the shape of free or easy grants of lands, remission of taxes for a time, low rates of transport, etc., and purchasers and cultivators are slowly trickling in. The settlement, especially in view of the dearth of native population and labour, must necessarily be a slow one. As larger tracts are brought into cultivation, as canals are dug, and as irrigation and communications are improved, so will the export of cereals and produce of all sorts increase. The Nile-Red Sea Railway is expected to give Sudan trade a great impetus, and the population is rapidly increasing. But although those best qualified to judge are convinced of a great economic future before the country, it can hardly be expected that the Sudan will pay its own way for some years to come.
[Sidenote: Produce and Industries.]
The following is a list of the chief articles of produce of the Sudan, with the districts where such are mostly found:—
Cotton Throughout the Sudan in small quantities, but increasing in Dongola, Berber, and Gezira Provinces.
Hides Kordofan and Eastern Desert.
Gum Kordofan, Blue Nile, and Gedaref District.
Ivory Bahr El Ghazal, Kordofan, and Upper Nile Provinces.
India-rubber Bahr El Ghazal and Kordofan.
Feathers Kordofan.
Woods Chiefly up the White and Blue Niles and in the Bahr El Ghazal.
Grain and Cereals Chiefly Dongola, Tokar, Gedaref, the Gezira, Sennar, and Upper Nile Provinces.
Sugar Small quantities in Berber. Increasing.
Dates Dongola. Best quality at Sukkot.
Gold Indications in Northern Sudan and Upper Blue Nile.
Copper Hofrat Nahas—Bahr El Ghazal.
Iron Bahr El Ghazal and Kordofan.
Other Minerals Kordofan, Upper Blue Nile and Abyssinian border, Eastern and Northern Sudan.
Mother of Pearl Suakin.
The native industries are, so far, limited in number. Cultivation is the usual occupation of the people. Cotton-cloth weaving, boat-building on the Niles, camel breeding in the northern and western deserts, and iron-smelting in the Bahr El Ghazal practically exhaust the list. Agricultural and industrial shows at the chief towns have, however, been started, and receive considerable support. Minor industries, such as pottery, leather work, improved carpentry, etc., are quickly coming to the fore.
CUSTOMS DUTIES.
For the purpose of Customs duties, the Sudan is, in the main, considered as forming a part of Egypt. The Government has, however, concluded a Customs Convention with Eritrea,[11] and applies practically the same principles to the co-terminous countries of Uganda, the Congo Free State, the French Congo and Abyssinia.
Broadly, goods exported to these countries from the Sudan pay 1 per cent. ad valorem, and imports from those countries 5 to 8 per cent.; whilst goods in transit thence receive a drawback equal in amount to the duty paid on entering the country, i.e., they can pass free of duty through the Sudan.[11]
JUSTICE.
The main lines of judicial organisation in the Sudan date from 1899, at which time the whole country was under Egyptian Martial Law.
Under the code of Criminal Procedure of that year the criminal courts are directly under the Governor-General, who, however, has the benefit of the advice of a Legal Secretary. Under “The Civil Justice Ordinance, 1900,” the civil courts are subordinated to the Legal Secretary, in his capacity as Acting Judicial Commissioner.
Criminal justice in each province is administered by the Mudir’s Court (composed of the Mudir or Governor, or his representative, and two other magistrates), which has general competence; minor District Courts of three officers, with limited competence; and magistrates with powers similar to, but more limited than, those of Indian Magistrates. These magistrates are the members of the Provincial Administrative Staff, who are either picked officers of the army or civilian inspectors, who, unless they have had a legal training, are required to pass an examination in the Codes.
The procedure at the inquiry, and as to arrest, etc., is borrowed from the Indian Code of Criminal Procedure; that at the hearing is that of an Egyptian (or substantially, of a British) court-martial, with which the military officers are familiar.
Sentences passed by the Mudir’s Court are submitted to the Governor-General for confirmation. Those of the subordinate courts are either submitted to the Mudir for confirmation, or are open to appeal before him.
The Governor-General has, in all cases, revising powers similar to those of an Indian High Court.
The substantive criminal law is contained in the Sudan Penal Code, which is a copy of the Indian Penal Code, with such modifications as the circumstances of the country appeared to demand.
The civil courts in each province are those of the Mudir and of the subordinate magistrates. The procedure is borrowed in part from that in Indian provinces which do not possess a High Court, and in part from the Ottoman and African Orders in Council.
The parties appear before the judge, who settles the issues to be tried before trying the case. Every court has power to sit with assessors, who, in commercial cases, are frequently of considerable assistance. Appeals lie to the Mudir, or from the court of the Mudir to that of the Judicial Commissioner.
This system has been somewhat modified by the appointment of four civil judges who are trained lawyers. Wherever there is a civil judge, he has all the powers, civil and criminal, of the Mudir, and ordinarily takes all the civil and the more responsible criminal work of that officer. A civil judge has now sat continuously for the last three years at Khartoum, where all the principal merchants reside. A system of circuits will probably be shortly instituted in the outlying provinces; in the meantime provision is made for civil disputes of special importance or complexity in those provinces by a section which authorises their transfer, by consent of the parties, to the court of the Judicial Commissioner. It is very possible that the latter court may shortly be replaced by a bench of civil judges.
It was not thought advisable to create a body of substantive civil law at a time when all that was known of the customs of the people was that they probably differed from those of any country whose legislation could have been taken as a precedent. Section 3 of the Civil Justice Ordinance provides for the recognition of customary law, so far as applicable and not repugnant to good conscience, in matters of succession, etc.; and Section 4 provides for the administration of “justice, equity, and good conscience,” a phrase which has stereotyped custom in large parts of the east, and filled up the interstices with the principles of English Law.
In commercial matters in the Sudan the judges have inclined to interpret it as implying the obligation to recognise the principles of Egyptian Commercial Law in cases in which the law of civilised countries is not in agreement.
The above-mentioned Codes are applied wherever they may be put in force by the Governor-General, and they have been gradually extended to all parts of the Sudan, except the Bahr El Ghazal. In the more backward provinces in the south, where officers are scattered, advantage has to be taken of a provision that they shall be applied with such modifications, not affecting the substance, as the circumstances may require.[12]
[Sidenote: Mehkema Sharia.]
There are special courts, Mehkema Sharia, for the trial in accordance with Mohammedan Law, of cases between Mohammedans, involving questions of personal status, such as succession, wills, gifts, marriage, divorce, family relations, and also the constitution of charitable endowments (wakf).
The judges of these courts are Mohammedan Sheikhs, either natives of the Sudan or Egyptians; of whom the latter have obtained their training in the Azhar Mosque at Cairo.
The Mehkema Sharia comprise District Courts, which have jurisdiction over one or more Districts, according to the extent and population of the Districts, Province Courts, which act as courts of appeal from the District Courts and have also an original jurisdiction over the district in which they are situated, and a Supreme Court of Appeal situated at Khartoum, consisting of the Grand Kadi of the Sudan, who acts as President, the Mufti, and two judges of appeal.
Though the majority of the inhabitants of the Sudan are followers of the Maliki School of Mohammedan Law, the courts generally, as in Egypt, adopt the jurisprudence of the Hanafi School.
LEGISLATION.
Legislation takes the form of Ordinances, issued by proclamation of the Governor-General. In accordance with Article IV of the Agreement of the 19th January, 1899, between the British and Egyptian Government as to the administration of the Sudan, all such ordinances must be forthwith notified to the British Agent-General in Cairo and the President of the Council of Ministers of His Highness the Khedive. All Ordinances are published in the “Sudan Gazette.”
RELIGION.
Except for the negroid tribes the religion of the native population is that of Islam. The black tribes in their own country are all heathen; outside it a good many of their members have embraced Islam.
The Arab population is inclined to be fanatical; and to enable the Government to keep itself informed of the religious feelings of the people, a consultory board of Ulema (learned men) has been established at Omdurman.
There are two Christian missionary stations amongst the black tribes: one (American Protestant) on the Sobat River, and the other (Austrian Roman Catholic) near Kodok. The latter mission is now establishing another branch in the Bahr El Ghazal.
There are also several missionary schools at Khartoum and Omdurman. A British Protestant Church is about to be built at Khartoum, and there are Roman Catholic, Greek, and Coptic churches in course of construction.
EDUCATION.
In the Sudan a higher primary school system is gradually being developed. There are four of these schools (Khartoum, Omdurman, Halfa, and Suakin), besides a few Kuttab or village schools, where instruction is given in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Every day shows a greater necessity for a Sudanese class able to read, write, and cipher sufficiently to fill the minor appointments under Government. This class is gradually being constructed, but it takes time, especially as competent teachers are scarce.
All school subjects are taught in Arabic, not English. The latter language is not encouraged, but it can be taught, as a foreign language.
The Gordon College, with an endowment of over £E.100,000, was finished and opened in October, 1903.
At present it contains a Higher Primary School, attended by 150 boys, and a Training College for Schoolmasters and Kadis. Competent Sudanese teachers of the vernacular are now the chief requirement, but this want will be remedied as time goes on.
A separate wing of the building affords room for an institute for bacteriological work,[13] and research into the products and diseases of the country.
Another invaluable adjunct to the College is found in some technical workshops generously and completely fitted up by a private benefactor.[14]
CLIMATE.
The climate of the Sudan naturally varies over such a huge territory. Roughly speaking, it may be said that from the latitude of about Shendi northwards the climate is dry throughout the year. South of this, the rains in the summer, increasing in intensity towards the south, towards the sea, and towards the Abyssinian hills, cause a damp climate for two or three months, the remaining months being quite dry.
Between Halfa and Dongola there are a few rainy days in the winter, and, very exceptionally, some torrential rains in the summer. At Suakin heavy rains occur at intervals from August to January, with occasional rainfalls during the spring. The Khor Baraka flood may be expected at Tokar about the 15th August, and the Gash flood at Kassala during the first week of July.
The rainy season proper, on the Upper Blue Nile, Atbara, and in Abyssinia commences about the middle or end of May, the rains lasting till the middle of September; light rains in January and February; heavy rains sometimes in October and November.
The rainy season at Khartoum and in the “Bayuda desert” lasts nominally from the middle of June to the end of September, but during this period rain rarely falls on more than 15 days. In the Bahr El Ghazal the rains last from April till October, and in Southern Kordofan and Darfur from June to October.
Heavy rains occur in addition in the valley of the Upper White Nile from September to November; also numerous thunderstorms, especially in the hilly region round Rejaf and the Sudd district to the north of it.
On the Sobat, rains last from May to end of October.
The more unhealthy parts, in each case only during the period immediately succeeding the rains or the Nile flood, are, in the order of the evil, the Bahr El Ghazal, the Upper White Nile, the Upper Blue Nile, Kordofan, Kassala, and Suakin. During the rest of the year the climate is dry and healthy throughout. The temperature is, in the summer, undoubtedly hot, the thermometer having on rare occasions risen to as much as 126°; but on the other hand, except in the rainy season, the nights are always cool and refreshing.
During the rest of the year, the temperature naturally varies considerably; but it may be said that the winter is bright and invigorating throughout, and not too hot. There are even unpleasantly cold winds at times.
Except during the rainy season, the prevailing winds are, in the valley of the Nile, always from a northerly direction. In other parts, the wind varies according to season, but all get their share of the north wind.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES (KHARTOUM), 1902 and 1903.
---------+-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Temperature, Fahrenheit. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------+ Month. | Maximum. | Minimum. | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ Mean. | | Highest. | Lowest | Highest. | Lowest | | ---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.| | | | | | | | | | | | January | 97·7| 91·4| 70·7| 68·9| 68·9| 62·6| 48·2| 42·8| 61·2| 65·5| | | | | | | | | | | | February |105·8|100·4| 88·7| 71·6| 74·3| 64·4| 59·0| 48·2| 70·8| 67·1| | | | | | | | | | | | March |107·6|104·0| 88·7| 81·5| 79·7| 68·9| 57·2| 55·4| 84·2| 74·3| | | | | | | | | | | | April |110·3|113·0| 98·6| 96·8| 82·4| 79·7| 65·3| 61·7| 78·8| 86·4| | | | | | | | | | | | May |113·9|109·4|102·2|104·0| 85·1| 82·4| 73·4| 65·3| 93·0| 90·0| | | | | | | | | | | | June |113·0|112·1| 99·5|103·1| 86·0| 82·4| 72·5| 68·9| 96·5| 91·4| | | | | | | | | | | | July |106·7|105·8| 86·0| 87·8| 80·6| 81·5| 66·2| 71·6| 83·0| 77·9| | | | | | | | | | | | August |108·5|104·9| 92·3| 90·5| 81·5| 83·3| 69·8| 64·4| 87·5| 87·8| | | | | | | | | | | | September|108·5|105·8| 96·8| 96·8| 80·6| 78·8| 69·8| 60·8| 85·0| 86·1| | | | | | | | | | | | October |106·7|106·7| 97·7| 95·0| 83·3| 78·8| 61·7| 67·1| 88·9| 86·9| | | | | | | | | | | | November |104·9|105·8| 89·6| 93·2| 80·6| 78·8| 54·5| 64·4| 81·7| 85·5| | | | | | | | | | | | December | 91·4|101·3| 77·0| 86·9| 69·8| 69·8| 49·1| 56·3| 74·7| 78·6| ---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
[Continued]
---------+----------------+---------------- | | | | Month. | Prevailing | Rain, | wind. | inches.[15] | | ---------+-------+--------+-------+-------- | 1902. | 1903. | 1902. | 1903. | | | | January | N. | N. | — | — | | | | February | N.E. | N. | — | — | | | | March | N. | N. | — | — | | | | April | N. | N. | — | — | | | | May | N.W. | S. | — | 1·0 | | | | June | W. | S. | — | ·7 | | | | July | S. | S. | 4·962 | ·5 | | | | August | S. | S.S.W. | ·197 | ·6 | | | | September| S. | S.S.W. | ·070 | — | | | | October | N. | N. | ·320 | — | | | | November | N.E. | N.N.E. | — | — | | | | December | N. | N.N.E. | — | — ---------+-------+--------+-------+--------
GAME.
The efforts of the Government are directed towards preserving the numerous species of game of all sorts which abound in the Sudan, and to preventing them being exploited wholesale for commercial purposes.
Thus the Government, in the matter of ivory and feathers, has laid down stringent regulations which control the killing of elephants and ostriches. By imposing heavy duties and strictly limiting the numbers it is keeping within reasonable limits the export of live animals for menageries, etc., in Europe; and traffic in skins, trophies, etc., of wild animals is strictly prohibited.
As regards the shooting of game for sport, a sanctuary and game reserve have been instituted, and the licence with which a sportsman has to provide himself is expensive and only covers the shooting of a limited number of each species, some species being tabooed altogether. (For full details of the Game Laws, vide Ordinance for Preservation of Wild Animals, etc., 1903, and for practical hints, etc., re shooting, see books mentioned on p. 213.)
SLAVERY.
Slave-running is practically dead, save perhaps in the remotest parts of the Sudan. The Egyptian Repression of Slavery Department is well represented by a number of posts dotted about in the regions most likely to be favourable to this traffic.
FORESTS.
In the Sudan, north of Khartoum, forests are scarce and of little extent. Scattered trees of “Samr” (Acacia tortilis) reach right into the desert, while on the occasionally flooded “Karu” land, between the desert and cultivation, is an open growth of the above with “Selem” (Acacia Ehrenbergii), “Sayal” (Acacia spirocarpa), “Hashab” (Acacia Verek), “Tundub” (Capparis aphylla), “Marakh” (Leptadenia Spartium), etc.
South of Khartoum till about parallel 12° N. the forests consist mostly of belts, usually not of very great width, lining the banks of the rivers and khors. In these belts the most valuable tree is the “Sant” or “Sunt” (Acacia arabica), known not only for the strength of its wood, but for the tanning properties of its bark and seed pod, and also for its excellence as fuel, as well as for its value for boat building.
Inland, there are open woods of “Heglig” (Balanites ægyptiaca), “Talh,” and “Hashab,” or dense thickets of “Kittr” (Acacia mellifera) and “Laot” (Acacia nubica).
It is in this zone that the open woods of “Hashab” (Acacia verek), in Kordofan, are carefully tended and preserved against fire for the sake of their gum which is exported as “Hashab Geneina”; the gum from the unprotected forests fetching a lower price as “Hashab Gezira,” or “Gezira,” while that from other acacias is known as “Talh,” as the Talh tree is the chief producer.
South of 12° N., where the rainfall is more abundant, the forest on the White Nile is, as far as the northern limits of the Sudd, of similar character, only large tracts have been cleared near the river by the Shilluks, and Sant has completely disappeared and is not replaced by trees of equivalent value.
On the Blue Nile the forest changes in character. Not far from the river are numerous gigantic Baobabs (“Tebeldi,” Adansonia digitata) and “Tarfa” (Sterculia cinerea), while the most abundant trees are the graceful “Silag” (Anogeissus leiocarpus) and the Sudan ebony (“Babanus,” Dalbergia melanoxylon).
In these two species, as well as in some others, these forests are like those on the higher lands of the Bahr El Ghazal province and parts of Southern Kordofan. The Bahr El Ghazal forests cover the larger portion of the ironstone deposits in that province, and, as far as quality goes, are probably the finest found in the Sudan, many trees of great height and girth being found there, one of them, the African mahogany (“Homraya,” Khaya senegalensis), having a beautiful timber, already known to commerce. It is in these forests that rubber-producing lianas are most abundant, the best of them being “Ndala” or “Odilo” (Landolphia owariensis), vide Chapter VII.
The forests on the Bahr El Jebel and the woodlands of the Bahr El Ghazal province are more like those on the Upper White Nile, but some other trees appear, and the forests are not only in belts, but cover large areas. Near Mongalla the ironstone appears, and the forests partake of the same character as those of the Upper Bahr El Ghazal.
The forests on the Abyssinian and Eritrean frontiers have not yet been explored by an expert.
All over the Sudan the forests suffer greatly from fires which are set alight by the natives either for purposes of sport, or to clear the paths, or for grazing after the rains. Owing to these fires numbers of trees get killed or mutilated, and it is hopeless to think of developing fine forests until they can be kept under control.
[Sidenote: Fuel.]
One of the great economic questions of the Sudan, which gives rise to a certain anxiety, is the future supply of fuel. Although the felling of trees is under control, those alongside the river necessarily suffer greatly from the demand for steamer fuel, and there is not an unlimited supply. So far, no coal or petroleum has been found in the Sudan; it is believed that there are beds of lignite in the Dongola Province, but up till now they have not been thoroughly explored. Imported coal now costs from £E.4 to £E.6, and petroleum £E.6, a ton at Khartoum. (Vide also p. 20.)
[Sidenote: Concessions.]
A certain part of the Sudan—chiefly to the north and north-east and south-east—has been leased to concessionaires for the purpose of prospecting for minerals and exploiting them when found. There are traces of gold and other minerals in most of these areas.
[Sidenote: Survey.]
The Sudan is being surveyed (commenced in 1898) on a scale of 1/250000. So far, over 50 sheets out of 139 projected have been published, and the work of surveying is proceeding steadily. Vide p. 349.
[Sidenote: Sanitary.]
The population is very gradually being trained in sanitary methods, but it is a slow process. Efforts are also being made to stamp out malaria,[16] etc., by the latest scientific methods, but the size of most of the malarial districts is vastly in excess of the means so far available to deal with them. At Khartoum and at some of the other chief towns the steps taken have proved most effectual.
[Footnote 4: Temporarily occupied by the Congo Free State.]
[Footnote 5: Full particulars of Conditions of Service, etc., of Government Civil Officials in the Sudan may be obtained from the Secretary to Selection Board, Finance Ministry, Cairo.]
[Footnote 6: This Department is under the Egyptian Government.]
[Footnote 7: Except the Inspector-General.]
[Footnote 8: Detachments of Medical Corps, Supply, Transport, Stores, Works, and Veterinary Departments are at all stations where necessary.]
[Footnote 9: Estimate only.]
[Footnote 10: Trade in india-rubber is at present prohibited (December, 1904).]
[Footnote 11: See Appendix A.]
[Footnote 12: The above observations on Justice are extracted from Lord Cromer’s Report, Egypt No. 1. (1904), p. 88.]
[Footnote 13: The Laboratory is the generous gift of Mr. Wellcome.]
[Footnote 14: Sir W. Mather, M.P.]
[Footnote 15: The figures for 1904 are:—
July 1·338
August 2·592
September ·787
only. Vide “The Rains of the Nile Basin, 1904,” by Capt. H. Lyons, Survey Dept., Egypt, just published.]
[Footnote 16: Vide Report on the Wellcome Research Laboratories—Gordon College—1904.]
(To face page 15.)