Cicero's five books De finibus

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CICERO'S

Book I

When I first attempted to naturalize the notions and arguments, which the Grecian philosophers have, with such a force of wit and judgment, and such an exuberancy of curious learning, delivered in their mother-tongue, I easily foresaw, my friend Brutus, that in spite of fate, and my best endeavours, I should bring the critics about my ears in a plentiful manner : one sort of men (there are scholars of the party too) cannot digest so much as the business of philosophy in general; while ^£ others are willing to dispense with you for a little^pr smattering ; but for a constant and entire application to it, they can upon no terms approve of it. A third party are our helknized countrymen, topful of Greek, and too learned for the pedantry of Latin; and these know not how to excuse it to their own consciences, if they look into any but

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Greek authors. Others, of a fourth kind, I expect to meet with, directing me to the pursuit of more significant studies: they grant philosophical exercises are very polite and genteel, but then they do not suit the dignity of my character and condition. To each of these I shall return a satisfactory answer : and first, as for the professed enemies of all philosophy, I refer them to a certain book of mine, (they know which I mean,) where upon occasion of Hortensius's invectives, I have drawn up its defence, and vindicated its merit ; a work, which yourself, and some other discerning persons, have been pleased to favour with such encouraging commendations, that I cannot forbear entering upon new essays, and should be sorry, if after I have once carried my point as to men's opinions, the world should have cause to believe it is more than I can do to keep it. As for the second sort, who condescend to gratify us with a small allowance, it is an impracticable lesson they teach us, when they talk of our abridging ourselves in the use of that which when we once come to meddle with, we loose the command of our own inclinations ; and in earnest I had rather shake hands with your thorough-paced abjurem of philosophy, than your people that would cramp us in a study which is almost infinite in its nature, and pretend to warn us against excesses, where temperance were a fault. For either a finished wisdom is attainable ; and then it is pity but, when we have

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made prize of it, we should have time to enjoy the fruits of our expedition; or the difficulty is seemingly as great as if it were not so; but then, first of all, the search of truth ought to stop no where till there is no more to find ; and secondly, it were an eternal blemish upon us to flag in the chace when the game is inestimable. Again; is there a real satisfaction in writing upon philosophical arguments? Then certainly, nothing but envy and peevishness will interrupt us. Or is it a very laborious toil ? It is hard, indeed, if a man may not have the liberty of being as industrious as he pleases. Old Chremes in the play, perhaps, thought it was good nature, when it disturbed him so much, that his new neighbour should dig and plough , and gaul his shoulders — not that he would balk his bustling, but only wished him to work upon matter more suitable to his quality: and just as obliging are those solicitous gentlemen, whose bowels yearn over us for that intention of thought which is properly a recreation to the thinkers. But it is not so easy to give our whole-sale Greeks con* tent ; as surprising an absurdity as, I conceive, it is, that they will not reconcile themselves to serious points discussed in the language of their own country, and yet find themselves entertainment in the verbal translations of the Greek mythologies. For where is the man so inveterately bent against the credit of his country, as to undervalue and throw aside Ennius's Medea, or Pacuvius's Antiopa? To admire them as they stand in Euripidei, and nauseate them as made ours ? And yet the cry runs, Menander in the original for my money ; Caecilius's Synephebi, and Terence's Andria are trash to it. It may be so, but still, as good an author as we have of Sophocles, I had rather read Attilius's bakl translation of Sophocles's Electra than the original itself. And though Licinius indeed would make Attilius a rough and a crabbed author, perhaps not without reason, yet he may and ought 'to be read ; and not only Attilius, but all the rest of our poets, the neglect of them proceeding either from a lethargic laziness, or a fop pish delicacy. Besides, (or I am mistaken,) he scarce deserves the name of a learned man that is not competently versed in the productions of the Latins. Now with tags of metre translated from the Greek, such as uiiviam ne in nemore, &;c. we can dispense well enough ; where is the harm then, should we render what Plato has discoursed upon the subject of a good and happy life into Latin? Or, waving the project of a translation, what if I engage to make good what such authors of character have asserted, and annex my own opinion of things in my own method and style? Will there yet remain room for prejudice in favour of the Greeks, provided we write as handsomely as the best of them, without being beholden to any of them? It will not suffice to tell us, the Greeks have been canvassing all these questions before-

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hand. By the same argument the objectors are debarred their poring upon half of the Greeks themselves that are extant. What has Chrysippus omitted that concerns the doctrine of the Stoics? and yet nothing will serve but we must read Diogenes, Antipater, Mnesarchus, Panaetius, my friend Posidonius, (that should have been mentioned in the first place,) and an hundred besides. Do we not conceive a mighty satisfaction when we peruse Theophrastus upon the very same heads which Aristotle had treated of before him ? And so for the Epicureans; do they ever scruple to come over again with the same suggestions that Epicurus and their predecessors had set a foot formerly ? Well then, if the Greeks think it worth their while to read one another, though many proceed upon the same matter, because they handle it different ways ; it is a very hard case, if our people will not do the same justice to the labours of their countrymen. I confess, were I resolved upon as formal a translation of Plato* and Aristotle, as our poets have made of the Grecian fables, I should be far from deserving the thanks of my fellow-citizens for the importation of those mighty genii; but I have not yet made the attempt, though 1 know of no impediment or prohibition to stop me ; and when it comes in my way, I shall use my own discretion in citing passages, especially from the authors aforesaid, as Ennius has quoted from Homer, and Afranius from Menander. At the same time

I will not do as Lucilius did, challenge and empamiel my readers. No, I will wish for a Persius, and call out for a Scipio and a Rutilius, whose depth of judgment was such a bug-bear, it seems, to the poet, that upon the apprehension he presently addresses himself to the Tarentines, Consentines, and Sicilians. This was one of that bard's many merry conceits, and in the days when critics had as little of politeness and learning in them, as his works, of solidity ; for, it is certain, they discover more of humour and the gentleman than scholarship. But as to my own concern, I need not stand in awe of any reader whatsoever, having presumed to dedi^ cate these notes to a person, who so fairly makes his party good, upon the comparison, with the best of the Grecian sages ; though it was yourself that laid an obligation upon me to do so, by the present you were pleased to make me of your book about Virtue, That which has begot so strange an abhorrency in some people to the compositions of the Latins, is, I believe, the misfortune of meeting with uncouth translations from wretched Greek originals, deliciously improved in the brewing. Nor will I blame those that have had no better lucta for their antipathy, upon condition they will cashier the Greeks too that harangue them to the same effect in the same strain. But who would refuse any valuable hints, whatsoever, or whencesoever, dressed up in expressions elegant and proper? Certainly no body, unless it were the same person V

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ambition to be thought a native of Greece, as Albucius had his mock-title, the Athenian praetor, given him by Scasvola. Our Lucilius's account of it is very comical and satyrical in those lines which he puts into Scaevola's mouth, Gr cecum te, Alhucu

'Tis well, Albucius, you shall be no more A Roman, as we counted you before ; No, nor the Sabine, who so loudly boasts Of patrons, pensions, honourable posts. Whcn'er we meet, my brave Athenian lord I kiss your hand, and ^ar^be the word. Your troopers, lictors, all the tribe of state, "With x a ~? s sua ^ alarm the people's hate.

The reflections were just: nor is any thing more, unaccountable than this prevailing aversion to our own manufacture. But that the disquisition is for another place, I am sensible I could prove, and have often insisted upon it, that the Latin tongue is so far from the barrenness which it is generallycharged with, as to be more copious even than the Greek. When or where have any of our first or second-rate orators or poets betrayed any deficiency, either as to richness or elegance of expression, when once provided with a pattern to follow? The commonwealth of Rome has thought me worthy to be made an instrument of serving her interest ; and, I hope, what with the fatigues of the bar, and a thousand drudgeries and dangers, I have in that respect acquitted myself as I ought ;

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yet one duty more is, I think, incumbent uport me, and that is the propagation of learning among my countrymen, whatever pains or perplexities it may cost me. Furthermore, I promise all such as are disposed rather to read the Greeks, they shall never be discouraged by me, if they will really study them, and put no tricks upon us; and as for those who trade in both languages, or are inclinable to prefer their own to any other so far as it will serve their purpose, I will do them what service I can. To proceed, they who would have me lay out my talent another way, are somewhat severe, seeing no body of Roman extraction has wrote more than I have done already ; not that I am yet without a reserve, if I live long enough to make it public, though among all my productions there are none preferable to the ensuing Philosophical Treatise, as every one that well digests it will allow. For how can we better exercise our thoughts and our curiosity than upon philosophical Queres, and particularly the present; namely, What is ultimately the scope and end to which all our resolutions of living honestly and virtuously are pointed : what nature bids us pursue as the choicest of eligible things, and what to avoid as the greatest of evils : a question about which there has ever depended a mighty controversy among the men of letters ; and therefore, I conceive, I shall not seem to depart from the dignity of my character, by setting myself to learn wherein consists the solidity

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and perfection of whatever occurs in the concerns of life. Shall two such patriots as Publius Scasvola and Marcus Manilius maintain a dispute whether a master's title be good to the child of his slave ? And shall Marcus Brutus dislike an argument of such an admirable kind and so general a use as mine ? I have heretofore with pleasure gone through that case beside many others of the same stamp, and design to go over them again; but must we therefore never look after those resolves which settle the main and only business of life ? The first, perhaps, may sell best ; but the last, I am sure, will serve best ; as I need not inform those who will but apply themselves to read them. Let me add, that I have dissected and sifted the whole question about the ends of good and evil, for I have not only dwelt upon such notions as I myself could approve, but stated the several hypotheses which philosophers of all sorts have advanced. To begin with the plainest, let Epicurus's model, being the most generally known, lead the van ; and you will see my account of it is as accurate as you can meet with any where among the Epicureans themselves, it being not my design to make proselytes, but to clear up truth. Once upon a time, you must know, I heard Epicurus's cause pleaded as to his opinion about pleasure, by that complete scholar Lucius Torquatus. Caius Triarius, a well instructed, serious young gentleman was present. And I answered what we had from Tprquatws.

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They were pleased to make me a visit at my seat in the country ; and so after a short conference about learned matters, to which my two guests were much addicted ; once in our lives, says Torquatus, we have caught you at leisure ; now then I must know your reason why you refuse your vote for my friend Epicurus, for you are not so bad as the rest, that not satisfied with dissenting from him, bear him a mortal hatred. I take him to be the only man of them all that had truth before his eyes, and was able to rescue the mind from the grossest errors, and find out a complete method to make us good and happy. But I suppose yours and Triarius's objection is one and the same, that he wants all the elegancies of Plato, Aristotle, and Theophrastus. For as to the truth and stanchness of his assertions I cannot suppose you will pretend to dispute it. Never, Torquatus, replied I, were you wider of the mark. I am not at all displeased with the style of your philosopher; it is expressive and clear: and though I would not turn my back upon a philosopher's eloquence if it came in my way ; yet at the same time I would never fall out with him for having none to shew. No, it is his matter which I cannot relish, at least as to a great many instances that might be produced. But so many men so many minds, and none infallible. To this Torquatus : and what, I beseech you, may be your exceptions ? for I am well satisfied of your candour, and therefore conclude you have

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some way or other mistook the philosopher's meaning. If I have, said I, my instructors Phasdrus and Zeno must answer for it, who with all the knowledge they communicated of the Epicurean principles, could never reconcile me to any hut the proofs they gave of their own diligence. Atticus and I were two of their most constant auditors ; for Atticus had an esteem for them both, and was a passionate admirer of Phosdrus ; nor did we let a day pass without interchanging our notions upon what had been dictated by our tutors. Then it never used to be any part of our debate whether I understood, but only which way I held the question. If you please, answered Torquatus, let us hear what it is that you cannot digest. In the first place said I, as much as he values himself upon his natural philosophy, never any man's abounded more with blunders and absurdities. He attempts improving upon Democritus, but in my opinion so very unfortunately, that whatever he mends he makes ten times worse than it was before. Democritus had supposed an infinite space, uncircumscribed by dimensions or extremities, and therein a multitude of atoms or indivisible bodies, and these to frisk about hither and thither till they danced themselves into a consistency and continuity, so as to make up the material world ; and that these atoms derived not their agitation from the impulse of any efficient cause, but that they had been in motion from all eternity. Now so long as Epicurus keeps touch with Democritus, for the most part he makes a pretty good shift, though both advance a great many suppositions to which I can never subscribe, as particularly and especially, when there are two fundamental principles at least which every naturalist is obliged to consider, the efficient and the material cause, they have excluded the former, and wholly concerned themselves with the latter. In this nonsense they are equally interested ; but the next monster of imagination is Epicurus's own; for when he has given the word of command to his little indivisible solids, that they should all descend by the force of their own weight in a direct line, according to the natural tendency, forsooth ! of all bodies, the subtle virtuoso at last bethought himself that if every atom fell from its place in a straight line, they might fall long enough before any two of them encountered. Hereupon he casts about for an expedient ; and what do you think it was ? Why truly his atoms had unaccountably got a trick of reeling , and so met and shook hands, and combined themselves into a world. Now this is a mere schoolboy's invention ; and yet it will not bring him off at last : for this motion of inclination is all precarious and arbitrary, and no more cause assigned for it, than for his depriving his atoms of that direct motion which is natural to gravitation. What a strange creature is a natural philosopher, erecting hypotheses without a physical cause? and that iu>

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pertinently to his own design in doing so ? For if all his atoms must descend sideling, they will never join one another ; or, if some are to fall aslant, and some right down, just according as he lays his commands upon them ; this is teaching them to lead up courants and minuets. And then this tumultuary conflux of atoms to the disappointment of Democritus as well as Epicurus, could never, after all, have produced such a beautiful and regular universe. Indeed the very supposing of an indivisible body proves him sufficiently defective and ignorant in his own way, as himself might have understood, if instead of unteaching his friend Polycenus geometry, he had submitted to learn a little of it from him. Democritus, who was a man of learning and a complete geometrician, allows the sun to be a very large body, while the other is contented with two feet, or thereabouts, for its diameter, making its real bigness the same, or much the same, as its apparent. Thus whatever he changes, he spoils ; and whatever he takes without altering belongs to Democritus ; as his atoms, his space, his representations or species t which obtruding themselves upon us, are the cause as well of thought as of sight; his apiria, or infinity ; his innumerable worlds, and his daily originations of some, and dissolutions of others. These chimeras I know not what to make of; but yet, methinks, it is pity Democritus, after the applause which others have bestowed upon him, should lose all his reputation through the default of one of his most devoted and servile followers.

Then as for that other part of philosophy which contains the mystery of disputation, and is termed logic, your oracle is absolutely unfurnished and defenceless: for he has nothing to say, not he, to definitions, divisions, and partitions ; neither will he put us in a way to form a conclusion, unravel a fallacy, or distinguish equivocals : he appropriates all discrimination to the external senses; and affirms that if ever they should entertain a falsehood for a truth, we are destitute of any further means of discerning one from the other. And as for his ethics, the third part of his philosophy, when he brings into the light his moral end, it is a dishonorable and a sordid one. The grand proof which he urges for his position is fetched from this natural principle, that we should pursue pleasure and avoid trouble ; and therefore his division of things is into dekctables and detestablesn This is all Aristippicism revived, only the Cyrenaics managed their cause more artfully and ingeniously. Now human nature could not receive a greater affront than this implies. Our being, with its furniture and distinction, was certainly designed to much nobler purposes: and I cannot believe (though I know myself liable to error) that the original Torquatus took the enemies gold chain from % him, in order to the perception of any bodily pleasure ; or that in the time of his third consulship he engaged the Latins in the battle of Veseris,

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for the sake of any sensual gratification. So when he gave his child the fatal blow with his own hand, preferring the rights and authority of the public establishment to the natural tenderness and duty of a parent, I suppose, the satisfaction of this discipline, if he had any, was severely embittered by the relation. So again, when Lucius Torquatus, that was fellow consul with Cneius Octavius, treated his son, that had been adopted by Silanus, with such severity, upon articles exhibited against him by the Macedonian delegates, for acts of extortion, while he was prcetor in that province, strictly commanding him to come to his trial, then after an hearing of both parties, declaring that his behaviour in his government had been unworthy of the family from, which he was descended, and banishing him for ever from his presence : will you say that the father when he did all this had any raptures and transports in his eye ? Not to enumerate the dangers, the toils, the calamities, which are welcome to every true patriot and protector of his dependents, in such a rational defiance to all outward enjoyments as to embrace extremities rather than forego a duty ; not to reckon up these, I say, let us descend to more familiar instances, though not weaker evidences. I appeal to yourselves, gentlemen, where is the nectar and ambrosia you taste in the several authors you con verse with, historians, philosophers, poets, and the many verses you have imprinted upon your me-

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mory? It will not serve the turn to tell me they are entertaining and diverting. No doubt the Torqua^ tuses found a pleasure too in what they did. But Epicurus is wiser than to put his cause upon that issue ; and so are yourselves, and every body that understands the merits of it. If here, as of course, it is demanded, how the Epicureans then come to be so numerous, among other causes, a principal one is this, that Epicurus is vulgarly conceived to maintain, that virtue and probity are essentially and intrinsically delightful ; and whether any regard be had to corporeal satisfactions or not, virtue and wisdom would be desirable irrespectively, and for themselves, which he can by no means away with. And therefore I can as little approve of Epicurus's opinion. But it is as good as could be expected from that illiterate man : for, I presume, even Torquatus himself must acknowledge him to have been but a very superficial scholar. However, he had no reason to seduce other people from following their studies : though, it seems, he could not influence you in that respect. This was what I offered, not so much to explain myself, as to alarm Torquatus. In earnest, said Triarius with a smile, you have effectually stripped Epicurus of all his philosophy, and left him no pretension to cheer up his spirits, but only this ; that as extravagantly as he talks, you understand his drift. His natural philosophy is borrowed ware, and all of it in your opinion bad ;

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but none ef it so bad as his own alterations and amendments. He knew not one tittle of logic His placing the sovereign good in pleasure, is a conceit that is none of his own ; and the very choice discovers the shallowness of his judgment : for Aristippus had defended it before, and with a much better grace too. And when you have thus divested the man of common sense, it is no wonder you should make him a dance into the bargain. If I am to declare myself obliged, Sir, said I, to dissent from any man, would you have me do it without informing you what it is I dislike in him ? If I could receive all that Epicurus has taught, what should keep me from going over to him ? especially when I consider, that to learn his philosophy is no more than to learn a game. It is true, I think it beneath the dignity of a philosopher to blemish a dispute with contumelious and spiteful suggestions, passionate excursions, or a positive, peremptory obstinacy. But why disputants may not fmdjlazvs as fast as they can, I do not apprehend. Most freely, says Torquatus, I agree with you there ; for it is impossible to dispute at all without the liberty of carping, as to dispute without impartiality and temper to any purpose. But for other matters, you shall have my answer immediately, if you will give yourself the trouble to hear it. What, said I, do you think I have been promising myself all this while ? Then the question was, whether he should take in all the

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parts of the Epicurean institution, or confine himself to the topic of pleasure, the point in controversy : and when I had left him to his choice, why then, said he, I will at present speak to the main question only, deferring the vindication of his physics for a more seasonable opportunity. And I do not question but to satisfy your scruples, and remove your prejudices about the deviatory motion of the atoms, the bigness of the sun, and the reasonableness of the improvements made by Epicurus upon Democritus. For this time I shall only explain myself upon the subject of pleasure, neither advancing new notions, nor any other that I think you will have reason to reject. For my part, said I, an unconvincible humour is my aversion ; and assure yourself, if you can fairly prove your point, you make me your convert. Then I do not despair, said he, provided you will be as good as your word ; hut to prevent the interruptions of queres and replies, I crave leave to carry on my discourse in a continued series. And when for that I had left him to his own discretion, thus he addressed the company : I will begin in that method which my master observed before me, and define the subject of the question ; not that I suppose you want any such instruction, but that we may proceed more regularly. It is therefore demanded what is our chief and ultimate good, into which, as it is agreed among all philosophers whatsoever, the rest are universally resolved, and itself

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into none. Epicurus will have this to be pleasure ; as, on the contrary, pain to be the greatest of evils ; and he thus proposes to prove it. Every animal, says he, is no sooner born, but it begins the chace after pleasure, and indulges itself in that, as the only expedient of its well-being ; while to the utmost of its power it avoids and rescues itself from pain; and this in an unprejudiced and an undepraved state of nature. And therefore he denies any necessity of expostulating for a reason why we should affect pleasure and abhor pain. These he accounts the immediate results of sensation, as we perceive that fire makes us warm, that snow is white, and honey sweet ; of all which particulars, we need no other demonstration to convince us, than that of impressions from without, the difference being wide between syllogistical deductions, and the simple perceptions of sense: the one unlocks doubts and obscurities, and lets you into truth ; the other is a thorough-fare, and lets in truth upon you. Now in regard a man without any senses is no better than a carcase; from hence it follows, that nature is the best judge of her own desires and aversions : and that pleasure is the immediate object of the first, and pain of the other. For is there any thing which a man is capable of perceiving and distinguishing in order to pursue or shun it, besides pleasure or pain? Others there are of Epicurus's disciples that carry the thing further ; and not enduring that the distinctions of good and evil should be ingrossed by the senses, understand It as a dictate of the judgment, and a rule of right reason, that pleasure is in its own nature desirable, and pain odious. And say that the consequence, which is, that we should pursue the first, and avoid the last, is an innate principle. But another party, to which I properly belong, observing how strangely the dispute concerning excellency of pleasure and the evil of pain has been bandied about, are of opinion, that we ought not to manage our cause with pertness and bigotry, but lay our reasonings carefully together, and confer at large upon the nature of pleasure and pain. Wherefore for the easier detection and disproof of their error that declaim against pleasure, and speak favourably of pain, I will set the whole matter in a true light, and give you the sense of what I find suggested to our purpose by our great alchymist of truth andprajecior of human felicity. Nobody conceives an aversion to pleasure ; but because, if we take imprudent measures to attain it, we suffer for it in the consequences. As on the other hand, nobody can be a friend to pain, as pain ; but yet it may meet with a favourable reception, because it frequently happens, that pain and labour prove a necessary means towards the procurement of exquisite pleasures. To propose a trivial instance; which of us three would fatigue himself with our bodily exercises, if he did not find his account in it ? At the same time shall I blame a man for pre-