Archæology and false antiquities

Front matter

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Chapter II Forged Or False Antiquities In Various Parts Of The European Continent

The Moulin-Quig-non jaw — Falsification of antiquities in France — M. W. Wavre on the falsification of Lacustrine antiquities — Forged objects from the Kesslerloch Cave, near Constance — The Breonio controversy (Italy) — Strange objects from the Caves of Mnikow, near Cracow — The Stone Age station of Vol6sova . . 30-So

Chapter III

Preliminary remarks on the antiquity of man in North America — Dr. Koch on man and the mastodon — Dr. Wright on the antiquity of the Calaveras skull, etc. — Professor Holmes' review of the evidence relating to auriferous gravel man in California — The Neale mortar and pestle, etc. — The King pestle said to have been found in sitti in hard auriferous gravel — ^Striking similarity between the worked objects from the gravels and those of recent Indian tribes — Reasons for the opinion that the worked objects from the Californian gravels, as well as the Calaveras skull, are modern 81-109

Chapter IV The Forgery Of Antiquities In The British Isles

The story of "Flint Jack" — Forged implements of flint in Reading Museum — Mr. Worthington G. Smith on forgeries at Stoke Newington — The " Billy and Charley" impostures — Forgery of antiquities in Ireland — False antiquities in the Edinburgh Museum — Descriptive notices of the excavations at Dunbuie, Dumbuck, and Langbank . . . . . '^. 1 10-148 vi CONTENTS

Chapter V The Clyde Controversy Page

The development of the Clyde controversy — First statement throwingdoubts on the g-enuineness of certain objects from Dumbuck (January 7th, 1899) — ^Reception given to the discoveries at Dumbuck by Glasg^ow Archseolog^ical Society, British Archseological Association, and Society of Antiquaries of Scotland — Other opinions on the Dumbuck relics (Messrs. J. Romill}' Allen, Charles Hercules Read, and Professor Boyd Dawkins) . . . 149-180

Chapter VI

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES AT DUNBUIE, DUMBUCK, AND LANGBANK, INDEPENDENT OF THE DISPUTED OBJECTS

No evidence that the hill-fort of Dunbuie is older than the ordinary Broch period — Strong- evidence that the Dumbuck structure and its associated relics belong; to the Iron Ag^e — Sugfgfcstion that it was a fish-bothy of the twelfth century — Analogfy between certain relics from Langbank and those of the "Late Celtic" period — Ultimate conclusion that the three sites were inhabited in post-Roman times, possibly ranging- from 400 A.D. to the twelfth century . . 181-220

Chapter VII

A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE DISPUTED OBJECTS FROM DUNBUIE, DUMBUCK, AND LANGBANK

Objects like weapons or implements, being made of soft slate or shale, were unfit for any practical use, and unnecessary in the Iron Ag-e — Dr. David Murray's views on this point discussed — Not to be paralleled with the "Arctic Group" from Scandinavia — The theory, that the amulets, idols, and totems of modern savag-es are to throw lig-ht on the shale pendants and gfrotesque human fig-ures of the Clyde, rejected — Mr. Andrew Langf's view, that the art of the Clyde idolaters resembles that of "the early Glasg-ow school," unsupported by evidence — The sugfg-estion, that the g-rotesque human faces were of Roman origin, refuted by Mr. Lang- — The survival theory and symbolism reviewed — Mr. Lang-'s "missing- link" — Inferences from the g-eneral fades and technique of the Clyde Art Gallery . . . . . . 221-265

Chapter VIII

Lessons to be derived from the story of false antiquities — No specific rules for detecting- modern forg-eries — Training- and experience essential to the successful study of archaeolog-y — Plea for systematic instruction in archasolog-y . . . . . 266-283

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

FIG. PAGE

1. Outline of human lower jaw of Moulin-Quig-non. After De

Quatrefages (Honimes Sauvages, p. lo) . . . .32

2. Spy jaw. After Fraipont {Archives de Biologie, vol. vii. PI. XIX.

3. Naulette jaw. After Dupont {Les Temps Prdhistoriques en

Belgigue, p. 100) . . . • • • 37 4 to 6. Forgeries from the Grotte dti Chauffaud and Beauvais.

7 and 8. Bone plaque with elephants. Matiriaicx, vol. ix. p. 34 . 41

9 to II. Bone needles and pin. L'Homme, 1886, p. 30 . . .43

12 and 13. Forg-eries from Kesslerloch Cave. Excavations at the

Kesslerloch, by Conrad Merk, PI. XV. Figs. 98 and 99 . • 5^

14. Flint arrow-head. Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana, vol. xi.

15. " Ascia lunata. " Ibid., vol. vii. PI. II. Fig-. 6 . . . 58 16 and 17. Forms of flint objects from Breonio. L'Ho?n7ne, 1886,

18 and 19. Knife and fork of bone from Mnikow. Ibid., 1884, p. 109 72 20. Flint objects from Russia. After Ouvdrofif (Stone Age in Russia) 74 21 to 27. Stone objects from Vol6sova. Congres International,

28. Flint arrow-point, said to have been found by Dr. Koch below the

femur of a mastodon. Ibid., Paris, 1900, p. 155 . . . 85

31 and 32. The Clarence King- pestle and a modern specimen. Stnith-

sonian Institution Report, 1899, p. 454, PI. XIV. . . .104

33. " Tracked stone " from Luing- Fort . ... 185

34. Ditto from the Dumbuck " crannog- " . ... 189

35. Comb from "Gheg-an Rock" and other objects associated with it.

Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. viii. p. 375 . ... 196

36. Bronze plaque from an Ang-lo-Saxon g-rave at Barlaston. Grave

37. A bronze plaque from a barrow at Middleton Moor, Derbyshire.

viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

38 to 44. Specimens of inscribed bones found in a cairn at Loughcrew, Co. Meath, Ireland. Conwell, Tomb of Ollamh Fodhla, PP- 54. 55 • • • • • • 206-8

45. Bronze penannular brooch from London. Price's Roman Anii-

qicities, PI. VI I L Fig-. 7 . . . . . 215

46. Ditto, from Woodcuts. Pitt-Rivers' Excavations, etc., vol. i. ,

47. Ditto, from Broch of Okstrow. Proc, S. A. Scot., xi, p. 85 . . 215

48. Ditto, from Wilderspool, Cheshire. Watkins' Rom,an Cheshire,

49. Ditto, from Livonia, Russia. After Baron de Baye {Industrial

Arts of the Anglo-Saxons, p. 59) . ... 216

50 to 54. Grotesque images of shale and shell from Dumbuck and

55 to 59. Inscribed slates from the Church of St. Blane, Bute. Proc.

60 and 61. "Churinga" from Australia. Spencer and Gillen, The

Native Tribes of Central Australia . ... 247

62. Churinga from Australia. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. xxxiv. p. 136 . 248

63. Water-worn piece of clay slate, ornamented, from Dunbuie . . 249

PLAN

Sketch plan of Dumbuck " Crannog " . ... 143

LIST OF PLATES

XI. Specimens of Flint Jack's forgeries in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. From a photograph by the Curator of the Museum .... Frontispiece

PAGE

I. The mammoth of La Madeleine. E. Lartet (Comptes-rendus

de V Acaddmie des Sciences, vol. Ixi.) . . . . 38

II. and III. Forgeries of the "Age de la Corne." Reduced from

illustrations by W. Wavre in Musde Neuchatelois, 1890 47 and 51

IV. Flint implements of the type " ascia lunata. " Btdlettino di

Paletnologia Italiana, xi. PI. V. . . . . 59

V. and VI. Breonio flints. Ihid., xiv. PL VIII, and IX. . 63, 69

VII. and VIII. The "Calaveras" skull said to have been found at the bottom of a mine 128 ft. in depth. Congrks International, Paris, 1900, pp. 160, 161 . . ... 96

IX. Stone mortar and pestle found in a mine under a bed of lava in

California. Ibid., p. 168 . . ... 100

X. Mortars and other objects said to have been found in the auriferous gravels of California. Smithsonian Institution Report, 1899 • • • ... 107

XII. Objects found at Langbank. Photographed from a large drawing by Mr. W. A. Donnelly in the Journal of the British Archceological Association for Apri], 1903 . . . 148

XIII. Implements and weapons of slate and shale from Dumbuck

and Dunbuie . . . ... 222

XIV. Specimens of Stone Age objects from the north of Scandi-

navia. After MM. Rygh and Montelius. Congres International, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 178-233 . ... 226

XV. Objects (amulets?) of shale, etc., from Dumbuck . . . 228

XVI. Objects from the hill-fort of Dunbuie. Nos. i to 12 are rough pieces of sandstone varying in size from a few inches to seven or eight, with cup-marks, lines, curves, etc. Nos. 13 and 14 represent bones with linear incisions, as if they had been burnt into the bone. Nos. 15 to 17 are small stone ornaments here represented about half natural size. No. 18 is a natural pebble with a cross scraped on it . . . 230

LIST OF PLATES

XVII. "Churinga," said to have been found at Dunbuie. Photographed from Journal of the British Archceological Association, September, 1901, Fig". 4 . . . . . 246

XVIII. The tiara of Sai'tapharnes recently proved to be a forg-er)^ From the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres {Comptes Rendus), i8g6, p. 140 . . . . . 278

Preface

r

THIS volume owes its primary inception to the difference of opinion that has arisen with regard to certain archaic-like objects described as having been found on three prehistoric sites on the shores of the Clyde — some archaeologists accepting, and others rejecting, their claims to be regarded as relics of the people who formerly inhabited these sites. And here the matter seems to have come to a standstill. Notwithstanding the teaching and practical investigations of so many British Archaeological Societies, it would appear that antiquarian lore, even in the hands of experts, is inadequate to distinguish between true and false antiquities ; and that relics of past civilisations have no evidential characteristics sufficiently marked to prevent them from being confounded with modern fabrications. No wonder that, in these circumstances, the very existence of such a thing as scientific archaeology has been questioned.

To help to solve the difficulties thus raised, without resorting to the tu quoqiie style of controversy, it was necessary to wander somewhat far afield, so as to prepare the minds of general readers for the melancholy fact that xii PREFACE

there is a back wash, almost abreast with the progressive tide of human culture, in which the bacterial germs of imposture find a habitat, independently of all nationalities. During these wanderings one paramount object has been kept steadily in view, viz. to emphasise the real archceological arguments involved in the various disputes, so as to enlist the intelligent reader's own judgment on the problems at issue.

Such a work could not have been undertaken, with reasonable prospects of success, without utilising to a considerable extent the labours of other workers in the same field. On this point I have adhered to my usual practice of quoting, as far as practicable, the actual words of authors whose opinions are controverted, or approved, instead of compiling the substance of their views. All materials thus incorporated, either in the form of extract or illustration, are duly acknowledged — the former in the text, and the latter in the detailed list of illustrations. In addition to obligations on this score, I have to express special thanks to the following gentlemen : Mr. W. A. Donnelly and Mr. John Bruce, f.s.a. scot., for having afforded me an opportunity of carefully inspecting the structural remains at Dumbuck and Langbank while the excavations were in progress ; the Council of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, for the use of the blocks of figures 35 and 55-9 ; and the Curator of the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, for the photograph from which Plate XI. has been made.

In conclusion, it may be noted that by the publication

PREFACE xiii

of full descriptive details of the two submarine structures (Dumbuck and Langbank), and of their undisputed relics, I am enabled to give due prominence to their archseological importance, as remains of what is virtually a new type among the early inhabited sites in Scotland.

R. M.

ARCHAEOLOGY

r

AND FALSE ANTIQUITIES

Chapter I \^ Prolegomena

TO delineate the various phases of culture and civilisation through which mankind have successively passed during their long career on the globe, prior to historic times, is the main object of scientific archaeology. The materials on which such an inquiry is founded consist of a number of objects showing evidence of human workmanship, either incidentally picked up along the haunts and byways of our primeval ancestors, or purposely searched for among the debris of their inhabited sites and sepulchres. For the correct interpretation of such remains archaeologists not only make use of the ordinary synthetical and analytic methods of research, but also cull from collateral sources whatever ascertained truths may be serviceable to their cause. Indeed, so wide and diversified is the field to which the arch^ological vision must extend that the investigator is constantly obliged to appeal to outside experts to assist in clearing up doubtful points. Before the investigator steps beyond the very threshold of this science he has to master a certain amount of linguistic attainments, which take up

B no inconsiderable amount of time and energy ; for to deal with the archaeological phenomena of Western Europe alone, with any prospect of success, it is essential to be equipped with a knowledge of at least half a dozen foreign languages. To attempt, therefore, to convey to general readers a synopsis of the principles which underlie the technical qualifications necessary in dealing scientifically with a varied assortment of relics, collected from the dustbins of peoples widely separated from each other in space and time, and too frequently influenced by fashions, traditions, and beliefs founded on ignorance and superstition, would be as great a tour-de-force as if a judge, before giving his decision in a legal case, were called upon to explain the fundamental principles of our national code of laws. On the other hand, to ignore altogether the rationale of the methods by which archaeology is now studied, and to leave unmentioned certain conspicuous landmarks already established along the route, would be to deprive many of my readers of the means of intelligently following the discussions which form so large a portion of this volume. As a compromise in this dilemma I am placing before them, under the title of Prolegomena, a few selected sketches, which it is hoped may serve the double purpose of disclosing some of the legitimate methods and arguments by which archaeological deductions are established, and of supplying valid reasons for suspecting certain objects to be false or forged because of their disharmony in the evolutionary sequence which characterises the works of man in all ages.

In these sketches the primary and fundamental elements of civilisation, such as man's unique place in nature, the special means by which he holds his own in the struggle of life, his ever-advancing capacity for utilising the forces of nature, the progressiveness of his mechanical inventions, etc., are more particularly dealt with. After perusal of the prolegomena readers will, perhaps, come to realise the force of the argument that it would be as unnecessary to disprove a statement, or an inference, which is shown to be inconsistent with well-established archaeological generalisations, as it would be to refute one which involved a contradiction of the^aw of gravitation. At this time of day the announcement of a discovery, which implied the contemporaneousness of relics of the Iron Age with those of the Palaeolithic period, would be as startling to an archceologist as a report of the discovery of a fossil mammal in the Silurian period would be to a geologist — statements which, if accepted as true, would be subversive of many of the doctrines hitherto taught under the cEgis of the sciences of archaeology and geology.

I. THE SPECIALITY OF MAN'S WORKS

Man is differentiated from all other animals by the fact that the means by which he has acquired his present commanding position among them are, to a large extent, due to his superior intelligence and reasoning faculties. Neither in attack or defence, nor in the capture of his prey, nor in the execution of such mechanical processes as cutting, scraping, boring, etc., does he exclusively depend on the organs with which nature originally endowed him. In lieu of the specially developed teeth, claws, horns, hoofs, etc., used more or less for these purposes by other animals, man has provided himself with a relay of ingeniously constructed implements, weapons, and tools, through the instrumentality of which his life-functions are more efficiently performed. In fact, in this sense. Homo sapiens may be regarded as having rebelled against the stern decrees of Cosmic evolution ; for, from the very beginning of his career, he successfully claimed a share in the administration of the laws of the material world, more especially in so far as they affected his own well-being. The actual starting-point of this new departure was the attainment of the erect attitude, which, by finally effecting a delimitation of the original function of the fore-limbs to purely manipulative processes, enabled him henceforth to pilot his way through the world by manufacturing various tools and implements, by way of supplementing his natural means of offence and defence. Bipedal locomotion, which from that time became man's normal mode of progression, was of itself of little consequence, being a mere morphological adjustment of certain parts of the body, displaying, indeed, less mechanical ingenuity than many other well-known animal transformations, as, for example, the adaptability of the fore-limbs of the Pterodactyle to both prehensile and flying purposes.

The really important element thus introduced into the organic world was the use to which the eliminated fore-limbs were put in the manufacture of all manner of mechanical contrivances. The efficient working of these novel contrivances — implements, weapons, and tools — entailed, of course, constant watchfulness, and this again gradually led to greater expertness in manipulative skill. In this way new stimulants for the exercise of thought and of the reasoning faculties were constantly introduced on the stage of human life, the direct consequence of which was a higher development of the organ of intelligence, as well as a corresponding efficiency in mechanical appliances. From this vantage-ground man soon learned not only to distinguish the physical causes of a given effect, but to adjust the causes so as to produce that effect at his pleasure. The outcome of his long experience of the operations of nature is that now, to a large extent, he himself regulates natural phenomena, either by bringing together the physical causes which produce them, or by counteracting certain effects which are not desirable. Thus, in time of unusual drought, he waters his fields, and in due season garners the produce. Notwithstanding his absolute inability to alter or annul any of the laws of nature, it is astonishing to contemplate the magnitude of the changes he has effected on the globe by his acquired power of skilfully adjusting means to special ends. Primeval forests and deserts have given place to cultivated fields ; former hunting-grounds are stocked with a variety of domesticated animals ; rivers are spanned and mountains tunnelled all over the globe ; and even the great oceans have now become the safest of highways.

The crowd of new ideas, and the more complex train of reasoning which ensued from the thoughtful efforts of our earlier predecessors as toolmakers, soon led to the invention of spoken language — that of signs and gesture being no longer adequate to give expression to the increased cerebral work which had arisen. With the use of speech new outlets for social progress came into operation, and greatly stimulated their mental faculties. "Speech," says Professor Cunningham,^ "has been a dominant factor in determining the high development of the human brain. Speech and mental activity go hand in hand. The one has reacted on the other. The mental effort required for the coining of a new word has been immediately followed by an increased possibility of further intellectual achievement through the additional range given to the mental powers of the enlarged vocabulary. The two processes, mutually supporting each other, and leading to progress in the two directions, have unquestionably yielded the chief stimulus to brain development." That articulate speech was acquired subsequently to the assumption of the erect attitude, and the specialisation of the hands and feet is, according to Haeckel, indicated

^ Presidential Address in the Anthropolog-ical Section of the British Association, at Glasgow, 1901.

"by the fact that children have to learn the language of their parents, and by the circumstance that comparative philology declares it impossible to reduce the chief human languages to anything like one common origin."^

As time progressed, and these talkative bipeds continued their predatory incursions into the arcana of nature, many other principles favourable to the improvement of their social economy were discovered and utilised. Thus a knowledge of the properties of fire, and the art of procuring it at will, furnished them with the means of increasing their food-supplies by cooking substances which otherwise would be unfit for human food. The rearing of domestic animals yielded a more reliable means of living than the precarious products of the chase, especially as the population increased and wild animals became scarce. The discovery of the art of cultivating plants and cereals opened up an almost unlimited source of human subsistence. Hence by degrees the more intelligent among them ceased their nomadic habits, and, instead of wandering about in search of the roots, nuts, and berries which nature provided, they began to sow seeds and plant roots ; and so they gradually came to provide their own food-supplies. The introduction and dissemination of the knowledge of agriculture and pastoral farming among these primitive hunters and fruitgatherers may be regarded as two of the most important and far-reaching events in the history of human civilisation. The vicissitudes of climate were successfully counteracted by the construction of houses and the invention of the art of weaving cloth from wool and fibrous materials, and hence their habitable area on the globe became greatly extended.

The personification of the invisible agencies of the material world into spirits of good or evil gave rise to

^ The Last Linli, p. 72.

the belief in a supernatural world. The idea, once mooted, that these spirits controlled external phenomena soon led to their being worshipped as gods, and hence arose religious principles which, under many guises and garbs, have ever sin'ce been potent factors in the development of human organisations.

To the faculty of speech was finally linked the art of writing, an invention which supplied the means of perpetuating their knowledge of the secrets of nature in a more precise manner than could be effected by oral tradition.

These are the main principles by which mankind have acquired their remarkable superiority over all other animals ; and to the early founders of human civilisation may be traced the primary rootlets of the religion, theology, ethics, and altruism which find general acceptance among the civilised nations of the present day.

2. THE MATERIALS OF ARCHEOLOGY

As the works of man's hands are the only evidential materials from which our knowledge of the past history of humanity is derived, it is essential, in limine, to have a clear notion of the special characters by which they can be distinguished from natural productions. This is not always an easy matter. Waterworn shells and pebbles, fantastic petrifactions, perforated stones, stray fossils, and the many other odds and ends which may be picked up on an ordinary sea-beach, have often been mistaken for the works of man. On the other hand, successive generations have unconcernedly passed over a whole series of real stone and flint implements, and it was only within the last half-century, or so, that they were generally recognised to be objects fashioned by the hand of man. A flint may be chipped by a falling stone, the pressure and friction of shifting gravel, the action of fire or heat, etc., so that in many instances it requires the utmost experience to distinguish the effects of natural causes from the works of man. The finding of ashes and charcoal in a circumscribed spot is generally accepted as evidence of man's presence at some time in the locality ; but this inference, though practically correct, is not logically so, as fire may be caused by lightning. As a rule, evidence of design in the arrangement and disposition of inert materials suggests the hand and brain of man ; but the dam of the beaver, the web of a spider, and the nests of some birds and insects are manifest exceptions to it. Decorative art of every description, from the simplest geometrical figure upwards, may be regarded as a monopoly of the human race ; but the symmetrical disposition of patches of colour on the wing of a butterfly, the configuration of crystals, dendritic figures, and the forms of many of the lower animals, such as star-fishes, sea-urchins, etc., are sufficient to remind us that definitions are more easily formulated than logically defended. Practically, however, it may be accepted as a working proposition that no animal but man has ever manufactured an implement, weapon, ornament, utensil, image, idol, or any article of clothing. Nor does any other animal make use of fire to cook food, or of a stone to break a bone for its marrow, or of a line, symbol, or geometrical figure to represent thought. Hence objects found in excavating a prehistoric site, or under any conditions suggestive of a remote period, which can be assigned unequivocally to any of the above categories, are to be considered genuine relics — unless they are rejected for some exceptional reasons. The accidental falling of a worked object, such as a coin, from the surface to a lower level, or the fraudulent insertion of spurious objects into the trenches, may be cited as examples of what is meant by exceptional reasons.

Owing to various causes, archaeological remains are both scanty and fragmentary — for it is no part of nature's programme to preserve ancient relics for the purpose of instructing archseologists. Indeed, some of the most interesting and delicate objects of antiquity now extant owe their preservation to a combination of exceptional circumstances which have retarded the inevitable disintegration which, sooner or later, overtakes all organic compounds. The human body decomposes so quickly after death that, in a comparatively short time, nothing remains but a few bones to indicate the characteristics of the race to which the individual belonged. The habitations, strongholds, and other structural remains of the earlier races, even when formed of the most durable materials, are now either obliterated or buried under the accumulated dust of ages. As to the smaller relics — implements, weapons, ornaments, articles of clothing, etc. — which have escaped the ravages of time, they have to be sought for in tombs, caves, rockshelters, huts, etc. The scarcity of such materials is also greatly increased by the destruction of many objects owing to the carelessness or ignorance of the finders.

3. ARCH^OLOGICAL DEDUCTIONS AND CHRONOLOGY

From the remarks already made it becomes manifest that to acquire accurate knowledge of the materials and methods of prehistoric archaeology, even when the scope of an investigation is limited to a small portion of Europe, it is essential to serve a long apprenticeship in the study of minute details, more especially the resemblances and differences in the ornamentation and form of relics. When confronted with objects of doubtful authenticity the archaeologist has to pass before the mind's eye, not only analogous objects found within the same archseological area, but those from more distant regions which have been at some former period ethnographically associated lo ARCHEOLOGY AND FALSE ANTIQUITIES

with that area. Above all, he must make judicious use of the faculties of observation and comparison, so as to discriminate between the special characteristics of the suspected objects and those of the typical objects with which they are contrasted. And here the question naturally arises — How is a willing investigator to qualify himself, either to conduct archceological researches with the best possible results, or to interpret the materials already collected and preserved in a number of museums throughout the country ? Unfortunately, with the exception of the Chair of Anthropology at Oxford, and two lectureships at Cambridge, there is no national provision within the British Isles for acquiring systematic instruction in the essential elements of British archeology.

Antiquarian societies occasionally publish valuable monographs on particular discoveries ; but, in the main, their communications are confined to Roman antiquities, church architecture, the arts and industries of mediaeval times, heraldry, genealogy, palaeography, etc., none of which is of much value to students of the earlier history of man and civilisation. Few have the time or inclination to wade through the transactions of these societies to learn the rudiments of prehistoric archaeology, even were they attainable by such means. The inevitable consequence is that the protohistoric civilisations of Greece, Egypt, and Babylonia, or the mediaeval remains of Europe which, of course, contain the primary elements of modern culture, are far more attractive to amateurs and general readers. But these various departments of archeology, however interesting they may be, are not sufficiently representative of our national requirements. If British archeologists are to retain a position among the nations of the world, as pioneers of the science of anthropology, something more than desultory work is required. The accumulations of the past must be utilised

PROLEGOMENA ii

in systematic teaching, and fresh energy must start from the vantage-ground already gained. In contrast to our national poverty in this matter, it is interesting to know that the French capital contains a school {L Ecole d' Anthropologie de Paris) entirely devoted to the teaching of Anthropology. This institution has a staff of twelve professors, who deliver systematic courses of lectures in the various departments into which the science is apportioned among them. In America, also, anthropology occupies a worthy place among the educational subjects taught in their universities. According to Professor Haddon ^ there are at the present time some thirty-three universities and colleges which offer instruction in anthropology. " It is found to be an adjunct of sociology in nine, of philosophy in five, of psychology in three, of geology and zoology in five, and of medicine in one ; while in five instances it is practically a faculty of itself." In these circumstances one need not wonder that it is still pertinent, in this country at least, to ask if there be any recognised code of rules under the guidance of which trustworthy information, bearing on the early history of mankind, can be deduced from existing archaeological materials. In advocating the affirmative side of this problem let me not be understood as holding that these rules are so clearly defined that he who runs may read. On the contrary, they are but faintly limned in the shadowy past, so that to decipher them requires as much technical skill as if they were obscure hieroglyphics. Nor is the necessary skill to be acquired by short cuts. Sherlock Holmes is represented as diagnosing a disease by a mere glance at his patient's boots ; but, were he asked to explain the rationale of his apparently intuitive action, it would take him some time to arrange categorically the congeries of symptoms, experiences, and