Rambles and Studies in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia. With an account of the proceedings of the Congress of Archæologists and Anthropologists held in Sarajevo, August 1894

Front matter

RAMBLES AND STUDIES IN BOSNIA -HERZEGOVINA AND DALMATIA Frontispiece EXCAVATIONS AT BUTMIR. RAMBLES AND STUDIES IN BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA AND DALMATIA WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONGRESS OF ARCHÆOLOGISTS AND ANTHROPOLOGISTS HELD IN SARAJEVO, AUGUST 1894 BY ROBERT MUNRO, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.E. SECRETARY OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND Hon. Member of the Royal Irish Academy ; Hon. Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland; Membre de la Societe Royale des Antiquaries du Nord ; Correspond. Mitglied der Wiener Anthrop. Gesellschaft ; &c, &c. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCXCV All Rights reserved PEE FACE. In the early clays of this year I received a communication from the Government of Bosnia-Herzegovina, dated December 31st, 1894, intimating their intention to pub lish an illustrated brochure, in German and in French, which would give a detailed account of the proceedings of the Congress of anthropologists and archæologists held at Sarajevo in August of that year.

Their object, they stated, was by this means to popularise the scien tific results then arrived at. They asked if I had any corrections to make on the report of the proceedings of the Congress which appeared in several numbers of the ' Bosnische Eost,' as this was to be the basis of the intended publication ; or any suggestions to offer in regard to the selection of illustrations. They further stated that any supplementary observations the members might wish to make would be incorpor ated as an appendix, so as to make the work as com plete as possible. a

Preface

. VI Iii replying to this communication I expressed my hearty approval of the proposed publication, with the exception of the appendix, in regard to which I pointed out that any additional matter thus included would only bring together a mass of controversial matter representing merely the opinions of the individual writers. " Such discussions," I wrote, " would be better conducted through other sources. It would enhance the interest already taken in your remarkable discoveries were they to become the focus of controversies in every anthropological circle in Europe." I then informed them of my wish to write a popular sketch of my visit to Bosnia — not, however, restricting myself to the special object for which the members were called together, but giving glimpses of the scenery and of the social life of the people — provided they gave me permission to copy some of the illustrations published in their scientific reports (' Wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien und der Herzegovina ').

To this the Government replied that they hailed with satisfaction (mit dem grossten Beifall begriissen) my intention of giving to English readers an account of their country and its archæological treasures ; and for this purpose they not only granted the permis sion asked for, but offered to further the work by

PREFACE.

. VII placing at my disposal any cliches, photographs, plans, &c, in their possession, which 1 might deem necessary. But, besides the scenic beauties and remarkably in teresting archæological remains in Bosnia-Herzegovina, I came across other discoveries at Salona, Knin, &c, equally interesting and novel ; and so I determined to include a notice of them in my proposed book on Bosnia. I therefore wrote to Brofessor Bulic, Director of the Museum at Spalato, informing him of my project, and asking a similar favour with regard to the pro ceedings of the "Brimo Congresso degli Archeologi Cristiani," of which Congress I had already become a member. His reply was everything that kindness could dictate, and along with it came a packet of photographs, maps, plans, &c, which covered the en tire field of my operations.

Thus were begun the labours which have come to an end by the appearance of the volume now offered to the public. Those who look beneath the surface will find that I am but a secondary agent in its production, its real authors being the experts of the Landes museum at Sarajevo — Hormann, Radimsky, Truhelka, and Fiala, — and the Director of the Spalato Museum, Dr Bulic. On the writings of all these learned gentle men I have made large draughts, especially on those of the late and much lamented Wenzel Radimsky, a

PREFACE.

. notice of whose untimely death has reached me while these very words are being written. But although my share of the work lies outside original research, my labours cannot be regarded as those of a mere compiler. Not only have I taken upon myself the responsibility of selecting the materials, but also of clothing them in an English garb. Over and above these labours comes the question of archæological capacity to interpret the actual phenomena brought under review. This, however, is a matter for others to decide ; but in mitigation of any adverse criticism on this point I would urge the plea that it is better to have an imperfect account than no account at all. Independence of thought is not in this book buried under the burden of authorities, and should the author's individuality occasionally crop up he trusts it is not in an obtrusive way.

The reason d'etre of the book is to give an abbre viated account of the attractions — scenic, social, and scientific — of a portion of the Balkan peninsula, which, till lately, was almost inaccessible and unknown to the people of Western Europe. On the success or failure of my efforts to combine the popular and scientific elements, probably, hangs its fate. From the current opinion that archæology is a dry, uninterestino study, and incompatible with the gay and pleasurable side of life, I dissent in toto. I have not found it so •

PREFACE.

. IX on the contrary, in its pursuit I have come across episodes, incidents, and phases of actual life unequalled, for genuine humour, by any of the concocted narratives of the most lively magazines. In dealing with literary materials emanating from Slavish sources one encounters a difficulty which, though trivial, is somewhat embarrassing to publishers and readers — viz., the orthography of proper names. Hitherto English writers have endeavoured to indicate the sounds of certain letters by substituting their phonetic equivalents in ordinary types. Thus Carsija is written Tsharshia, Glasinac Glasinatz, &c, thereby increasing the confusion, already great enough, by sug gesting the idea that there are various ways of spelling the same word. I have avoided this difficulty by retaining the Slavish letters with their special marks, as is now universally done in German literature.

A glance at the following table will make the process at once clear and simple : — c is pronounced as tz Konjica = Konjitza. c M pi ch (as in church) Metkovic = Metkovich. c n ii as tsch Miljacka = Miljatschka. s ii ii as s (in hiss) Bosna = Bossna. v g ,, ii as sell Carsija = Tscharschija. z ii ii ass Zenica = Senitza. z ii ii as sh or eh Dzamia = Dzhamia. In addition to my obligations to the Government of Bosnia - Herzegovina and to Dr Bulic, I have to X

PREFACE.

. express my indebtedness to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland for the use of the blocks for figures 110 and 111 ; to the International Sleeping-Car Co., Lon don, for the loan of the blocks of eight plates from their Illustrated Guide-book to Bosnia and Herzego vina ; and to my wife for reading the proofs. ROBERT MUNRO. 48 Manor Place, Edinburgh, 25th November 1895. PAGE CONTENTS.

Chapter I. To And At Sarajevo

Introductory remarks — Special object of visiting Sarajevo — From Buda-Pest to Bosna-Brod — Scenery of the valley of the Bosna — Arrival at Sarajevo — " Hotel Europa " — Walk through the town — The bazaars and their frequenters — View of Sarajevo from the Castle — Mohammedan College — Begova-Dzamia — The National Museum — Howling dervishes- — Konak — Tekija of the seven beheaded dervishes — Trebevic 1-26

Chapter II. Excursion To Jajce And The Lakes Of The Pliva

To Travnik by railway — Smart diligence — A great poplar-tree — A thunderstorm — Dolnji Vakuf — The valley of the Vrbas — A Bogomile gravestone — Arrival at Jajce — The waterfall — The castle — The " catacombs " — The church of St Luke — A Romanesque campanile — Krebse — Scenery of the Pliva — Its lakes — Village of Jezero — Tourist house — Primitive canoes — A trout vendor — Departure from Jajce — A shandrydan — Over the Karaula mountains — Magnificent view — Absence of heather — A primitive turbine mill — A Turkish cafe — Market-day at Travnik — At the railway station 27-52 CONTENTS.

Chapter III. The Congress Of Anthropologists And

ARCHÆOLOGISTS AT SARAJEVO (AUGUST 1894). Object of Congress— List of members— Reception by the authorities at Sarajevo — Official dinner — The first meeting — Professor Virchow elected President— Visit to the Museum— The relics of a pile -structure in the river Una — Excursion to Butmir — General description of the settlement — The nature of the deposits and the position of the huts— The baths of Ilidze— Entertained at supper by his Excellency Minister von Kallay — Excursion to the prehistoric fort and huts at Sobunar — Sarajevo en fete — Special services in the churches and mosques — Different religions — Visit to Government factories — Excursion to Glasinac — Reception at the Kaserne of Podromanja — Visit to a Burgwall, a Bogomile cemetery, and the cave of Megara — Interior of a cottage — Night at the Kaserne — The tumuli of Rusanovici — Reception by the natives — Professor Virchow and Ivan Dobraca — Dinner al fresco — Kolo dance — Return to Sarajevo — Farewell dinner a la Turque by the Ma}'or of Sarajevo ....... 53-88

Chapter IV. The Neolithic Station Of Butmir

Subjects sidjnatted to the members of Congress for discussion — Nature of controversy in regard to the settlement of Butmir — Publication of the monograph ' Das Neolithische Station von Butmir' — Summary of its contents — Radimsky's theory of the construction of the huts — This theory controverted — Reasons for believing that the settlement was a pile-structure — Discussion as to the age of the settlement ....... 89-127

Chapter V. The Prehistoric Cemeteries Of Glasinac And Jezerine

A. Glasinac: Discovery that the tumuli contained objects of antiquarian value — Systematic investigations commenced — Distribution of the tumuli in groups — Different modes of interment CONTENTS. XIII Relation between the tumuli and Wallburgen — Structure and distribution of Wallburgen — Anthropological characters of the human remains from the tumuli, and their relation to those of the present inhabitants — Description of the relics — Discussion in Congress. B. Necropolis of Jezerine: Discovery — Investigation — Summary of its contents— Special relics 128-172

Chapter VI. Mostar And Its Neighbourhood

Homewards — Across the Dinaric Alps — The Prenj mountains — Jablanica — The Narenta defile — Arrival at Mostar — Description of the town — Its so-called Roman bridge — Visit to the source of the Buna — A woman without her veil — The miller of Blagaj and his shepherd son — The water supply of Mostar — Mostarsko-Blato — The valley of the Narenta and its geology — Archæological jottings 173-217

Chapter VII. From Mostar To Spalato And Salona

Departure from Mostar — Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic and his tragic fate — Another Narenta defile — A city set on a hill — Narona — Gabella — Metkovic — The delta of the Narenta — On board steamer — Arrival at Spalato — Situation of Salona — The palace of Diocletian — Ruins of Salona — Museo Archeologico Salonitano . . 218-24(j

Chapter VIII. Early Christian Remains At Salona And Knin

Preliminary remarks — Three periods in early Christian art — The cemetery of Manastirine and its religious buildings — Christian martyrs — Diocletian's persecutions — Basilica Cristiana Urbana — Remarkable baptistery — The cemetery of Marusinac — Christian symbols found at Salona — The Good Shepherd — The fish — Terra-cotta lamps — Bishops of Salona — Excursion to Knin — The Kapitul and Biskupija — Interlacements ...... 247-295 C0NTENTS. XIV

Chapter IX. Sketch Of The Unwritten Records Of Bosnia And Herzegovina

General Remarks: Written records— The substitution of metals for stone in cutting implements — The hiatus between Palæolithic and Neolithic civilisations in Europe. Summary of the Unwritten Records: Prehistoric remains at Butmir, at Sobunar, &c. — Bronze hoard at Sumetac — Graves at Sretes and Catici— Cemeteries and hill-forts of Glasinac — The Hochebene Rakitno — La Tene objects at Majdan — The necropolis of Jezerine — Vrankamer hoard of coins — Miscellaneous finds. Story of the JJnxoritten Records: Method of research — The earliest people of Bosnia — Contemporary with early lake-dwellers of Europe — They enter the country via the Danube — No characteristic Bronze Age in Bosnia — The Illyrians an early Iron Age people — They belong to the Hallstatt archæological area — La Tene civilisation a development of that of Hallstatt . . 296-340

Chapter X. Bosnia And Herzegovina In Historic Times

Ethnological deductions from the sepulchral remains in Glasinac and Jezerine — These confirmed by historical records — Celts and Late- Celtic civilisation. Roman Times: Importance of Roman archæology — Investiga tions of Roman remains at Srebrenica, Laktasi, Crkvenica near Doboj, Zenica, Stolac, " Gradac bei Posusje," and in the valley of the Lasva — Minor discoveries — Remarkable spear-head. The Bogomiles: Bogomile gravestones (Altbosnische Grabsteine) — Their ornamentation, inscriptions, and distribution — Creed of the Bogomiles. Concluding Remarks . 341-395 ILLUSTRATIONS. ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. FIG. PAGE 1. Serbian Peasants .... Bosnia . 15 2. Well in the Court of Begova-Dzamia . . Sarajevo 18 3. Tekija of the Seven Beheaded Brethren . n 25 4. Jajce and the Falls of the Pliva . . Jajce . 31 5.

Sculptured Capital . . . . n 34 6. Heraldic Arms of Duke Hrvoj a in "Catacombs" n . 36 7. Unfinished Arms in " Catacombs " . . m . 37 8. Ground Plan of " Catacombs " ... 38 9. Section of " Catacombs " . . . ,, . 38 10. Altar in Crypt of " Catacombs " . . „ 39 11. Catholic Peasant Girl with Tattoo-Marks ... 47 12. Sarajevsko-Polje . . ..... 58 13. Members of Congress at the Neolithic Station of Butmir, Aug. 16, 1894 ....... 59 14. Sobunar, Zlati&te, and Debelobrdo . . . . 65 15. A Native Musician at Mokro ..... 72 16. A Cottage at Mokro ...... 74 17. Megarahohle ..... Glasinac 75 18. Exploring a Tumulus .... n 77 19. Astonished Natives, Aug. 20, 1894 . .. 78 20. In Holiday Costume .... n 79 21. Ivan DobraSa ...... n ILLUSTPvATIONS. 22. Plan and Sections of the Prehistoric Station of Butmir 95 23.

Flint and other Objects from ... n 101 24. A Globular Weight of Burnt Clay . . m 103 25. Section of Relic-Bed, showing stratification . n 115 26. Bronze Waggon, 6 inches high . . . Glasinac 130 27. Iron Swords and Knives . . ■• 138 28. Iron Spear and Celts .... •• 139 29. Iron Spear and Handle of Clasp-Knife . . m 140 30. A Mounted Hone . . . . n 140 31. An Earthenware Jug . . . . n 141 32. Bronze Cup and Percolator and Skyphos . n 142 33. Bronze Basin and Cup . . . . n 14.3 34. Iron Weapons and Bronze Arrow-Head . . n 144 35. Fragment of a Bronze Lance ... ■■ 145 36. Bronze Helmet ...... „ 146 37. Bronze Vessel found on Head of a Skeleton . n 146 38. Shield Ornament of Bronze . . . n 146 39. Bronze Greave ..... ti 147 40. A pair of Bronze Greaves . . . n 148 41. A Bronze Girdle ..... ,, 149 42.

A Bronze Fibula (with peculiar foot) . . M 150 43. Spectacle Fibula . . . . . „ 150 44. Bronze Plate of Disc-Fibula ... ■• 151 45. Bronze Fibulæ with two Twists . . n 151 46. Bronze Fibulæ with one Twist . . M 152 47. Roman Fibula ..... ,, 153 48. Bronze Pendants engraved . n 153 49. Disc Ornaments of Bronze . ,, 154 50. Bronze Clasp or Hook .... ,, 155 51. -Two Spiral Bracelets .... ,, 156 52. Spiral Bracelet . . . . . ,, 157 53. Bronze Bracelet with Secondary Spiral Coils . „ 157 54. Group of Bronze Pins .... ,, 158 55. Group of various Bronze Objects . . ,, 159 56. Bronze Pendants . . „ 160 57. Bronze Ornament .... „ 161 58. Bronze Ornament, remarkable form . . ,, 162 59. Bronze Necklet . . ,, ILLUSTRATIONS. XVII 60. Roman Fibula and three Bracelets (Bronze) . Jezerine 163 61. Fibula with Amber Body and an Amber Bead . ,, 164 62.

Bronze Fibula, early La Tene type . . ,, 168 63. Bronze Fibula with Amber Beads and Bronze Pendants ,, 169 64. Bronze Fibula . . . . . ,, 170 65. Bronze Fibula . . . . . ,, 170 66. Bronze Fibula with Animal Heads . . ,, 171 67. Pre-Roman Gravestone (ornamented) . ,, 172 68. Roman Sarcophagus .... near Mostar 198 69. Plan of a Prehistorico-Romano Fort . . „ 199 70. Pottery with wavy Ornamentation from Grave . n 201 71. Fibula with two Pins from Roman Grave . ,, 202 72. Iron Knife and Iron Lance from Roman Grave . ., 202 73. Iron Sickle from Roman Grave . . . ,, 202 74. Old Roman Bridge . . . . ,, 203 75. Plan and Section of the Prehistoric Fort, Ogra<5 ,, 204 76. Plan of Fortification on Kicin . . . ,. 207 77. Fragments of hand-made Pottery, do. . . n 208 78. Fragments of hand-made Pottery, do. . . i, 209 79.

Fragments of wheel-made Pottery, do. . . n 210 80. Stone Chair at Kosor . . . . ,, 211 81. Plan and Section of the Prehistoric Fort, Kriz . M 212 82. Gold Ear- Ring found in Sarcophagus at Han Potoci, n 213 83. Portion of Necklet of Garnets and Gold Filigree found in do. do. . . . . n 213 84. Fibula of Gilt Silver, do. do. . . . „ 214 85. Silver Bulla, do. do. ... . „ 215 86. Plan of Diocletian's Palace . . . Spalato 229 87. Peristyle of Diocletian's Palace . . . n 230 88. Door of Capella Palatina . . . n 231 89. Sphinx in front of the Mausoleum . . -■ 232 90. North Gate ofthe Palace (Porta Aurea) . ,, 233 91. The Cathedral (Mausoleum) and Campanile . ,, 235 92. Ruins of the Aqueduct to the Palace . . n 237 93. Sarcophagus (Hippolytus and Phædra) . . Salona 245 94. View of the Cemetery of Manastirine . . n 254 95.

Plan of the Cemetery of Manastirine . . n 256 96. Ground Plan of Baptistery ... n ILLUSTRATIONS. XVIII 97. Mosaic Work in Baptistery . . ■ Salona . 264 98. Fragment of Sarcophagus (Museum of Spalato) n * 267 99. Another Fragment (Museum of Spalato) . n 267 100. Stone (38£ inches high), with a Medallion Figure in centre of monogram, and Good Shepherd on left corner (preserved in a private garden at Spalato) .... 268 101. Terra-cotta Lamps with Christian Symbols . Salona . 269 102. Do. do. . m . 269 103. Do. with Chi-Rho Monogram . n . 270 104. Do. with three Crosses and Orante n . 270 105. Lamp with Handle in the form of a Cross . it 271 106. A Bronze Ring and a Silver Statuette . . n . 271 107. Sculptured Stone from Kapitul . . Knin . 273 108. Two Sculptured Stones from Kapitul . . >■ . 274 109.

Fragments of Interlaced Work from Biskupija n . 275 110. Sculptured Stone in the Churchyard of St Madoes (5i feet high) ........ 283 111. Sculptured Stone from Glenluce (5i feet high) . . 284 112. Two Stone Panels of the Font in Baptistery . Spalato . 286 113. Do. Do. . ii . 287 114. One of the Arches of a Baldachin in the Church of St Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna ..... 288 115. Cross in the North Wall of the Church of St Mark, Venice . 290 116. Sculptured Cross now in the Church of St Petronio, Bologna (formerly at the corner of a cross-road) . . .291 117. Part ofthe Decoration on a Stone Monument in the Museo Civico, Murano ...... 292 118. End of a Sarcophagus in the Church of St Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna ...... 293 119. A Pozzo in an open court (una Corte ai Birri) in the town of Venice ....... 294 120.

Bronze Objects from Sobunar ..... 320 121. Bronze Sickles (part of a hoard from Sumetac) . . 322 122. Perforated Stone Hammer, near Doboj . . . 327 123. Bronze Spear-Head do. . 327 124. Plan of a Roman Building at Zenica . . 352 125. Roman Mosaic Work, Stolac . . . 356 126. Objects from Gradac, Herzegovina . . ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX 127. Iron Implements from Puticevo 362 128. Ground Plan of the Basilica of VaroSluk 363 129. Bronze Socketed Celts, Grahovo 364 130. Iron Spear-Head, Hatelj, Herzegovina. 365 131. Various Architectural Designs on Gravestones 132. Decorated and inscribed Gravestone, Boljuni . 133. Stag-Hunt with Dog and Falcon, Herzegovina 368 369 370 134. Kolo Dance, Nekuk, near Stolac 370 371 371 373 376 378 378 379 381 382 383 135. Conventional Kolo Dance 136. Attempts at Portrait Figures on Gravestones near Stolac and Boljuni ....... 137.

Pillar in Gyaursko- Polje 138. Gravestones from the Cemetery of Milavidi 139. View of the Bogomile Cemetery of Staro-selo 140. Side and end view of a Gravestone, do. 141. Section of Sepulchral Monument, do. 142. Inscribed Gravestone, . . do. 143. Bogomile Cemetery, Crkvina, Glasinac 144. do. do. (Archæologists among the Tombs, Aug. 19, 1894) ...... PLATE ILLUSTRATIONS. TO FACE PLATE TAOE I. Vranduk 10 II. A Street in the Carsija, Sarajevo . . . 12 III. View of Sarajevo from the Castle .... 16 IV. Begova-Dzamia, Sarajevo . . . . .18 V. View of the Miljacka, do. . . . . .22 VI. The Park, Ilidjfe 24 .VII. Travnik ....... 28 VIII. DolnjiVakuf .30 IX. Valley of Vrbas and "Hotel Jajce" .... 32 X. The Upper Pliva Lake ..... 40 XI. Jezero ........ 42 XII. Excavations at Butmir .... Frontispiece XIII.

Idols of Butmir 98 XIV. Pottery from Butmir . * . .104 ILLUSTRATIONS. XX XV. Objects from Polada ..... 122 XVI. Clay Figurines and other Objects from Lake-Dwellings 124 XVII. Konjica . ' . . . . - .174 XVIII. Jablanica 176 XIX. The Prenj Mountains . . . . .178 XX. Narenta Defile . . . . . .180 XXI. The Old Bridge of Mostar . . . .182 XXII. Blagaj and the Ruins of Stjepangrad . . . 184 XXIII. The Source of the Buna ..... 186 XXIV. Old Stone Bridge over the Buna . . . .200 XXV. Roman Bridge over the Buna .... 206 XXVI. Metkovic ....... 222 XXVII. Spalato ....... 226 XXVIII. Sarcophagus with Good Shepherd, Salona . . 254 XXIX. Chalice from Kremsmtinster .... 294 XXX. Ruins of an ancient Smelting-Furnace, Bosnia . . 350 XXXI. Bogomile Gravestones from Radmilovic" . . . 366 XXXII. Bogomile Gravestone, " Gyaursko-Polje " . . 372 SKETCH MAPS.

Sarajevsko-Polje (The Plain of Ilidze) 5S Distribution of Cemeteries and Hill-Forts of Glasinac Biscepolje and the District around Mostar and the Buna Ruins of Salona ..... 135 196 240 N.B.— Figures 5, 6, 7, 11, 36, 41, 68 to 74, 77 to 85, and Plates 22, 24, 25, and 30, were lent by the Government of Bosnia-Herzegovina ; Plates 1, 5, 6, 8, 10, 17, 18, and 20, by the International Sleeping-Car Co.; and 15 and 16 are from my work on the 1 Lake-Dwellings of Europe.' BOSNIA-HEEZEGOVINA AND DALMATIA.

Chapter I. To And At

SAPvAJEVO. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina are situated in the mountainous regions of the north-west corner of the Balkan peninsula. The fact that they are separated by the backbone of the Dinaric Alps — the watershed of the Adriatic and the Pontus — furnishes an explanation of the marked contrast observed in their respective natural productions and scenery. To the north-east of this range lies Bosnia, whose deep glens, broken ridges, and beautifully wooded hills stretch away till they finally merge into the plain of the Save. The country is traversed from south to north by four main rivers — viz., the Una, the Vrbas, the Bosna, and the Drina, all tributaries of the Save. These long-winding waterways here and there expand into alluvial basins which yield good crops of maize ; while on the de- A clivities are cultivated, often to a great height, wheat, barley, rye, oats, millet, and other cereals.

Herze govina, on the other hand, slopes towards the south west in a succession of broad ridges of Karst (limestone), with intervening valleys generally running parallel with the coast. The last and lowest ridge almost disappears in the Adriatic, only the higher points being visible in the long line of islands which skirt its eastern shore. These rugged plateaux are utterly destitute of vegetation, and from the more commanding view-points they look like a tumultuous sea of bare, bleak, and desolate rocks. A remarkable feature of the rivers and streams of these regions is that, with few exceptions, they eventually lose them selves in underground passages (ponors) ; wThile others, in an equally mysterious manner, suddenly appear on the surface. But however long or short the course of a stream may be, it invariably gives rise to a most luxuriant vegetation — a veritable oasis in the desert.

Another noteworthy feature of the country is that during late autumn and winter many of its confined valleys (polje) become extensive lakes or swamps. In early summer these accumulated surface-waters gradually disappear by means of evaporation and the underground passages, and as they retire their former slimy beds are made to yield, with little labour, an abundant crop of maize. Of the rivers of Herzegovina the famous Narenta is the only one of magnitude which finds its way to the sea entirely above ground. Rising on the flanks of some of THE NARENTA. 3 the higher ridges of the Dinaric Alps, it at first takes a northward course, and then, after a sudden semi circular sweep to the west round the Prenj group of mountains, flows due south through one of the grandest defiles in Europe. Beyond this the Narenta comes into more open ground and passes through some alluvial plains, where the olive, the fig, and the pomegranate find a congenial habitat side by side with fields of maize, rice, and tobacco.

Although, as one approaches the sea, the higher mountains are left behind, the general configuration of the country is still lofty, and presents the same parched, sunburnt appearance as the interior. The special geographical conditions which gave rise to the diversified flora and fauna of these provinces had also a considerable influence in modifying, from time to time, the racial characters and social life of their inhabitants. Open, on one side, to the fluctuating civilisations which successively flourished on the shores of the Mediterranean, and, on the other, easily accessible to the nomadic hordes from Asia and the north-eastern regions of Europe, it is probable that from the earli est times the Balkan peninsula was inhabited by a mixed population. The varied ethnological elements thus imported from all sides readily took root in Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose woods and mountain recesses afforded a safe retreat in times of persecution.

Of the prehistoric inhabitants of the country little information has come down to us either through tradition or written records. To Herodotus and some of the classical authors the western half of the Balkan peninsula was known under the name Illyricum. Although the territory thus designated was more restricted in Roman times, it still included the whole of Dalmatia, part of modern Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, and part of Albania. With the downfall of the Roman Empire, the country became an easy prey to the advancing Slavs, who speedily established themselves as its domi nant people. The various branches of these northern wanderers — Avars, Slavs, Serbs and Croats — who found a footing within the confines of Illyricum, by degrees became consolidated into independent groups, who w^ere governed by princes called Bans or Way wodes.

Almost at the first onset of the invaders the old Romans were driven to the islands and towns on the coast of the Adriatic, and even there, for a long time, were not safe from their fierce enemies. But at no time were the Slavs of Bosnia sufficiently powerful to occupy a commanding position among the social organisations which were developing around them, and so they became dependent first on Byzantium and then on Hungary. Christianity was introduced among the Slavish races about the middle of the seventh century, and it was a couple of centuries later before the new doctrines superseded the paganism of the Narenta valley. But scarcely had this faith been established in the Balkan peninsula ere it gave birth to a mystic creed called Bogomilism, which seems to have taken an unusually strong hold on the minds of the people of Bosnia END OF TURKISH RULE. 5 and Herzegovina.

This new creed was condemned as heresy by the Church, and consequently its public pro fession was followed by long-continued religious persecutions of unheard-of severity. Finally, owing to these and other internal dissensions, the two provinces fell into the hands of the Turks, and in 1463 they became incorporated with the Ottoman Empire. Henceforth Bosnia and Herzegovina vanished from the current of European civilisation, and for upwards of 400 years scarcely a ray of Western thought penetrated the intel lectual gloom which settled over these beautiful lands. Repeated but fruitless insurrections only intensified the grinding spirit of Turkish rule. At last, in 1875, goaded by extortionate taxation, as well as by the fanatical persecutions of Mohammedans, the Christians once more made a determined effort to throw off the yoke of their oppressors.