Our United States army

Front matter

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OUR UNITED STATES ARMY

Dedication

To those, whose heroic work, invaluable to the development of our Great Nation, is performed in silence and obscurity.

INTRODUCTION By Major-General Leonard Wood

Helen S. Wright has presented briefly and in compact form a summary of the Army's work in the development and building up of our country.

Preface

It is my purpose to present in the following pages a few examples of the manifold activities of the Army of the United States, the importance and economic significance of which have been overshadowed by historians in the tragic drama and far-reaching results of our Nation's wars.

It has only been possible to touch lightly and incompletely the high marks of this civil side of the Army's work, a subject which covers a wide range of time and country.

At this hour it may be well to pause and consider what the Nation owes to its Army in the past; to remember that the onward march of progress and civilization in the Great West, in the face of Indian hostilities and depredations, was made possible only by that little force of armed soldiers that blazed the way and stood guard to protect the lives and property of our adventurous settlers, that the soldier's fair and just treatment of Indians has secured their lasting affection and regard, and many of the important ethnological studies of the plains tribes were made by officers of the Army.

Since the beginning of our history, the Army has been engaged actively in forwarding the progressive work of administration and government ; during and after the Mexican War in occupying and forming governments in the territories acquired from Mexico.

The Civil War trained millions of young men of high

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X PREFACE

spirit in aggressive action, not only against men but against the forces of nature, and these men, who had built railroads, bridges and roads in the theatre of active operations, were turned loose into the West at the end, to push forward the transcontinental railways and the frontier with a new energy and ability that nothing could hinder nor stop.

No mention has been made in this volume of the valuable explorations in the Arctic, because these records and that of the "Farthest North" made by Brainard and Lockwood in 1882, are to be found in the author's previous book, "The Great White North," and a repetition of these stories of heroic adventure and brilliant scientific work seemed inadvisable.

There is the proud record of the Army's prompt action in abnormal times of fire, flood, and earthquake, notably in the relief work in San Francisco in 1906.

Since the Spanish War made the United States a world power, the Army has led the way in the government of dependencies — in Porto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines. It has spread the means of communication over Alaska, and explored and mapped it.

The reading public is familiar with the magnificent work of the Army surgeons in driving yellow fever out of Cuba and Panama; in waging a successful campaign against uncinariasis in Porto Rico, and being pioneers in anti-typhoid vaccination; in ridding Cuba and the Philippines of smallpox and controlling cholera. Its persistent efforts have made sanitation in Cuba, Panama, and the Philippines one of the most important of governmental functions.

If I have seemingly slighted the greatest achievement in engineering skill of all history, the building of the Panama Canal, it is because that is a single instance

PREFACE

XI where the nation has taken an active and appreciative attitude toward the masterly minds that successfully accomplished this stupendous undertaking.

The Army of the United States has struggled hard for proper maintenance and development for many years. The innate prejudice of our citizens against a military establishment, commensurate with the size of our nation, has wrought havoc with any form of a military policy in the United States.

It is the purpose of this book to awaken a better understanding of what the Army has accomplished in the past, what it maintains for the present, and the high standard of honest administration and unswerving loyalty which at all times and under all conditions have been its unfailing characteristics.

For the most part my material has been gathered from the archives of the War Department, from official reports, diaries and field journals of offices, from autobiographies and memoires.

I wish to make acknowledgment to the several publishers who graciously permitted me to quote from the following books : to G. P. Putnam's Sons for citations from "The Plains of the Great West," by the late Colonel Richard Irving Dodge; to D. Appleton and Company for quotations from General Forsyth's "Story of a Soldier," and General Gorgas' "Sanitation in Panama" ; to the Editor of the Atlantic Monthly for an account of the Utah Expedition ; to the Baker-Taylor Company for a citation from the "Autobiography of General Howard" ; to McClure, Phillips and Company for a paragraph from the "Life of Walter Reed"; to Doubleday, Page and Company for a citation from Frederick Haskins' "Panama Canal"; to the Saalfield Publishing Company for material from "Personal Recollections of General Nelxii PREFACE

son A. Miles," and to Mr. John Barrett for a citation on Panama. I also wish to thank the many friends who made it possible for me to secure the material for which I was in search.

Helen S. Wright.

Contents

PAGE

Introduction by Major-General Leonard Wood . . . . vii Preface by Helen S. Wright ix

CHAPTER

CHAPTER I Lewis and Clark Expedition

The Continental Army had hardly been disbanded at the close of the American Revolution, before the immediate necessity of a Regular Army to act as guards of peace became a momentous question to the American people.

Measures were taken without delay to raise a body of 700 troops, properly officered for "securing and protecting the Northwestern frontiers, to defend the settlers on the land belonging to the United States from the depredations of the Indians and to prevent unwarrantable intrusion thereon, and for guarding the public stores." Hardly had this small body of men been scattered along the outlying districts, when what is known as Shay's Rebellion proved to the Federal Government the necessity of enlarging its military force.

Under the leadership of Daniel Shay, some two thousand insurgents, whose grievances consisted of a demand for paper as a legal tender, and in a determined resistance to taxation under the State laws, after forcing the adjournment of the Supreme Court then sitting at

Worcester, Massachusetts, assailed the Springfield Arsenal, where they were met by a prompt and vigorous resistance by General Shepherd then in command. With no Federal troops available, quiet and order were not restored until some four thousand militia under General Lincoln had been called into service by the Governor of Massachusetts.

Under the Act of August 9, 1789, Congress established the War Department and assigned to its control : 1st, All military commissioners ; 2nd, The land Naval forces ; ships and warlike stores of the government ; 3rd, All matters, generally pertaining to military and naval affairs ; 4th, The distribution of "bounty lands" to all soldiers and ex-soldiers entitled thereto ; 5th, Indian affairs ; 6th, And all such duties connected with these affairs as might be assigned to the Department by the President as Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy. So broad was the scope of its operations that it practically combined the three executive departments now under the separate heads of War, Navy and Interior.

One of the earliest and important labors of the Department and one which had been especially provided for by the Constitution, was the establishment of "an uniform militia throughout the United States." After much dispute in both Houses of Congress, the plans, with some modifications, submitted by Secretary Knox became a law May 8, 1792. Although each state was supposed to assume individual responsibility in the organizing of its militia, the War Department was constantly called upon and responded to the demand for supply arms, instruction and general guidance.

Until March 3, 1799, the Secretary of the Treasury had made "all purchases and contracts for supplying the army with provisions, clothing, supplies in quarter-

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master's department, military stores, Indian goods, and all other supplies for the use of the department of war." This division of authority had caused such disastrous complications, especially in the mismanagement by the Treasury Department in the matter of supplying General St. Clair in his campaign in the Northwest, to which his failure was indirectly due, that this authority was very properly transferred to the Secretary of War.

In the year 1793 the first of our sea coast defenses and harbor fortifications had occupied the energies of skilled engineers appointed for this purpose and who later were organized by Congress into that branch of the Service known as the Corps of Artillerists and Engineers and later the Corps of Engineers. From Maine to the Gulf of Mexico, from Lower California to the Arctic Circle, and in our Insular Possessions, are now established a chain of important fortifications with their powerful armaments, vast extent of public highways, improvements in navigable rivers, harbors, gulfs and lakes, and the engineering feat of the century, the construction of the Panama Canal ; all of great value to the extension of our commerce throughout the Republic.

On the 20th of December, 1803, the complex and prolonged wrangle over the Louisiana Purchase had resulted in the acquiring by the United States, that vast area of some 883,072 square miles of territory now covered by the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, the Dakotas, portions of the States of Minnesota, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Oklahoma and Indian Territory.

Before it became part of the United States, the jealous disposition of the Spaniards and French had debarred all adventure for discoveries. Immediately upon its acquisition by our Government, President Jefferson took prompt measures for an expedition of exploration, its chief object being to aid commerce and population.

The inception of this remarkable enterprise was of long standing with the president; twice he had promulgated his cherished scheme and he has recorded the gradual development and eventual fruition of his hopes in an interesting sketch of the life and character of Captain Meriwether Lewis.

"In 1792," writes Jefferson, "I proposed to the American Philosophical Society that we should set on foot a subscription to engage some competent person to explore that region in the opposite direction; that is, by ascending the Missouri, crossing the Stony mountains, and descending the nearest river to the Pacific.

"In 1803 the act for establishing trading houses with Indian tribes being about to expire, some modifications of it were recommended to Congress by a confidential message of January 19, and an extension of its views to the Indians on the Missouri. In order to prepare the way, the message proposed the sending an exploring party to trace the Missouri to its source, to cross the Highlands, and follow the best water communication which offered itself from thence to the Pacific Ocean. Congress approved the proposition, and voted a sum of money for carrying it into execution. Captain Lewis, who had then been nearly two years with me as private secretary, immediately renewed his solicitations to have the direction of the party. I had now had opportunities of knowing him intimately. Of courage undaunted; possessing a firmness and perseverance of purpose which nothing but impossibilities could divert from its direction ; careful as a father of those committed to his charge, yet steady in the maintenance of order and discipline; intimate with the Indian character, customs, and principles ; habituated

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to the hunting Hfe; guarded, by exact observation of the vegetables and animals of his own country, against losing time in the description of objects already possessed; honest, disinterested, liberal, of sound understanding, and a fidelity to trust so scrupulous that whatever he should report would be as certain as if seen by ourselves, — with all these qualifications, as if selected and implanted by nature in one body for this express purpose, I could have no hesitation in confiding the enterprise to him. . . . Deeming it necessary he should have some person with him of known competence to the direction of the enterprise, in the event of accident to himself, he proposed William Clarke, brother of General George Rogers Clarke, who was approved and, with that view, received a commission of captain."

Their company consisted of about thirty men including soldiers, hunters and guides. They ascended the Missouri in the Spring of 1804. They passed the Winter among the Mandans, and pushed on early the next Spring, reaching the sources of the Missouri River.

In August, 1805, Lieutenant Clarke makes the following entry in his journal:

"We proceeded on in the boats, as the river was very shallow and rapid, the navigation is extremely difficult, and the men who are almost constantly in the water are getting feeble and sore, and so much worn down by fatigue that they are very anxious to commence travelling by land. We went along the main channel which is on the right side ; and, after passing nine bends in that direction, three islands and a number of bayous, reached at the distance of five and a half miles the upper point of a large island. At noon there was a storm of thunder, which continued about half an hour, after which we proceeded; but as it was necessary to drag the canoes over the shoals and rapids, made but little progress.

"On leaving the island we passed a number of short bends, several bayous, and one run of water on the right side; and, having gone by four small and two large islands, encamped in a smooth plain to the left near a few Cottonwood trees. Our journey by water was just twelve miles, and four in a direct line. The hunters supplied us with three deer and a fawn."

After crossing the mountains Lewis and Clarke embarked on one of the branches of the Columbia and on November 15 reached the Pacific at the mouth of that great river, having travelled over 4,000 miles. They wintered on the shores of the Pacific where they would have starved but for the food a stranded whale afforded them. They were utterly unable to send tidings home by way of either Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope. Years after a notice posted at this desperate time and written in the face of imminent starvation found its way by way of Canton, China, back to civilization at last to Philadelphia. It read :

"The object of this notice is, that through the medium of some civilized person who may see the same, it may be made known to the informed world that the party consisting of the persons whose names are hereunto annexed and who were sent out by the Government of the United States, in May, 1804, to explore the interior of the Continent of North America, did penetrate the same by way of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers to the discharge of the latter into the Pacific Ocean, where they arrived on the 14th of November, 1805, and from whence they departed the (23rd) day of March, 1806, on their return to the United States by the same route they had come out."

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They reached St. Louis the following September, after an absence of two years and four months.

A most significant incident in the return journey was the meeting of a party of emigrants, the forerunners of our present western civilization, already making their toilsome way along the trail so recently blazed.

We have Jefferson's recommendation and testimony of the value of this enterprise.

"The expedition of Messrs. Lewis and Clarke for exploring the River Missouri and the best communication from that to the Pacific Ocean has had all the success which could be expected. They have traced the Missouri nearly to its source; descended the Columbia to the Pacific Ocean, ascertained with accuracy the geography of that interesting communication across the continent, learnt the character of the country, its commerce and inhabitants, and it is but justice to say, that Messrs. Lewis and Clarke and their brave companions have by this arduous service deserved well of their country.

"Th. Jefferson."

CHAPTER II Explorations of Pike, Long and Bonneville

During the absence of Captain Lewis and Lieutenant Clarke a contemporaneous expedition was directed by General Wilkinson, U. S. A., then in command of the Mississippi, for the exploration of the sources of that great river. Lieutenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike, a young and enthusiastic officer was detailed for this special work. He was accompanied by a sergeant, two corporals and a squad of seventeen privates.

His general instructions were to make treaties with the Indians living along the great avenue to the northwest, to purchase land at the mouth of the St. Croix River, from the Sioux tribe, for a government military post, and incidentally to gather as much scientific information of a general character as was compatible with his equipment and education. Leading this small band into a dangerous and unexplored region, peopled by treacherous Indians, unassisted by a subordinate, officer who could share the responsibilities of so hazardous an undertaking, Lieutenant Pike ''literally performed the duties of astronomer, surveyor, commanding officer, clerk, spy, guide and hunter."

Leaving St. Louis, August 9, 1805, with provisions for four months, he ascended the Mississippi in a keel boat, seventy-five feet in length, the first trip of its kind made by any citizen of the United States. His advance,

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barring accidents and delays was from twenty-five to thirty miles a day; his greatest embarrassments arose from the numerous channels which are formed by the many islands in the river, and without experienced guides it was a problem to choose the right one.

By the 20th of August, Lieutenant Pike had reached the Des Moines Rapids, covering eleven miles of dangerous and successive shoals extending from shore to shore. The Rock River Rapids were passed a week later and the Dubuque mines by the first of September.

Lieutenant Pike's Winter quarters were established about two hundred and thirty-five miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, where his boats and extra baggage were stored under a suitable guard. The rest of the party continued less hampered and in better condition to meet the advancing season.

On the 22nd of December, Lieutenant Pike makes entry in his journal:

"Never did I undergo more fatigue in performing the duties of hunter, spy, guide, and commanding officer, sometimes in front, sometimes in the rear, frequently in advance of my party ten or fifteen miles." Four days later he "broke four sleds, broke into the river four times, and had four carrying places," — advancing three miles.

On January 20 Lieutenant Pike reached a British trading establishment at Leech Lake, which was then supposed to be the source of the great river, where his footsore and weary soldiers were met by a kindly and hospitable welcome. Here he addressed a letter to M'Gelles, the manager of the North West Company of that section, in which he stated the views of the United States government and the conditions under which trade with the Indians might be properly conducted within the acknowledged boundaries of the United States. He required that the flag of our government and no other should be hoisted within the same and these conditions were met with a seemingly friendly spirit on the part of the traders. Lieutenant Pike also held counsel with the Indians to similar purpose, although he fully realized that the sovereignty of the United States could not be permanently respected without established military outposts, in a section of the country where traders of a foreign nation found it to their advantage in trading to weaken respect for the United States authority.

Upon his return Lieutenant Pike recommended to his superiors the adoption of an effectual and permanent guard.

Having accomplished his mission with dignity and consummate tact, Lieutenant Pike soon after retraced his steps and after an absence of nearly nine months returned to St. Louis, April 30, 1806.

So successfully had Lieutenant Pike performed the duties assigned to him that he was ordered by General Wilkinson upon a second expedition, the primary object of which was to restore certain captives of the Osage tribe, recently recovered from the Pottawatomies to their homes on the Grand Osage. Lieutenant Pike was also instructed to establish permanent peace between the Osage and Kansas Indians, and a third object was, according to General Wilkinson's orders, "to effect an interview and establish a good understanding with the Yanctons, Tetans, or Camanches," in the locality of the Arkansas and Red Rivers, "approximated to the settlements of New Mexico," where he was instructed "to move with great circumspection, to keep clear of any hunting or reconnoitering parties from that province, and to prevent alarm or offence."

A lieutenant, one sergeant, two corporals, sixteen pri-

ARMY 11

vates, and an interpreter composed the military escort. Dr. Robinson, a professional man of great ability, volunteered his services, and with fifty-one Osage and Pawnee Indians, this party embarked at St. Louis, July 15, 1806, and proceeded up the Missouri in two large boats. Lieutenant Pike travelled through what is now Kansas and Colorado. This approach to the great mountain that bears his name and stands as a monument to his valor and forceful personality is best told by extracts from his field journal :

"Saturday, November 15 (1806).— Marched early. Passed two deep creeks and many high points of rocks; also large herds of buffaloes. At two o'clock in the afternoon, I thought I could distinguish a mountain to our right, which appeared like a small blue cloud ; viewed it with the spy glass, and was still more confirmed in my conjecture, yet only communicated it to Dr. Robinson, who was in front with me, but in half an hour it appeared in full view before us. When our small party arrived on the hill they with one accord gave three cheers to the Mexican mountains. Their appearance can easily be imagined by those who have crossed the Alleghany, but their sides . were white as if covered with snow or white stone. These proved to be a spur of the grand western chain of mountains which divide the waters of the Pacific from those of the Atlantic Ocean, and divide the waters which empty into the bay of the Holy Spirit from those of the Mississippi, as the Alleghany do those that discharge themselves into the latter river and the Atlantic. They appeared to present a boundary between the province of Louisiana and North Mexico, and would be a fork on the south side S. 25° W., and, as the Spanish troops appeared to have borne up it, we encamped on its banks, about one mile from its confluence, that we might make further discoveries on the morrow. Distance advanced twenty-four miles.

"Saturday, November 22. — March early, and with rather more caution than usual. After having proceeded about five miles on the prairie, and as those in front were descending into the bottom, Baroney cried out, 'Voila un sauvage,' when we observed a number of Indians running from the woods towards us. We advanced towards them, and, on turning my head to the left, I observed several running on the hill, as it were to surround us, one of them bearing a stand of colors. This caused a momentary halt, but perceiving those in front reaching out their hands, and without arms, we again advanced. They met us with open arms, crowding around to touch and embrace us. They appeared so anxious that I dismounted from my horse, and in a moment a fellow had mounted him and driven off. I then observed the Doctor and Barony in the same predicament. The Indians were embracing the soldiers. After some time tranquillity was so far restored, they having returned our horses all safe, as to enable us to learn they were a war party from the Grand Pawnees, who had been in search of the Tetans, but, not finding them, were now on their return. An unsuccessful war party on their way home are always ready to embrace an opportunity of gratifying their disappointed vengeance on the first persons they meet.

"We made for the woods and unloaded our horses, when the two leaders endeavored to arrange the party; it was with great difficulty they got them tranquil and not until there had been a bow or two bent on the occasion. When in some order, we found them to be sixty warriors, half with fire arms, and half with bows, arrows and lances. Our party was in all, sixteen. In a short

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time they were arranged in a ring, and I took my seat between the two leaders; our colors were placed opposite each other, the utensils for smoking, etc., being prepared on a small seat before us. Thus far all was well. I then ordered half a carrot of tobacco, one dozen knives, sixty fire steels, and sixty flints to be presented to them. They demanded corn, ammunition, blankets, kettles, etc., all of which they were refused, notwithstanding the pressing instances of my interpreter to accede to some points. The pipes yet lay unmoved, as if they were undetermined whether to treat us as friends or as enemies, but after some time we were presented with a kettle of water, drank, smoked, and ate together.

"Monday, November 24. — After giving the necessary orders for the government of my men, during my absence, in case of our not returning, we marched at one o'clock with an idea of arriving at the foot of the mountain, but found ourselves obliged to take up our lodging this night under a single cedar, which we found in the prairie, without water, and extremely cold. Our party, beside myself, consisted of Dr. Robinson and Privates Miller and Brown. Distance advanced twelve miles.

"Wednesday, November 26. — Expecting to return to our camp that evening, we left all our blankets and provisions at the foot of the mountain. Killed a deer of a new species, and hung his skin on a tree with some meat. We commenced ascending; found the way very difficult, being obliged to climb up rocks sometimes almost perpendicular, and after marching all day we encamped in a cave without blankets, victuals, or water. We had a fine clear sky, whilst it was snowing at the bottom. On the side of the mountain (Cheyenne Mountain) we found only yellow and pitch pine; some distance up we saw buffalo and higher still, the new species of deer and pheasants.

"Thursday, November 27. — Arose hungry, thirsty, and extremely sore from the unevenness of the rocks on which we had lain all night, but we were amply compensated for our toil by the sublimity of the prospects below. The unbounded prairie was overhung with clouds, which appeared like the ocean in a storm, were piled wave on wave, and foaming, while the sky over our heads was perfectly clear. Commenced our march up the mountain, and in about one hour arrived at the summit of this chain; here we found the snow middle deep, and discovered no sign of beast or bird inhabiting this region. The thermometer, which stood at 9° above at the foot of the mountain, here fell to 4° below. The summit of the Grand Peak, which was entirely bare of vegetation, and covered with snow, now appeared at the distance of fifteen or sixteen miles from us, and as high again as that we had ascended ; it would have taken a whole day's march to have arrived at its base, when, I believe, no human being could have ascended to its summit. This, with the condition of my soldiers, who had only light overalls on, and no stockings, and were every way ill-provided to endure the inclemency of this region, and bad prospect of killing anything to subsist on, with the further detention of two or three days which it must occasion, determined us to return. The clouds from below had now ascended the mountain, and entirely enveloped the summit on which rest eternal snows. We descended by a long deep ravine with much less difficulty than we had contemplated. Found all our baggage safe, but the provision all destroyed. It began to snow, and we sought shelter under the side of a projecting rock, where we all four made a meal on one partridge and a

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pair of deer's ribs, which the ravens had left us, being the first food we had eaten for forty-eight hours.

"Friday, November 28. — Marched at nine o'clock. Kept straight down the creek to avoid the hills. At half past one o'clock shot two buflfaloes, when we made the first full meal we had eaten for three days. Encamped in a valley under a shelving rock. The land here was very rich, and covered with old Tetan camps.

"Saturday, November 29. — Marched after a short repast, and arrived at our camp before night. Found all well.

"Sunday, November 30. — We commenced our march at eleven o'clock, it snowing very fast, but my impatience to be moving would not permit me to lie still at our present camp. . . .

"Monday, December 1. — The storm still continuing with violence, we remained encamped. The snow by night was one foot deep, our horses being obliged to scrape it away to obtain their miserable pittance. To increase their misfortunes, the poor animals were attacked by magpies, which, attracted by the scent of their sore backs, alighted on them, and in defiance of the whinnying and kicking, picked many places quite raw ; the difficulty of procuring food rendered these birds so bold as to light on our men's arms and eat meat out of their hands. One of our hunters was out, but killed nothing."