The great white North; the story of polar exploration from the earliest times to the discovery of the Pole

Front matter

I

HELEN 5.WH1GH1

Class (3 L2r(J

Preface

The material for this book has been gathered from the rich storehouse of Arctic Literature. The chief labour of its composition lay in elimination rather than construction. The great field I have endeavoured to present can hardly be brought with justice to the narrow bounds of a single cover, but I have conscientiously endeavoured to bring to the reader's mind an accurate record of brilliant deeds that go to make the history of the far North, and have let the explorers themselves tell the story of how these deeds have been accomplished.

Between the lines of their simple language describing stern facts or desperate realities, one reads the character and temperament of the adventurer ; one gathers lessons of patience, self-sacrifice, and endurance unsurpassed in the history of mankind, and perhaps appreciates, for the first time, the splendid fibre of which he is made. Stripped of the conventions and luxuries of civilized life, he plunges into the great unknown to fight a relentless war against the greatest foes to his existence, — Cold, Starvation, and Death. Though he may fall by the wayside a victim to the Cause, or crawl home on hands and knees over the rough fastnesses of the frozen wilderness, famishing, — perhaps dying, — the record of his work lives on ; the fundamental principles of great character do not perish, but stand through the centuries, a star of hope to the weary vi PREFACE

traveller on his pilgrimage along the well-trodden pathway of everyday life, and stirs the layman to a better endurance of the burdens and perplexities of the common lot.

It is with pleasure I make grateful acknowledgment to the gentlemen who have accorded me their gracious permission to quote from their works, to Commander Robert E. Peary, to Major-General A. W. Greely, and Sir Allen Young, and to the following publishers and others who, by furnishing material or giving consent to use selected matter, or by kind assistance in other ways, have made my work possible: The American Publishing Company, Hartford, Conn., for selections from "Our Lost Explorers " ; D. Appleton & Company for selections from Charles Lanman's " Farthest North " and Payer's " New Lands within the Arctic Circle " ; The Century Company for selections from General Greely's article on " The Northwest Passage " ; to Clinedinst, Washington, D.C., for permission to reproduce the copyright portraits of Admirals Schley and Melville, General Greely, and Commander Peary; Constable & Company, and E. P. Dutton & Company, Ltd., London, for permission to reproduce the portrait of Amundsen in the latter's work, " The Northwest Passage " ; Doubleday, Page & Company for selections from Commander Peary's " Nearest the Pole," and for the portrait of Anthony Fiala and other illustrations from the latter's work, "Fighting the Polar Ice " ; The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company for a selection from an article by Markham on " Polar Regions " ; to J. Scott Keltie, Esq., editor of the Geographical Journal, for selections from that journal; Houghton; Mifflin Company for selections from " The Voyage of the Jean-

PREFACE vil

nette " and Melville's " In the Lena Delta " ; Dodd, Mead & Company for selections from the Duke of Abruzzi's "On the Polar Star"; Benjamin B. Hampton, Esq., for permission to reproduce photographs of the Peary expedition of 1908 and Commander Peary's map, and Mr. Hampton and the New York Times for permission to quote Commander Peary's telegram announcing his discovery of the Pole ; the editor of the Illustrated London News for permission to reproduce the portraits of Sir Edward Belcher, Captain Nares, and Commander Markham ; Little, Brown & Company for selections from General Greely's " Handbook of Polar Discoveries " ; The London Agency for Ordnance Maps for selections from Sir Allen Young's " Pandora Voyages " ; Longmans, Green & Company for selections from Nansen's "First Crossing of Greenland " and Sverdrup's " New Land " ; the editor of Me dure' s Magazine for a selection from Mr. Baldwin's article on "The Baldwin-Ziegler Arctic Expedition," which appeared in that magazine in 1901-1902 ; Albert Operti, Esq., for permission to reproduce the portraits of W. H. Gilder, Lieutenant Schwatka, Colonel Brainard, Captain De Long, and Lieutenant Lockwood ; C. Kegan Paul & Company for a selection from Markham's " Great Frozen Sea"; G. P. Putnam's Sons for a selection from Mr. Alger's article on "Roald Amundsen," which appeared in Putnam s Monthly ; the editor of the American Review of Reviews for a selection from Mr. McGrath's article on " Polar Exploration," which appeared in that magazine ; Sampson, Low, Marston & Company, London, for a selection from " German Arctic Expeditions " ; Charles Scribner's Sons for a selection from Schwatka's "Search," Greely's "Three Years' Arctic Service," and

Vlll PREFACE

Schley's " Rescue of Greely " ; P. A. Stokes Company for permission to reproduce illustrations from Commander Peary's work, " The North Pole," and for the loan of photographs ; and to the same company for selections from Andree's " Balloon Expedition " and Peary's "Northward over the Great Ice."

Chapter I Page

Early adventurers. Pytheas. — Dicuil. — Other. — Wulf stan. — The Norsemen. — Iva Bardsen. — The Cabots. — The Cortereals. — Willoughby and Chancellor. — Stephen Burrough. — Niccolo Zeno. — Frobisher. — Pet and Jackman. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — Davis. — Barentz 1

Chapter II

Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Hudson. — Baffin. — Deshneff . — Behring. — Schalaroff. — Tchitschagof. — Anjou and Von Wrangell. — Phipps 18

Chapter III

Early nineteenth century. Ross and Parry, May 3, 1818. Object of voyage, search for Northwest Passage through Davis Strait and explore bays and channels described by Baffin. — Met natives near Melville Bay. — The discovery by Ross of the famous Crimson Cliffs. — Enters Lancaster Sound. — Advance barred by imaginary Crocker Mountains. — Return of expedition to England. — Buchan and Franklin North Polar expedition via Greenland and Spitzbergen. — Dorothea and Trent in Magdalena Bay, June 3, 1818. — Reached high latitude of 80° 37' N. — Course directed to east coast of Greenland. — Disastrous battle with the ice. — Dorothea disabled. — Hasty return to England 29

Chapter IV

1819-1827. Parry's first voyage. — Object, to survey Lancaster Sound and prove the non-existence of Crocker Mountains. — Discovery of new lands. — Parry Islands. — Attains longitude 110° W., thereby winning the bounty of five thousand pounds

ix

CONTENTS

PAGE offered by Parliament. — Winters near Melville Island. Second voyage. — Ships Hecla and Fury. — Examines Duke of York Bay

and Frozen Strait of Middleton. — Winters off Lyon Inlet.

Sledge journeys. — Object, to make Northwest Passage via Prince Regent Inlet. — Reached Port Bowen. — Ten months' imprisonment. — Destruction of the Fury. — Hasty return to England. Fourth voyage. —Purpose to reach the Pole via Spitzbergen with sledge boats over ice. —Hecla as transport. — Parry's farthest 82° 45' N. reached, June 23, 1827 41

Chapter V

Nineteenth century continued. Scoresby and Clavering. — Former ■visited Jan Mayens Island in 1817. — Later he visited east coast of Greenland. — Discovered Scoresby Sound. In 1824, Captain Lyon surveyed Melville Peninsula. —Adjoining straits and shores of Arctic America. — In 1825, Captain Beechey in the Blossom sailed through Behring Strait and passed beyond Icy Cape. — Surveyed the coast as far as Point Barrow, adding 126 miles of new shore. — Second voyage of Captain John Ross.

— Undertaken in 1829. —Discovers Boothia. — Wintered in Felix Harbor. — Discovery of North Magnetic Pole by nephew of Captain John Ross. — Commander James Clark Ross. — Valuable observations. — Sledge journeys to mainland. — Four years spent in the Arctic. — Perilous retreat. — Safe return. Land journey by Captain Back. — The Great Fish-Back River. —

— Point Ogle. — Point Richardson. — Back's farthest point was 68° 13' 57" north latitude, 94° 58' 1" west longitude. Land journeys of Simpson and Dease, 1836. — Descend the Mackenzie River to the sea. — Surveyed west shore between Return Reef and Cape Barrow. — In 1839, they explored shores of Victoria Land as far as Cape Parry. — Crossed Coronation Gulf. — Descended the Coppermine. — Reached the Polar Sea. Overland journey in 1846 by Dr. John Rae confirmed Captain John Ross's statement that Boothia was a peninsula 57

Chapter VI

Sir John Franklin. — Early life. — First land expedition of 1 819-1821.

— Journey from York Factory to Cumberland House. — Reach Fort Providence. — Winter at Fort Enterprise. — Explorations.

CONTENTS XI

PAGE

— 5550 miles. — Hardship. — Starvation. — Return. Second land journey. — 1825. — Winter quarters at Great Bear Lake.

— Descent of the Mackenzie River to the Polar Sea. — 1200 miles of coast added to map. The last journey of Sir John Franklin, 1845. — The Erebus and Terror. — Last seen in Melville Bay 79

Chapter VII

Search for Sir John Franklin. Captain Kellett. — Captain Moore.

— Dr. Richardson. — Dr. Rae. — Sir J. C. Ross. — Mr. Parker.

— Dr. Goodsir. — Collinson, M'Clure. — The Felix. — Prince Albert. — Commanded hy Charles C. Forsyth. — Captain Austin's squadron. — Captain Ommaney. — Lieutenant Sherard Osborn. — Commander Cator. — Grinnell expedition under De Haven 95

Chapter VIII

Search for Sir John Franklin continued. Sledge journey of Captain Austin's squadron. — Return of Prince Albert under command of Captain Kennedy. — Bellot 120

Chapter IX

Search for Sir John Franklin continued. Sir Edward Belcher's squadron. — Inglefield. — Rae's journey. — Discovery of Northwest Passage by Captain M'Clure. — Death of Bellot. . . 141

Chapter X

Sledging parties of Sir Edward Belcher's squadron. — Desertion of the ships. — Return to England. Story of the Besolute. — Traces of Sir John Franklin discovered by Dr. Rae. — Anderson's journey. — The voyage of the Fox under Commander M'Clintock. — Sledge journeys. — Record and relics of Franklin's expedition. — Fox returns to England .... 174

Chapter XI

The second Grinnell expedition. Commanded by Dr. Elisha K. Kane. — Winter quarters in Rensselaer Harbor. — Sledging

Xll CONTENTS trips. — To the rescue. — Effects of exhaustion and cold. — Dr. Kane's journey. — Great Glacier of Humboldt. — Return and illness of Dr. Kane. Second winter in the ice. — Privations and suffering. — Abandonment of the Advance. — Retreat and rescue ,. 199

Chapter XII

Dr. Hayes's expedition. Winter quarters at Port Foulke, Greenland coast.- — Death of Sonntag. — Dr. Hayes's journey. — Attempt to cross Smith Sound. — Hayes's farthest. — "Open Polar Sea."

— Homeward bound 235

Chapter XIII

Charles Erancis Hall. — Early life. — Interest in fate of Sir John Eranklin. — Eirst journey to Greenland. — Discovery of Frobisher relics. — Experiences and study of the Eskimos. Second journey. — Delays and disappointments. — Sledging trips.

— King William Land at last. — Franklin relics. — Beturn of Hall to United States. Polaris expedition. — Reaches high northing. — Hall's sledge journey. — Return and death. — Polaris winters. — No escape. — Polaris is wrecked. — Part of crew adrift on the ice-floe. — Remainder build winter hut. — Final rescue and return to United States 243

Chapter XIV

Captain Thomas Long. — Discovery of Wrangell Land. — Captain Carlsen and Captain Palliser sail across the Sea of Kara. — Captain Johannesen circumnavigates Nova Zembla. First German expedition. — Second German expedition. — Germania, Captain Koldewey commanding. — Hansa, Captain Hegemann. — Departure from Bremen. — Crossing the Arctic Circle. — Island of Jan Mayen. — The ice line. — Separation from the Hansa. — Adrift on the ice-floe. — Winter. — Final rescue. — Germania beset.

— Winter. — Sledging parties. — Lieutenant Payer's remarkable journey — 77° V north latitude. — Return of the Germania 268

Chapter XV

Norwegian expedition, 1871. Payer and Weyprecht. — The Tegetthoff adrift in the Polar pack. — Discovery of Franz Josef Land. —

CONTENTS xiii

Payer's sledge journeys. — Payer's farthest 82° 5' north latitude.

— Cape Fligely. — Abandonment of the Tegetthoff. — Retreat of officers and crew. — Picked up by Russian fishermen. — Home 286

Chapter XVI

Baron A. E. von Nordenskjold. — First voyage, 1858. — Accompanies succeeding Swedish expeditions. — Spitzbergen. — Voyage of Sofia. — 1808. — Nordenskjold's journey to Greenland. — Voyage of the Polhem. — Attempt to reach the Pole by reindeer sledge. — Unexpected discouragements and disasters. — Voyage of the Proven. — 1875. — The Kara Sea. — Journey repeated the following year. — In the Ymer. — Voyage of the Vega . . 298

Chapter XVII

British expedition of 1875. The Alert and Discovery. — Captain George S. Nares, F. R. S., Albert H. Markham, F. R. G. S. — Two voyages of the Pandora, 1875-1876. Schwatka's search for the Franklin records, 1878-1879 310

Chapter XVIII

The Jeannette expedition, 1879-1881. In command of Captain George W. DeLong. — Leaves San Francisco. — Touches at Ounalaska, August 2. — Reaches Lawrence Bay, East Siberia, August 15. — Last seen by whale bark Sea Breeze near Herald Island, September 2. —The Jeannette beset in ice-pack September 5, never again released. — Daily routine of officers and crew. — Ship springs a leak. — A frozen summer. — Sight of new land. — A second winter in the pack. — The Jeannette crushed. — Abandonment. — The retreat. — The fate of the three boats. — Death of De Long's party. — Melville's search 345

CHAPTER XIX International circumpolar stations. — Failure of Dutch expedition

— Greely expedition reaches Lady Franklin Bay. — Life at Fort Conger. — Sledge journey of Brainard and Lockwood. — Farthest north. — Greely's journey to interior of Grinnell Land. — Lake Hazen. — Failure of relief ship Neptune to reach Conger in 1882.

XIV CONTENTS

— Official plans for Greely's relief in 1883. — Proteus crushed in ice. — Garlington's retreat. — Greely's abandonment of Fort Conger. — Greely reaches Cape Sabine. — The beginning of a hard winter. — Death of members of the party from starvation and cold. — Schley's brilliant rescue of the remnant of the Lady Franklin Bay expedition in 1884 . . . ' . . . 369

Chapter XX

Nansen. — The man. — First Arctic experience. — Plans the crossing of Greenland. — Carries out his great undertaking. — Voyage on the Fram. — Drifting with the current. — Life aboard. — Nansen and Johannesen start for the Pole. — Difficulties of travel.

— The "Farthest North !" — The retreat. — A winter on the Franz Josef Land. — Attempt to reach Spitzbergen by kayak.

— The meeting at Cape Flora with Frederick Jackson. — Home

in the Windward 401

Chapter XXI

Journeys of Dr. A. Bunge and Baron E. von Toll. Exploration in Spitzbergen. — Sir Martin Conway. — Dr. A. G. Nathorst. — Professor J. H. Gore. — Andrew's balloon expedition to the North Pole. — Search for Andr6e by Theodor Lerner. — J. Stadling.

— Dr. A. G. Nathorst. — Captain Bade. — Walter Wellman's plan to reach the Pole from Spitzbergen. — Italian expedition under Duke of Abruzzi. — Loss of the Stella Polare. — Captain Umberto Cagni's journey. — Breaks the record. — Retreat. — Home. — Baldwin-Ziegler expedition of 1900. — Complete equipment. — Return of expedition in autumn. — Ziegler expedition under Anthony Fiala. — The America reaches high northing. — Winters in Triplitz Bay. — Is destroyed. — Failure of sledge journeys. — Relief ship does not come. — Second winter. — Return of party by Terra Nova in 1903 . . . .... 417

Chapter XXII

Otto Sverdrup. — Four years' voyage of the Fram. — Journeys in Ellesmere Land. — Important exploration of Jones Sound. — Discovery of new lands. — Release of the Fram. Captain Roald Amundsen. — The voyage of the Gjoa. — Reaches head of Peter-

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

sen Bay (King "Williarn Land). — Two years' stay — Valuable scientific observations. — Visits from Eskimos. — Sledge journeys. — Release from the ice. — August 14, 11)06. — Completion of the Northwest Passage. — Another Arctic winter. — Sledge journey of Amundsen to Eagle City. — Release of the Gjoa. — Reaches San Francisco, 1907 435

Chapter XXIII

Robert E. Peary. — The man. — First visit to the Arctic, 1886. — Other journeys, 1891. — Independence Bay, Greenland. — Discovers Melville Land and Heilprin Land. — Subsequent journeys, 1893-1895. — Discovery of famous " Iron Mountain.' 1 — Summer voyages, 1896-1897. — North Pole journey of 1898. — Peary seriously disabled by frost-bites. — Polar expedition in S.S. Boosevelt, 1905-1906. —Final dash for the Pole, 1908 . 455

Chapter XXIV

Dr. Frederick A. Cook. — Claims discovery of the Pole. — His return from the Arctic. — Reception by the Danes. — Announcement of conquest of the Pole by Peary. — Denounces Dr. Cook. — Acceptance of Peary's claims by the American Geographical Society. — Dr. Cook sends manuscript to Copenhagen. — Verdict. — Prior claim to the discovery of the North Pole. — Not proven 470

Explanation of Terms 477

Index 481

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Commander Robert Edwin Peary Frontispiece

Hondius his Map of the Arctike Pole, or Northerne World . . xx

FACING PAGE

Sebastian Cabot 3

Sir Hugh Willoughby 7

Martin Frobisher 10

Sir Humphrey Gilbert 14

Davis's Ships Sunshine and Moonshine 17 .

The Death of Henry Hudson 21

Peter Feodorovitsch Anjou 28 -

Ferdinand von Wrangell 28

Captain John Ross, R.N 32 ^

Entering Lancaster Sound 52

John Franklin 80

Upernavik 99 .

Henry Grinnell 110

The Graves on Beechey Island 113

E. K. Kane 120

The Rescue in Melville Bay 128

Landing near Grinnell Cape 170

Nipped in the Ice 180

A Gale in the Arctic Sea 209

The Outlook from Cape George Russell 215

Humboldt Glacier 218

Five Members of the Grinnell Expedition 231

Tennyson's Monument 234

Frobisher' s Map of Meta Incognita . . . " . . . . 243 -

Funeral of Captain Hall 254

Jan Mayen Island 273

A. E. Nordenskjold 288

Foul Bay 305

The Vega in Konyam Bay 309

xvii xvm

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PACING PAGE

The Crew of the Vega . . 316

Disco Island 320

Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka, U.S.A. ....... 337

W. H. Gilder 344

Captain G. W. De Long, U.S.N . .352

Rear Admiral George W. Melville, U.S.N. . . . . .369

Colonel David Legge Brainard, U.S.A 373

Lieutenant James B. Lockwood, U.S.A 380

General A. W. Greely, U.S.A . ' . .384

Rear Admiral Schley, U.S.N 400

The Retreat of 1904 — Sledge Column leaving Cape Mellinbock . 433

Breaking Camp at Cape Richthope . 433

Anthony Fiala 437

Roald Amundsen 444

Cape Flora in Early July, 1904 448

The Coal Mine at Cape Flora 448

The Roosevelt drying her Sails 456

Cairn erected over the Body of Marvin 460

Camp Morris Jesup 462

The Peary Sledge . . .464

Christmas Dinner on the Roosevelt 464

The Flag that Peary carried to the Pole 468

Map of Arctic Explorations, 1850-1909 474

Chapter I

Early adventurers: Pytheas. — Dicuil. — Other. — Wulfstan. — The Norsemen. — Iva Bardsen. — The Cabots. — The Cortereals. — Willoughby and Chancellor. — Stephen Burrough. — Niccolo Zeno. — Frobisher. — Pet and Jackman. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — Davis. — Barentz.

A grave old world, majestically swinging upon its axis, the mystery of its northern extremity locked closely within its breast, is suddenly electrified by the news that at last man, for centuries baffled in his heroic efforts, has revealed its hidden secret, and that Old Glory, symbol of the daring of the moderns, floats from the Pole itself.

What a thrill of interest passes over the nations of the earth ; universal excitement ; universal rejoicings. Cablegram, Marconigram, carry the wonderful tidings under the seas or around the world in space.

The Pole at last! For ages the northern lights have beckoned the adventurous spirits to fathom the phenomena of the great unknown, have lured man into harbours fantastic with the frozen ice of centuries, have inspired him to cross the Greenland ice cap ■ — or make his lonely trail through the "barrens" of North America or the desolate "tundra" of Siberia, his dauntless courage unquenched by previous records of privation, starvation, and death itself. One after another of intrepid explorers have left their stories of thrilling adventure, and record of their names or those of their benefactors to mark their personal discoveries. b 1

What a history, what suffering, what sacrifice, compensated by great achievement, by heroism, by glory — by the additions to the world's record of scientific knowledge!

Who were the early mariners that aspired to penetrate the unknown seas of ice ? Far back in the centuries, Pytheas, bold adventurer, brought back rumours of an island in the Arctic Circle called Thule, at first welcomed by the ancients as a wonderful discovery, but afterwards discredited. In the ninth century some Irish monks, carried away by religious enthusiasm and an adventurous spirit, seem to have visited Iceland, and one, Dicuil by name, left written evidence, about 825, confirming the story of the island Thule, which some of the brethren visited, and reported there was no darkness at the summer solstice. Other and Wulfstan, athirst for discovery and knowledge, set sail in the reign of King Alfred, and in all probability the former rounded the North Cape and visited the shores of Lapland, though his exact discoveries cannot now be identified.

The hardy Norsemen, realizing the advantage of hunting and barter among the natives of Greenland, made permanent settlements at Brattelid and Einarsfjord. As far as 73° north latitude a cairn was found, and upon a runic stone was a date 1235, and there is evidence that other settlers reached as far as latitude 75° 46' N. and Barrow Strait in 1266 or thereabouts. Toward the middle of the fourteenth century Norway was cursed with the Black Death, and the colonists in far-off Greenland were forgotten. Forsaken by their own countrymen, they received little assistance from the . native Eskimos, for we read they were overrun and attacked by them about 1349. A rare old document, the oldest work on Arctic geography, consisting of sailing directions for reaching the colony from Ireland, was written by one Iva Bardsen, the steward of the Bishopric of Gardar, in the East Bygd. Bardsen was a native of Greenland and went forth for the

From the " Harford " portrait attributed to Holbein Sebastian Cabot

THE CABOTS 3

purpose of helping the sister colony. All of this early history is vague and unsatisfying, but it shows the adventurous spirit of those early mariners. Within the next hundred years, that is to say between 1348 and 1448, at rare intervals there was some communication with the Greenland settlements, but finally it ceased altogether. Later the desire to find a short route to India inspired merchantman and mariner to cross the Arctic Circle, and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries expeditions of note, led by men of dauntless spirit, find their record upon the pages of history.

Born in Bristol, England, about 1476, Sebastian Cabot, ambitious son of an adventurous father, John Cabot, became zealous at an early age, through the successes of Columbus, to attempt a like achievement. Father and son proposed to Henry VII to sail west, and reach India by a shorter route. The king, pleased with the idea of entering a new field of maritime discovery, confided to the Cabots the execution of this plan. A patent was granted March 5, 1496. "It empowered them to seek out, subdue, and occupy, at their own charges, any regions which before had been unknown to all Christians." They were empowered to take possession of such lands and set up the royal banner. They were authorized to return to the port of Bristol and no other, and a fifth of the gains of the voyage were to be turned over to the crown. The following year, 1497, John and Sebastian sailed from Bristol in the good ship Mathew.

By the records of an old map of this period the land first seen by the Cabots was the coast of Nova Scotia or Island of Cape Breton. The Cabots designated the mainland as "Prima Terra Vesta," and is outlined between 45° and 50°, showing land called St. Juan, no doubt Prince Edward Island and mouth of the St. Lawrence. In the Privy Purse expenses of Henry VII there is the following interesting expenditure, "10th of August, 1497. To him that found the new Isle,

£10." No doubt, this modest sum was paid for Newfoundland.

With the enthusiasm of the first voyagers stimulating them to fresh effort, the Cabots secured a second "patent" to John Cabot, dated February 3, 1498, giving him the command of six vessels, of not more than two hundred tons each, and to quote the exact words of this document, "them convey and lede to the lande and isles of late found by the said John in oure name and by oure commandment."

But before the small fleet was in readiness, the father died, and to his son fell the enterprise. With five vessels, Sebastian set sail from Bristol in May, 1498, and reaching the American coast ascended as high as 67° north latitude, probably passing into Hudson Bay. He determined to press on in a desire to find an open channel to India. His men became appalled at the dangers that beset navigation in those higher latitudes and mutinied, compelling him to retrace his course.

There is a vague rumour that he had with him upon this voyage over a hundred emigrants, whom he landed in these high latitudes, and who all perished from cold, although the season was midsummer. However, he brought back to England three natives of the countries he had visited, and for his successful discoveries of more than eighteen hundred miles of our North American coast, the king rewarded him by conferring upon him the office of Grand Pilot of England.

The interest and exertions of Sebastian Cabot did not abate, for this hero, extolled by contemporary writers for his character and courage, by his unflagging perseverance and indomitable will promoted the successful expeditions of 1553, for which he was appointed governor for life of the Muscovy Company. This company was established by the merchants of London for the purpose of extending commerce and trade in India and Cathay, and to find a northeast route that would expedite their enterprise.

WILLOUGHBY AND CHANCELLOR 5

Three ships were fitted out, and Cabot drew up instructions which are curious reading at this day. The expedition was under Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor, and sailed May 20, 1553, "for the search and discovery of northern parts of the world, to open a way and passage to our men, for travel to new and unknown kingdoms." Cabot instructs these men to treat all natives "with gentleness and courtesy, without any disdain, laughing, or contempt." If they should be invited to dine with any lord or ruler, they should go armed and in a posture of defence. He tells them to beware of "persons armed with bows, who swim naked in various seas and harbours, desirous of the bodies of men which they covet for meat."

Of Sir Hugh Willoughby, first in command of the Bona Speranza, it is recorded that he was tall and handsome and had proved a valiant soldier ; of Richard Chancellor, that he was beloved and genial and especially noted for "many good parts of wit."

Thus on that bright morning in early May, these two commanders with their loyal crew sailed down the Thames amid the firing of guns and cheers of the crowds assembled upon the river banks to wish them God-speed. It was understood between the commanders that should their vessels become separated, they should try to meet at Wardhuys, "a good port in Finmark."

They proceeded northward and passed the northernmost cape of Europe in July. At night during a dense fog and storm, the two ships separated, the third and smallest kept with Willoughby, and the two brave commanders and their crews never met again. Proceeding northward some two hundred miles, reaching Nova Zembla, Willoughby was forced by the ice to return to a lower latitude. In September, 1553, he harboured in the mouth of the river Arzina, in Lapland.

He wrote in his journal at this time: "Thus remaining in this haven the space of a weeke, seing the year farre spent, and also very evill wether, — as frost, snowe, and haile, as though it had been the deepe of winter, wee thought it best to winter there."

In January, according to the record of Willoughby's journal, all were living. In the spring Russian sailors, venturing in these high latitudes, were surprised to see two ships frozen in the ice. The relentless grip of the Arctic winter still held them fast; the hand of death in its most gruesome shape had reaped its harvest. Not a man survived. How brief the details, yet the imagination shudders at the agonies of their last days, — the cold, intense, congealing; the impenetrable, melancholy dark, and death, laying its icy fingers upon the despairing heart of each in turn and the "last Man," surrounded by the stark forms of his companions, wrestling alone with inexorable fate.

Chancellor's vessel, the Bona Ventura, reached the Bay of St. Nicholas, and landed near Archangel, which was then but an isolated castle. He undertook a journey to Moscow, which resulted in successful arrangements for commercial enterprise, Russia at that time being almost as little known as the far east. Returning safely to England, he was warmly welcomed as having proved the practical utility of Arctic voyages.

One of the companions of Chancellor on this voyage, Stephen Burrough, materially aided by Sebastian Cabot, then in his eighty-fourth year, set sail in 1556 from Gravesend, in a small pinnace named the Search-thrift. Before the departure, the ship and crew were visited by Cabot, and it is recorded of this farewell visit that "Master Cabot gave the poor most liberal almes, wishing them to pray for the good fortune and prosperous success of the Search-thrift ; and for very joy that he had to see towardness of our intended dis-