Methods of teaching in high schools

Preface

This textbook applies to high-school instruction the same general principles that have been applied so frequently and fruitfully to the consideration of elementary-school methods. It contains some of the materials used by the author in his classes in educational methods for prospective high-school teachers. Sometimes his classes contain both prospective elementary and high-school teachers. At such times, after a general principle of method has been discussed, applications are made to both elementary and high-school teaching, because practically every general principle of method does apply in both places. Inasmuch as the line between elementary and secondary (or adolescent) education should probably be drawn at about twelve or thirteen years of age, the illustrations given in this volume will apply in many cases to the seventh and eighth grades as well. It is the intention to issue a companion volume which will follow the same general lines as this one, but will draw its illustrations from the elementary grades proper ; namely, from the kindergarten through the sixth grade.

The scientific basis for part of the discussion in the book is found in modern experimental psychology. This is particularly the case in the discussion of certain aspects of learning which have been subjected to extensive laboratory investigation, such as motor learning and practice. In other cases, where experimental data are not available, I have relied on authoritative, analytical discussions such as Professor Dewey's " How We Think."

vii viii TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS

The author's general point of view has been determined by a number of influences. The first factor was four years' experience as a pupil and one as a teacher in the Technical School of Cincinnati, a private manual-training high school which exemplified in its instruction the efficient and progressive application of many of the most important principles of method. The second factor was a year's training in general and experimental psychology and education under Professor C. H. Judd. The third set of influences included studies under Professors John Dewey and E. L. Thorndike of Columbia University. The latter's textbook, entitled '' Principles of Teaching" (1905), has been especially influential, since I have used it as a basis of discussion in my classes for nine years. The final factor in determining the preparation of this textbook was the opportunity given me to teach the courses in the subdivision of Educational Methods in the Department of Education at The University of Chicago. It is the function of this subdivision of the department to discuss and investigate problems of method or classroom procedure at all stages of schooling.

In general the author takes the point of view that efficiency and economy in instruction are facilitated by (i) radically adapting all instruction to contemporary social needs, (2) basing methods of instruction on sound psychological principles which have been determined, as far as possible, experimentally, and (3) applying principles of scientific business management to the conduct of all teaching. The first of these standards eliminates processes that have no direct social value ; the second eliminates waste of effort resulting from the use of uneconomical and ineffective methods of learning ; the third eliminates waste of time which results from failure to standardize materials and processes.

PREFACE ix

In order that this volume may serve to introduce students to the great body of practical educational literature that is now available, and may initiate habits of consulting such material, especially as it appears in current periodicals, I have quoted, wherever possible, from worthy discussions of the topics under consideration and have suggested that the students follow up the topics more fully in the sources that I have used.

I am indebted to a number of my colleagues in The University 'of Chicago for suggestions and criticisms. Of these. Professors J. F. Bobbitt, F. N. Freeman, R. L. Lyman, and Mr, W. S. Gray read and criticized certain chapters or parts of chapters ; Professor Harvey Carr made a number of suggestions in connection with the discussion of learning processes ; and Mr. A. F. Barnard, Mr, E. R. Breslich, and Miss Lydia Schmidt, of the University High School, have contributed a number of practical examples. For permission to reproduce illustrations from various sources I am indebted to a number of authors and publishers whose names are noted in the list of illustrations and in the body of the text.

Chapter I Introduction — Scope Of The Book

PAGE

Possibility of applying general principles to high-school instruction . i

Principles based on scientific evidence and expert opinion 3

Bibliographical note 4

CHAPTER n

BROADENING PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION

Necessary for teachers to appreciate purposes 5

Suggestions from historical development of high-school purposes . . 7

Aristocratic versus democratic purposes 7

Liberal versus vocational purposes ,....13

Theoretical formulation of broader purposes 16

Ultimate and proximate aims outlined 16

CHAPTER HI

Teacher should avoid misdirected time and energy 26

Routinize mechanical aspects ; use judgment in variable aspects ... 26 Reasoning and individuality may have same place in well-routinized

school as in social life 27

Begin right the first day 31

Economy in handling materials. Large savings from slight variations . 34

Proper ventilation and lighting conserve energy 41

Good order an important time-saver 43 xi xii TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS

{j' CHAPTER IV

THE SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF SUBJECT MATTER

PAGE

Widespread interest in selection and arrangement 52

Subject matter should be adapted to varying social needs 53

Social needs vary historically ; subject matter should vary accordingly 55

Needs vary between different communities 60

Needs vary between different groups in same community 65

Determination of relative values of subject matter 67

Intensive thorough treatment of fewer topics ; type studies .... 72

Many supporting details necessary in intensive study 76

Organization in terms of the learner versus organization in terms of

the subject . 78

Reconstruction of first-year mathematics 81

Reconstruction of science courses 85

Logical quality of reconstructed courses 90

CHAPTER V

TYPES OF LEARNING INVOLVED IN HIGH-SCHOOL SUBJECTS

Special methods based on types of learning 95

Five types, or aspects outlined 96

CHAPTER VI

Motor control important in various activities 98

Questions of method involved 99

Learning to juggle balls a typical example of experimentation . . . 100

Other investigations illustrating trial and error 102

Empirical discussions in gymnastics 108

Musical technique ...iii

Learning pronunciation of a foreign language 114

Tentative answers to questions of method 118

CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER VII

ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS : LEARNING A FOREIGN VOCABULARY

PAGE

Predominant process in foreign-language instruction 122

Types of association in reading and speaking a foreign language . .124

Possibilities of indirect more obvious than of direct method .... 126

A ready-made direct method necessary for inexperienced teachers . 129

Modifications of Gouin system among the best 130

Objective oral lessons primarily preparatory to reading 135

Supplementary cautions 138

CHAPTER VIII

Automatizing Motor and Mental Associations

Automatizing should follow correct start 142

Examples of experimental investigations 144

Aspects of economical learning 147

Influence of emotional tone 147

Zeal and concentration of attention make practice efifective .... 149

Correct recall in memorizing involves concentration 153

Memorizing by wholes better than by parts 1 54

Drill on real process ; do not waste time on accessories 158

Distributed practice better than continuous practice 162

Empirical discussion of practice on the piano 164

CHAPTER IX

Problem-Solving. Acquiring Abstract and General Meanings

SECTION ONE. PROBLEM-SOLVING May be required in other subjects than mathematics and natural

science 170 xiv TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS

PAGE

Problem-solving is an important activity in social life 176

Nature of mental activity in problem-solving 180

Assisting pupils to solve problems 185

Defining the problem 185

Stimulating fertility of suggestion 187

Critical evaluation of suggestion 193

Verifying by further evidence and by testing inferences 196

Organizing the material of thought 198

Summary of suggestions for guiding reflective thinking 199

Four types of opportunities for students to reason 200

SECTION TWO. ACQUIRING ABSTRACT AND GENERAL MEANINGS Plays a large part in high-school instruction 205

General questions concerning best methods to use 212

Untutored method of learning may contain suggestions 212

School expedites process and stresses technical meanings .... 214

May expedite by intensive study of a few typical examples . . . . 214

Particular personal experiences a necessary basis for abstractions . . 217

Exact definitions. Not necessary in all thinking 220

Get the meaning first, then add the symbol 224

Summary of principles of teaching abstract and general meanings . 225

Generalizations aid in solving personal and social problems .... 226

CHAPTER X

FORMING HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT

Emotional aspect uppermost in the consideration 233

Widespread recognition of need of training to enjoy leisure .... 234

Participation in sports and games. Chances for all 235

Social activities 236

Music. Two possibilities : participation and listening 238

Meaning of enpymejit is clear ; of appreciation^ vague 242

Confusing understanding and enjoyment common in teaching literature 244

No necessary connection between good art and good morality . . , 250 Study of Hterature. Introduced in high school from classical standpoint 253

Enghsh teachers rapidly adapting methods to social needs .... 254

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

Teacher must know what is adapted to students 259

\ Diflficult to avoid snap courses in reading for enjoyment 262

S^ Enjoyment of drama 263

''^ CHAPTER XI

An important issue in all classes . .' 270

Emphasize expression of everyday matters 271

Make sure that students have vital content to express 272

English teacher needs broad experience, training, and point of view . 277

Motive for expression furnished by real audience 278

Require students to have clear ideas to express 280

Student must get point of view of audience 281

How to avoid snap courses in oral expression 285

Training in expression best secured in content subjects 287

General principles of expression apply to drawing 291

CHAPTER Xn

Self-activity : student is educated by his own responses 296

Self-activity in various types of learning 297

Student's words often unreliable evidence of his mental activity . . 299 Apperception : response determined by past experience and present

frame of mind 300

. x\ll instruction must be. adapted to experience and development of

students 303

Influence of present frame of mind 304

Teacher must put students in proper frame of mind 307

CHAPTER Xni

Do students at different ages vary in ability to learn 314

Acquiring motor skill; maintain that adolescence is as favorable • • 315 xvi TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS

PAGE

Learning a foreign vocabulary. Maintain that later years are as

favorable 318

Some reasons for prevalence of contrary opinion 322

Changes with age in reasoning processes 326

Reasoning abilities of children demonstrated by Bonser 326

Arguments for contrary opinion refuted 328

Same point of view applied to training in enjoyment and expression . 332

CHAPTER XIV

INTERESTS, THE BASIS OF ECONOMY IN LEARNING

Intensive application necessary for economical learning 336

Best secured by utilizing student's active interests 337

Interest and attention ; spontaneous and forced attention 341

Instinctive spontaneous attention 344

Important instincts used as a basis of attention and interest .... 348

Habitual attention 358

Teachers must study interests of high-school students 360

CHAPTER XV

ADAPTING CLASS INSTRUCTION TO DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY

Class instruction needs supplementing to suit individuals 362

Historical development of individual and class instruction 363

Interest stimulated by statistical demonstrations of differences and

waste 367

Typical experiments ' . ^yc)

Abolishing all class instruction 379

Self-conducted homogeneous groups 381

Recitations only for students who need them 384

Required supervised study periods 387

CONTENTS xvii CHAPTER XVI

PAGE

Supervised study should partially replace recitations and home study . 391

Teachers fail to appreciate students' difficulties 393

Measured results show superiority of supervised study 397

Divided periods provide for required supervised study in high schools . 402

Physical conditions should suggest study 403

Form habits of going through the motions of studying 405

Concentrated studying must be secured through interest 409

Routinized directions to students to assist in studying 411

Special technique to be used by teacher in supervising study. . . . 412

CHAPTER XVn

Four sources of subject matter 419

Reflective reading of books a most important social process .... 420

Textbooks. Exercise care to select well-constructed, appropriate ones . 421 Supplementary reading. Provide definite assignments to sufficient

duplicates 425

Reports based on independent investigations of assigned topics.

Special technique of administering 428

CHAPTER XVni

Conversational method works over student's previous experiences . . 436

Exploited by American Herbartians 439

Criticism of eliciting everything by questions 441

The Socratic method a circuitous form of conversational method . . 442

Much better to tell some things than to waste time 446

Legitimate uses 447 xviii TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS

CHAPTER XIX LABORATORY METHODS

PAGE

Laboratory methods may secure information, reflective thinking, and

skill 449

Exercise care in selecting laboratory manual 451

Adapt laboratory exercises to broader social needs 455

Economy would often justify substitution of lecture demonstration . . 457

Avoid highly specialized forms of motor skill . , 458

For reflective thinking, laboratory exercises must grow out of problems 459

Freely merge discussion, laboratory exercises, and interpretation . . 460

CHAPTER XX

Rapid adaptation required of teacher in skilled questioning 466

Recitation as a place for group progress determines technique . . . 468

Rapid pace for drill questions ; slow pace for thought questions ... 471

Repetition in questioning 472

CHAPTER XXI

PRACTICE TEACHING AND LESSON-PLANNING

Practice teaching with adolescent pupils to be provided 475

Apply general principles of practice ■. . ,477

Routinized scheme for administering practice is desirable 479

Herbartian formal steps a favorite routine device 480

Mimeographed scheme of directions to be followed in planning . . 483

Departure from plan while teaching 487

Sample routine directions to practice teachers and supervisors . . . 488

CONTENTS xix CHAPTER XXII

PAGE

Measurement of results show whether purposes are achieved . . . 492 Routine testing by the teacher. Avoid extremes of overemphasis and

neglect 493

Precautions to assure commensurable results 496

Measuring various types of learning 497

Methods of grading 500

Comparative measures of different classes and methods. Recent

enthusiasm 502

Judgments of science made reliable by special technique 504

Scales of measurement being developed in various subjects .... 508

L/ CHAPTER XXIII

Observation essential to show applications of theory 512

Suggestive outlines for observing pupils and teaching 515

INDEX 523

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

In a textbook. — Probably the best textbook in which to assign parallel readings is E. L. Thomdike's " Principles of Teaching." These readings will be especially helpful in connection with the chapters on the various types of learning and those on self-activity and apperception, interests, individual differences, and measuring the results of teaching.

In periodicals. — All prospective high-school teachers should form the habit of reading regularly the educational periodicals which deal with general problems of high-school instruction or with the teaching of special subjects in high school. These periodicals are full of practical suggestions and put the reader in touch with the most progressive methods of teaching. Students should be required to prepare select bibliographies of articles dealing with the teaching of special subjects in which they are interested and to present oral or written reports on a few of the articles.

The following periodicals are especially helpful :

1. The School Review. Published by The University of Chicago Press. The best journal devoted to general problems of high-school organization and instruction.

2 . The English Journal. Published by The University of Chicago Press.

3. The History Teachers'' Magazine. Published by the McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

4. School Science and Mathematics. Published by Smith and Turton, Mount Morris, Illinois.

XXI

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois . . Frontispiece The Boston Latin Grammar School, founded 1635. From

Monroe's '' History of Education " 4

High-school building of the H-type 43

Readjusted academy at Colebrook, New Hampshire. Courtesy of

Mr. H. A. Brown 61

Colebrook Academy boys learning to use separator. Courtesy of

Mr. H. A. Brown 63

Colebrook boys making Babcock milk test. Courtesy of Mr. H.

A. Brown 64

Colebrook class securing samples of soil at different depths.

Courtesy of Mr. H. A. Brown 65

A lesson in the greenhouse at Colebrook Academy. Courtesy of

Mr. H. A. Brown 66

Apparatus used by Dearborn for experimenting upon mirror

writing . . . ' 104

Star traced while watching its reflection. After Dearborn . . . 105 Kinetoscopic pictures used in Gilbreth's motion study to increase

skill of artisans. From photographs furnished by Mrs. F. B.

Gilbreth 107

Jerry Travers's hold for putting in playing golf .109

Stages in performing the kip on a horizontal bar no

Incorrect and correct positions of little finger in playing the piano 113 Curves showing effects of nine months of practice in learning

telegraphy. After Bryan and Harter, from Thorndike's

"Educational Psychology" 145

A French school about 1628, illustrating punishment for errors in

recitation. From Cubberly's " Syllabus of the History of

A French school before 1789, illustrating method of individual

instruction. From Cubberly's "Syllabus of the History of

Education " . 363

xxiii xxiv TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS

PAGE

Curves showing abilities in observing misspelled words and thinking of the opposites of words. From Thorndike's " Principles of Teaching" 373

Normal-frequency surface and curve of distribution. From Thorndike's " Individuality " 376

Curves showing abilities in remembering digits and in reaction

times. From Thorndike's " Educational Psychology " . . 377

Four types of laboratory notebooks. Reproduced by permission

ixova ihe. School Review 451-453

KEY TO BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES

The books from which quotations are made in the text are included in the bibliographies which are printed at the ends of the chapters. The source of each quotation is indicated (usually at its end) by two figures in parenthesis. The first figure refers to the book by its number in the bibliography at the end of the chapter, and the second figure refers to the page. Thus, (4 : 76) means page 76 in the fourth book in the chapter bibliography. This system has been adopted in order that the instructor or student may verify or follow up any quotation," but at the same time the ordinary reader will not be distracted by numerous footnote references which are unimportant in his reading.

XXV

METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS *

METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION — SCOPE OF THE BOOK

Purpose. — The purpose of this textbook is to introduce students to a study of the principles which underUe instruction in high-school subjects. Hence it is concerned primarily with the work of classroom teachers and only incidentally with the curriculum and organization of high schools.

Possibility of applying general principles to high-school instruction. — The principles which underlie methods of teaching have been discussed very thoroughly in many excellent books from the standpoint of elementary schools, but there have been relatively few books which have performed the same service for high-school methods in general. A similar contrast exists between the large number of books dealing with high-school organization and the small number dealing with high-school methods in general.

This situation is partially due to the fact that the methods of teaching in high schools may vary greatly with the nature of the subjects taught. Striking examples of this variation are found in the problems of method involved in teaching manual training, a foreign language, and geometry. Each of these subjects has peculiar problems of method different from those in the other subjects. In the case of many high-school subjects there is no lack of discussion of these special methods. Thus we have numerous books deahng with the teaching of Enghsh, history, mathematics, and -the sciences in high schools, but few discussions of gf^^al methods of high-school instruction. ^

Moreover, it has been generally^^'sumed that all that a high-school teacher needs in (x^glr to be successful is a thorough knowledge of his subject matter plus the ability to make pupils behave. Persons who have held this point of view have often been willing to admit that a knowledge of the principles of method may improve the work of teachers in kindergartens and in elementary schools, but they have held that such pedagogical considerations could contribute little to the improvement of high-school teaching.

There are, however, many phases of high-school teaching in which general principles of method play as important a part as they do in elementary school work. In the chapters that follow, an endeavor will be made to demonstrate this fact in detail.

Main topics to be discussed. — The principal topics which will be taken up are the following :

1 . The purposes to be attained by high-school instruction.

2. The importance of economy in classroom activity; the attaining of a given purpose with the minimum of time and energy.

3. Standards determining the selection and arrangement of subject matter within a given subject ; that is, what to teach and how to organize it.

4. The most economical and effective methods of learning to be employed in different subjects.

5. How to stimulate pupils to learn most economically, that is, with effective concentration of energy.

6. Provisions for individual differences in class instruction, so that each pupil may advance at a pace suited to his capacities.

7. Supervision of study to eliminate misdirected effort.

INTRODUCTION — SCOPE OF THE BOOK 3

8. The most effective use of various sources for enriching pupils' experiences, involving a consideration of

(a) Books as sources ; recitation and reference methods. {b) The pupils' own objective experiences, both present and past, as sources ; laboratory and conversational methods.

9. The planning of instruction to assure that definite and valuable experiences are to be provided.

10. The testing of teaching, as a check to determine how effectively the purposes have been attained.

11. The observation of teaching, to show the practical applications of educational theory.

Principles based on scientific evidence and expert opinion. — In the discussions which follow, it will be possible in some cases to present well-established scientific conclusions as the theoretical basis of the principles under consideration, and to indicate how the latter have been carried out in successful practice in typical high schools. In other cases, however, there may be no stronger evidence in favor of the principles advocated than the opinions of some of the best-informed thinkers about education who have written since the time of John Locke (163 2-1 704). These opinions may not be valid, but the chances are that they are nearer the truth than the opinions of persons who have not devoted considerable study to pedagogical problems. In any case, they serve the purpose of introducing the student to the problems, and prepare him to appreciate and perhaps contribute to the more valid experimental determination of the best methods of instruction, which promises to play such a large part in future educational endeavor.

Observations of classes should supplement study of the text. — In order to relate the discussions in each chapter to practical situations, instructors who are using the text and have facilities for observation should utilize the directions given in Chapter XXIII. Observations should be required early in the course, in order to furnish students with fresh concrete examples of the general principles under discussion. The suggestions provided by the author may be modified to suit local needs, but in every case it is desirable to provide the observers with definite questions or points upon which observations and subsequent discussiens may be based.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

Parker, S. C. The Present Status of Education as a Science in the Field of Methods. School Review Monograph No. II. (University of Chicago Press, 191 2.) Pp. 135-150.

THE BOSTON LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL, FOUNDED 1635

From Monroe's " History of Education." The contrast between this simple building in the yard of King's Chapel and the magnificent Chicago high school shown in the frontispiece is paralleled by a similar contrast in the aims and curricula of the secondary schools of the seventeenth and twentieth centuries

Chapter II Broadening Purposes Of High-school Instruction

To the student. — At the beginning of each chapter will be found a brief statement of its main points. This should be read in order to get a general notion of what is to come, but need not be learned until the chapter is finished, when it may be studied as a summary of the chapter. The pedagogical value of reading these summaries is stated in the quotation from Herbart on page 307 of this text.

Main points of the chapter. — i . It is important that high-school teachers should have a clear understanding of high-school purposes, in order to be able to plan their instruction to best advantage.

2. Historically, secondary schools have changed from institutions for a few select students to institutions that train many types of boys and girls for many vocations.

3. Along with the broadening of the vocational training provided in high schools has come a broadening of the conception of a liberal education to include a sympathetic understanding of contemporary civilization.

4. The broad, ultimate aims of high-school instruction include social efficiency (economic, domestic, and civic), good will, and the harmless enjoyment of leisure time.

5. The more detailed or immediate aims of instruction include health, information, habits, ideals, and abiding interests.

Necessary for teachers to appreciate purposes of instruction. — One of the most striking developments in recent educational history is the rapid change that has taken place in the prevailing conceptions of the purposes of high-school education. This change of conception affects not only the curriculum and organization of the high school, but it affects also very vitally the individual teacher in the teaching of his particular subject. If the purposes of the whole institution are modified, it follows naturally that the purposes and methods within the individual subjects must often be modified accordingly. The importance of this fact is not always realized by teachers and administrators, with the result that many maladjustments arise.

Poor adjustments restclt from different pitrposes of administrators and teachers. — For example, an administrative officer may try to reform a system of schools, or a single school, without first gradually and carefully initiating the teachers into the spirit and purpose of the reforms. As a consequence the teachers go on in their old ways or strive more or less blindly and ineffectually to readjust themselves. The resulting strain and stress commonly bring about numerous resignations, sometimes including that of the administrator who has tried to institute the reforms. A most striking example of such a situation occurred in one of our American systems toward the end of the nineteenth century. An administrator who failed to put through his reforms because of failure to get his purposes understood was succeeded by a man who had the same purposes but who started to put them into effect by a gradual and careful education of the other workers in the system into an understanding of his ideas. His efforts were characterized by complete success, in striking contrast with the failure of his predecessor.

Extrem,e differences of opi^tion exist concerning high-school purposes. — A high-school teacher going into a new situation would do well to inform himself concerning the conceptions of purpose which prevail in the situation in question. Owing to the rapid change that has been taking place, there exist at the present time the most radical differences of opinion concerning purposes. These extreme differences are sometimes found between high schools within the same city,^ and commonly center in the antithesis between cultural and vocational purposes, or in the antithesis between aristocratic and democratic purposes. In order to provide a better understanding of these disagreements, we shall consider briefly the historical evolution of secondary schools, of which our present type of high school is the most recent development. Suggestions from historical development of high-school purposes. — Aristocratic or selective purpose in Latin grammar schools {l^OO-iy^O). — The fact that the secondary schools were originally selective and hence more or less aristocratic in purpose is well illustrated from the writings of Martin Luther (1483-1546), who, in the sixteenth century, was active in stimulating the organization of both elementary and secondary schools. The selective purpose of the latter as schools to train leaders is well set forth in the following quotation :

I hold it to be incumbent on those in authority to command their subjects to keep their children at school ; for it is, beyond doubt, their duty to ensure the permanence of the above-named offices and positions, so that preachers, jurists, curates, scribes, physicians, schoolmasters, and the like may not fail from among us ; for we cannot do without them. . . . Wherefore, let magistrates lay these things to heart, and let them keep a vigilant lookout ; and, wherever they see a promising lad, have him pledged at school.

The elementary school was to be for all children, according to Luther, but it was the " promising lads " with whom the secondary school was to be chiefly concerned. In England and America these secondary schools were known as Latin grammar schools.

Practical value of grammar schools decreased with declhie of Latin. — Though the curriculum of the Latin grammar

1 See the School Review, November, 191 1, Vol. XIX, pp. 585-595, and October, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 559-563, for a discussion between two New York City high schools.

schools included practically only instruction in Latin and sometimes Greek, they were not originally so limited in the practical value of the training they afforded as they came to be after the seventeenth century ; for down to the time of Queen Elizabeth (15 58-1603) Latin was used as a practical instrument in reading, studying, and social intercourse by nearly all educated people. After the seventeenth century, however, the modern languages very largely replaced the Latin for general purposes, and the latter remained of practical value for only a few select classes, including professors, ministers, lawyers, and physicians. Hence the Latin grammar school became even more narrowly selective and aristocratic in character than before. Speaking of this situation in the American colonies, and of the persistence of aristocratic traditions, Brown writes as follows in his work on " The Making of Our Middle Schools " :