The emergency in China

Front matter

i i.-i e

EMERGENCY IK CHIEA

Tr.^PTT POTT

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

Telegram ix

Preface xi

Preface

The promise to write this book was given before the Revolution broke out. It seemed comparatively easy when the task was first undertaken to give a brief summary of present conditions in China, and to point out some of the currents of thought which sooner or later would produce startling results, but the difficulties increased a hundred fold after China had been shaken to its foundation by the sudden political tempest.

To write of present conditions seemed somewhat like attempting to describe the transitory images produced in a kaleidoscope, inasmuch as everything was in flux, and nothing was permanent for any length of time.

One felt that the writing of some of the chapters must be postponed as long as possible, in hope that a state of partial equilibrium might be reached before they were penned. As a matter of fact Chapter II on the "Results of the Recent Revolution" was the last one taken in hand.

Although everything is changing and it is beyond human ken to know the final result, yet there are certain great forces at work which will not disappear. The surface may be stormy, but the waters beneath are still. Believing as we do in a God of

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history, we can await in patience and faith the working out of his plan in regard to this country.

We know that progress could only come by the break-up of the old conservative and corrupt regime, and that in the end something better and higher will be produced.

It is a transition period, and this is what we have tried to emphasize. It would be foolish to give way, as some do, to feelings of undue exultation. The destructive work has been accomplished, but the constructive has only begun, and it must extend over a long period of time.

Because it is a transition period, the opportunity to influence China is all the greater. Before the new civilization crystallizes, now, during the time when everything is in solution, the most determined effort should be made to win China for Christ.

We have tried to write soberly and to state facts. We have pointed out the many encouraging features of the situation and at the same time its dangers and difficulties. Our hope is that the book may help to rouse interest in one of the most important movements the world has ever seen, and inspire the Church to greater missionary activity so that China may be more powerfully influenced by the spiritual and moral forces of the religion of Christ.

F. L. Hawks Pott.

Shanghai, China, February 15, 1913.

INTRODUCTORY— HISTORICAL REVIEW OF CHINA'S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Chapter I Introductory— Historical Review Of China's International Relations

No other nation with which the world is acquainted has been so constantly true to itself; no other nation has developed a civilization so completely independent of any extraneous influences; no other nation has elaborated its ideals in such absolute segregation from alien thoughts; no other nation has preserved the long stream of its literature so entirely free from foreign affluents; no other nation has ever reached a moral and national elevation so high above the heads of contemporary states.

— Captain Frank Brinkley, quoted by William T. Ellis

Ideas of the Orient Reversed. Formerly writers of history were very positive in their statements as to the impossibility of higher national and social development on the part of Eastern peoples. They maintained that these nations had already reached the summit of their evolution, and no further progress in the future was to be expected. Such theorizing has been sadly upset by what has already transpired in Japan and China. The Island Empire was the first to prove the possibility of the rejuvenation of an Eastern people by the assimilation of elements of Western civilization. She emerged like a bright new star of the first magnitude, and in an incredibly short period of time won for herself a place among the great powers of the world. Now we are witnessing a similar movement in the old civilization of China, and are still rubbing our eyes with astonishment. In years to come, when historians review the story of the twentieth century, they will point out as the most remarkable events of modern times the appearance of China and Japan upon the stage of the world's drama, and will show how it influenced the whole course of future civilization.

Review of China's Foreign Relations. In this chapter we shall attempt to review briefly the history of China's foreign relations, and trace out the political causes which have led her to abandon her old policy of exclusiveness and to modernize her government and social institutions so as to take her rightful place in the family of progressive nations.

Character of China's Civilization. We are familiar with the fact that China reached a high stage of civilization long before the beginning of the Christian era, but perhaps we do not sufficiently bear in mind that it was a civilization developed in isolation from the rest of the world. The geographical position of China cut her off from being influenced to any appreciable extent by other races and nations. There were ancient trade routes to India and Persia, and the outlying provinces of the Rck man Empire, but they did not serve as highways by which new forces found their way into the empire. The greatest external influence was that exerted by the Buddhist missionaries who came from India in 62 A. D., in the reign of the Emperor Ming-Ti, and this foreign element has undoubtedly modified Chinese civilization to a certain extent. China, however, is like a sea which renders salt all the waters which flow into it, and Chinese Buddhism has been so transformed that it differs in many respects from the original cult. Thus the civilization of the East and the West were developed independently of one another, and China was as little known to the West as the West was to her.

Visit of Marco Polo. In the thirteenth century Marco Polo, the celebrated Venetian traveler, made his journey to China. During his long sojourn he learned much about Chinese civilization, and upon his return to Europe he astounded the people of the West by the stories he told in regard to what had been up to that time almost an unknown part of the world.

Early Attitude of China. The attitude of China toward foreigners throughout the Middle Ages was quite different from what it became at a later period. "The imperial government placed the aliens practically on the same footing as its own subjects: it opened to them public employments and extended to them the fullest protection. Olopun, one of the Nestorians who entered China in the Tang

Dynasty, was raised to the rank of high priest and national protector by Emperor Kautsung. Marco Polo, though a Venetian by birth, was appointed to the office of prefect of Yangchow, which he held for three years. John de Corvino, a Romish missionary, was given an imperial audience, and allowed to build a Catholic church with a steeple and bells, preach the gospel, and baptize, even in the capital of the empire." 1

Coming of the Portuguese. The first people from Europe to come knocking at the door of China asking for permission to trade were the adventurous Portuguese. In 1517 Fernao Peres de Andrade entered the Canton River with two ships and demanded the privilege of commercial intercourse. The Chinese received these strangers from over the seas in a kindly spirit. In a short time however the feeling of amity was turned into one of deadly hatred, on account of the high-handed manner in which the Portuguese acted toward those with whom they entered into business relations. The disorderly conduct of the Portuguese colonists, who had settled at Ningpo, caused the generally pacific Ming Emperor in 1545 to give orders that they should be attacked by land and sea. As a result an assault was made on the colony in which, according to report, 12,000 Christians, including 800 Portuguese, were massacred.

Coming of the Spaniard. Next the Spaniards

1 V. K. W. Koo, The Status of Aliens in China, 19.

made their appearance in 1575, but they failed to restore the prestige of Westerners in the eyes of the Chinese. They made a settlement in the Philippine Islands which they held until the recent war between the United States and Spain. The Chinese emigrated in large numbers to Manila, the capital of the islands. The Spaniards, fearful lest all the trade should fall into the hands of successful Chinese merchants, and alarmed lest they should lose their control of the islands, instituted a barbarous massacre, in which some 20,000 people were put to the sword.

Reasons for Adoption of "Closed Door" Policy. From this time a marked change took place in the attitude of the Chinese government toward foreigners. Vigorous measures of surveillance and restriction were adopted, and to a large extent alien merchants and missionaries were excluded from the empire. The causes of this new attitude may be briefly summarized as follows: In the first place, the reports of the conquest of the East Indies, and the forcible occupation of parts of India and the Malay Peninsula by Portuguese adventurers awakened the suspicions of the Chinese as to the ulterior motives of the foreigners rapidly flocking to their shores. They feared this aggression, especially at a time when there was much internal disorder in the empire. In the second place, from her own experience China did not receive favorable first impressions of Europeans, and the cruelty of Portuguese and Spaniards had not a little to do with the formation of the opinion that all Westerners were barbarians.

Divergent Ideals. Furthermore, we should bear in mind the divergence of the ideals of Western and Eastern civilization. The word "progress" sums up the spirit of Western civilization. It is full of restlessness, desire for change, and looks forward to better conditions. On the other hand, the East longs for rest, peace, and the maintenance of the equilibrium. The one is characterized by aspiration, the other by the desire to conserve the past. It is easy to see how difficult it has been for the two civilizations to understand each other and to harmonize. Until recently they have had entirely different view-points.

Embassies from Russia and Holland. In the reign of Kang Hsi (1662-1723), the second of the Manchu emperors, two European embassies arrived at Peking for the purpose of opening up commercial relations. One came overland from Russia by way of Siberia, and the other from Holland by sea. Neither met with success in obtaining the privileges they sought, for the Chinese considering their own emperor superior to all other barbarian nations refused to treat on terms of equality with their representatives. This contemptuous attitude toward other nations accounts for the insistence on the part of the Chinese that the kowtow x should

1 The word kowtow means the knocking of the head on the ground. The ceremony consists of three kneelings and nine prostrations with the head touching the ground.

be performed before his imperial majesty by all foreign envoys who visited the court. They regarded them as coming from countries standing in the relation of tributary or vassal states to the great Middle Kingdom. The envoys, realizing the real significance of this lowly act of obeisance, persistently refused to comply with the demand for its performance. The Dutch submitted, but did not gain anything by their compliance.

Beginning of Commercial Relations with England. Commercial relations between England and China began in 1635, during the reign of Charles I. A charter was at that time granted to a company of merchants desiring to promote commerce with China, and Captain John Weddell sailed for the East with a small fleet of vessels. The Portuguese who had by this time settled at Macao viewed with jealousy the arrival of these new aspirants for trade, and stirred up the Chinese to resist their demands, reporting them to be rogues, thieves, beggars, and what not, so that they became suspicious of the real meaning of the English. Consequently, when the English fleet was passing the Bogue forts on the way up to Canton, a Chinese battery suddenly opened fire. The British ships retaliated, and after silencing the guns of the battery, landed a party of sailors, took possession of the forts, and hoisted their colors. Then proceeding to Canton, Captain Weddell disposed of his cargo, loaded his vessels with Chinese merchandise, and returned to England. After this beginning, trade gradually developed between the two countries, until in 1715 the East India Company decided to establish a factory, that is, a trading post, at Canton, with a permanent staff, and to send out ships at stated seasons for the exchange of commodities with the Chinese merchants.

Wholly a Response to Pressure. We have dwelt in some detail upon the beginnings of European intercourse with China, because it is important that we should bear clearly in mind China's former attitude toward the people of other nations. She never desired to enter into closer relations with them, and only yielded to their demands on account of the pressure which they brought to bear upon her.

Mission of Earl of Macartney. Two missions were sent to China from Great Britain for the purpose of arriving at a better understanding in regard to the trade between the two countries — one under the Earl of Macartney in 1793, and the other under Lord Amherst in 1816. The vessel upon which the Earl of Macartney proceeded up the Peiho River to the capital displayed a flag bearing in Chinese the inscription, "An envoy bearing tribute from England." When he reached Peking a controversy took place in regard to the kowtow. He consented to perform this ceremony, provided a Chinese official of equal rank with himself, dressed in robes of state, should do likewise before a portrait of his Britannic majesty. Ultimately it was arranged that, on approaching the emperor, he should

Review of China's International Relations n

bend one knee — the mark of respect which he would show to his own sovereign. As far as concerns a settlement in regard to trading privileges, his visit proved entirely fruitless.

Mission of Lord Amherst. Lord Amherst in 1816 met with even ruder treatment. On his way to the capital the Chinese officials wrangled with him upon the subject of the kowtow. When he reached the summer palace at Yuen-min-yuen at five o'clock in the morning, his Chinese escort insisted on taking him to an immediate audience. Lord Amherst pleaded fatigue, and the non-arrival of his court dress and of his credentials, and asked to have the audience postponed. Thereupon the Chinese authorities informed him that he was to start at once upon his return journey. Thus his mission ended in a humiliating failure.

Appointment of Lord Napier. The next chapter of commercial relations between Great Britain and China began in 1833 when the control of the British trade at Canton passed out of the hands of the East India Company, and Lord Napier was appointed as Commercial Superintendent of the British government in China. In the letter of instructions received from Lord Palmerston there was the following short paragraph, which "acted as a fuse to fire the petard" : "Your Lordship will announce your arrival at Canton by letter to the Viceroy." This virtually implied that his status was that of a royal envoy and not of a mere superintendent of trade, and surpassed all former precedents in offending Chinese prejudice. As is well known, he was never able to carry out these instructions and surmount the obstacles placed in his way. The Chinese carried on their trade with the British merchants through a company of Chinese merchants, known as the Co-hong, and the British merchants had no direct access whatever to the Chinese authorities. The Chinese could not understand why the British government had the temerity to demand that there should be communication on terms of equality between an official representative of Great Britain and the viceroy of Canton. Sooner than consent to what appeared to be a great indignity, for a time they put a stop to all intercourse, and it was not until Lord Napier had withdrawn to Macao that the embargo on trade was removed. China was unwilling to remove the restrictions on commerce, or to receive envoys except as tribute bearers.

It was impossible to obtain concessions from her on these points except by force of arms. Opium Question and Appointment of Commissioner Lin Tse-su. Very unfortunately the armed conflict arose over the question of the importation of opium. The Emperor Tao Kwang, who succeeded to the imperial throne in 1820, determined to enforce the law for the prohibition of opium in China. "His motive was pure, and his earnestness unquestioned," but owing to the dishonesty of the native officials he found the measure hard to carry out. He appointed Lin Tse-su Imperial High Commissioner to investigate and deal with the situation at Canton, where the foreign merchants with the connivance of the native authorities were carrying on an extensive trade in the drug. A short time after his arrival at Canton he demanded from the foreign merchants the surrender of all the opium in their possession, and a pledge that their government or governments should enact that the "merchants are to pay implicit obedience to the prohibiting laws of the celestial court, must not again introduce opium into the inner land, and will no longer be allowed to manufacture opium." The foreign merchants were kept confined in their factories and pressure was brought to bear upon them. Finally, acting on the advice of Captain Elliot, at that time Chief Superintendent of British Trade, 20,291 chests, valued at $306,840, were delivered up to Commissioner Lin Tse-su and were completely destroyed (June 3, 1839).

Other Causes of Friction. Further difficulties soon arose. Although after the surrender of the opium permission to trade again was granted by the Chinese authorities, yet it was hedged about by many vexatious restrictions. On July 1, 1839, a party of sailors while on shore on the Kowloon side of the Hongkong anchorage became involved in a shameful riot attended with unmanly outrage upon men, women, and children, and the loss of innocent life. A Chinese named Lin Wei-hi was killed in the fracas and the officials immediately insisted that the murderer should be handed over to them by the British authorities, although Captain Elliot repeatedly protested that it was impossible to discover the guilty person. Furthermore, Commissioner Lin Tse-su still brought many charges of opium smuggling against British merchants.

Causes of First Anglo-Chinese War. Such was the train of events leading up to the first war between Great Britain and China. It is always referred to in China as the Opium War and the Chinese can never be convinced that the British fought for any other reason than to retaliate for the opium destroyed by Commissioner Lin Tse-su and because they were loath to relinquish this lucrative source of profit. In the famous letter written by Commissioner Lin Tse-su to Queen Victoria he is entirely silent as to any other cause of dispute. Without in the least condoning this immoral and illegal trade, we can clearly see that sooner or later there was bound to be a clash between the two countries. The first war with China was but the beginning of a struggle between the extreme East and the West — the East refusing to treat on terms of equality diplomatically or commercially, with Western nations, and the West insisting on being so treated. We can sympathize w r ith the Chinese on account of their ignorance, but we must remember at the same time that it was an ignorance which refused to be enlightened except by force.

Treaty of Nanking. The war was brought to a close by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. The island of Hongkong was ceded to Great Britain, an indemnity was paid for the opium destroyed, official correspondence was to be carried on on equal terms, and Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai were opened to foreign trade as treaty ports, where foreigners could reside. The Chinese had yielded to force, and the terms of the treaty were most unpopular, especially in Canton and the South. No real change of attitude on the part of China toward foreign nations had been effected.

Further Causes of Friction. There were many causes of friction between the Chinese and the British merchants. The former were determined to evade as long as possible the carrying out of the agreement in the Treaty of Nanking consenting to the opening of the city of Canton to foreigners. Even the British consul was unable to hold communication with the Chinese officials within the city walls. This extreme state of tension was bound sooner or later to lead to serious difficulties, and in October, 1856, an event occurred which precipitated hostilities and led to the second conflict between Great Britain and China, usually called the Arrow War.

Dispute Over the Arrow. The dispute arose over the hauling down of the British flag from the mast of a lorcha (a vessel with European hull and Chinese rigging) named the Arrow in the harbor at Whampoa, and the removal by force therefrom of twelve Chinese sailors by Chinese officials. The British government at Hongkong in order to facilitate the trade of the Chinese colonists of the island, granted under certain restrictions sailing letters to Chinese vessels, giving them the protection of the British flag. The vessel in question had been registered at Hongkong.

Counter-claims. The British claimed that their national flag had been insulted, and that treaty arrangements had been violated. Mr. Harry S. Parkes, the British consul, demanded that the crew should be returned to the Arrow in the consul's presence, and agreed that if charged with any crime they would then be conveyed to the British consulate, where in conjunction with proper officers appointed by the Chinese officials the case should be investigated. The Chinese claimed that the British flag was not flying when the vessel was boarded, and insisted that they had a right to act as they had done because* they were in search of a notorious pirate, who had recently committed an act of piracy. Furthermore, they stated that the Arrow had no right to fly the British flag, inasmuch as the time of her license had expired. This fact however could not have been known to them at the time when the vessel was boarded. As far as we can get at the evidence, there was no just cause for war, but hostilities were brought about by predisposing causes.

Two Remaining Barriers to Intercourse. In addition to the pride of the Chinese, which made it impossible for them to treat on terms of equality with men of other nations, there were reasons which led the Chinese to regard with disfavor the increase of foreign intercourse. In the first place, there was the coolie traffic of Macao. Chinese coolies were constantly kidnaped., taken to Macao, and thence sent off on the forced contract svstem to work in Cuba, Peru, and California. In this nefarious traffic the Portuguese were the greatest offenders. In the second place, there was the open sore of the continuance of the smuggling of opium, although the trade was illegal ; and it was often carried on by ships of the class to which the Arrow belonged.

Alliance between Great Britain and France. The French government, actuated partly by the desire to seek reparation for the massacre of a missionary in west Kwangsi, and partly by the spirit of imperial aggrandizement which had manifested itself during the reign of the Emperor Xapoleon III, joined with the British in hostilities against China. The allied forces of the two nations captured Canton, and then carried the war to the North. The Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho River were taken and the Chinese were forced to sue for peace.

Treaty of Tientsin. The war was brought to a close by the Treaty of Tientsin (June 26. 1858). Among the articles of the treaty were the following: The right of residence by foreign ministers in Peking, the opening up of five additional treaty ports, and the toleration of the Christian religion. At this time Russia and the United States, as well as Great Britain and France, made treaties with

China, although they had played no part in the conflict. There was a clause in the British and French treaties agreeing to the exchange of the ratifications at Peking.

Difficulties in Regard to Ratification. Later on the Chinese tried to evade the carrying out of this provision, for by yielding to this demand they would go a long way toward recognizing the equality of Western powers with China. When the allied fleet of Great Britain and France arrived at Taku they found that the forts had been strengthened, and that the mouth of the Peiho had been blocked by barriers consisting of large stakes bound together with heavy chains. When they attempted to force the passage they met with vigorous resistance and were forced to retire.

Expedition to Peking, This led to acts of reprisal on the part of the British and the French and the despatch of an expedition to Peking. In this expedition, unfortunately for the good name of the West, the Summer Palace was destroyed as a punitive measure on account of the cruel death of some prisoners who had fallen into the hands of the Chinese. It was an act of vengeance more in keeping with the ethics of the country invaded than of the religion professed by the invaders.

Effect of Machinery. It is interesting to remember that one of the causes leading to the expansion of Western trade in the East was the introduction of machinery into England in the early part of the nineteenth century. The home market was unable to consume the increased production, and an outlet was sought in foreign trade for the surplus commodities.

Treaty of Peking. After China had been humbled by the occupation of the capital, the Treaty of Peking was signed on October 22, i860. In addition to the terms of the Treaty of Tientsin, Kowloon was ceded to the British government and Tientsin was opened as a treaty port. Foreign envoys took up their residence at the capital, Sir Frederick Bruce representing Great Britain and the Hon. Anson Burlingame representing the United States.

Painful Lesson Learned. So ended a struggle which had lasted for twenty-five years. The Chinese had been forced to learn the lesson that, whereas formerly China dictated the conditions under which international relations were to be carried on, now it was the Western nations which imposed their will on China.

Burlingame Mission. In 1867 the Chinese government sent its first embassy to foreign countries. This consisted of three envoys, two Chinese, and one foreign, the latter being the Hon. Anson Burlingame, who had completed his term as United States minister to Peking. The object of the mission was to win for China more favorable treatment from Western nations, and to represent the Chinese government as desirous of entering upon a course of progress on the lines of Western civilization. Much was expected at the time from this tour, but the result was hardly commensurate with the anticipations.

Riot at Tientsin. The antiforeign riot at Tientsin in 1870, in which the orphanage and cathedral belonging to the Roman Catholic Church were burned, was an evidence of the great cloud of ignorance and prejudice which still blinded the eyes of the masses in China in regard to foreigners. The rioters were incited by their belief in the rumors that the Sisters of Charity were in the habit of kidnaping children, and of taking out their hearts and eyes for the purpose of making medicine!

First Imperial Audience. It was not until 1873 that the first imperial audience for foreign ambassadors was held in Peking. Although on the surface this appeared to be a great step in advance, yet the fact that the audience took place in the "Pavilion of Purple Light/' a hall used for receiving tributary nations, showed that in reality the pride of China was as strong as ever.

Dr. Yung Wing and the Educational Mission. One of the first to see the imperative necessity of adopting a more liberal policy and of learning from the West was the late Dr. Yung Wing. He received his early education at the Morrison school in Hongkong, and was taken as a lad in 1847 to the United States by the Rev. S. R. Brown. He was the first Chinese student to study at Yale University, and graduated in the class of 1854. On his return to his own country he at last succeeded, after many disappointments, in persuading the Chinese government to send a party of young Chinese boys to the United States to be educated in the schools and colleges of that country. He believed that they would be the disseminators of the new learning in their own country, and that much might be expected from their influence. Unfortunately for the experiment, the conservative party in Peking becoming alarmed at the disastrous effects which they believed would result from these denationalized Chinese young men when they returned to spread radical ideas in the empire, persuaded the government to recall them just as most of them were on the eve of entering college. After they reached China their lot became a most unenviable one, for they were treated by Chinese officialdom with scorn and contumely. Some of them survived the period of their fiery trial, and in recent years have risen to positions of great importance — notably Tang Shao-yi, the first Premier of the new Republic, Sir Chentung Liang Ch'eng, K. C. M. G., the recent minister to Berlin, H. E. Liang Tun-yen, ex-President of Board of Foreign Affairs, H. E. Jeme Tien-yu, the "Father of railways in China," Liu Yuk-lin, Minister in London, and Tong Kaison, representative of China at the Hague Conference.