Philosophical grammar of the English language : in connection with the laws of matter and of thought, deduced from the English language alone... to which is added a hieroglyphical key composed of letters, figures and algebraical signs

Front matter

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ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

Preface

The author of the following pages, deems it due to himself, to give the reasons which induced him to attempt authorship, in a department of science not inseparably connected with his vocation as a Christian minister.

He was disabled, by a providential affection, from pursuing the regular duties of his calling, and found it necessary, for the support of a helpless and dependent family, to commence instructing youth. In this employment, he had an opportunity of testing the practical results of what he conceived to be the true principles of English grammar; and found by presenting those principles directly to the mind, unencumbered by the labored classifications of the old grammars, he could impart a more perfect knowledge of grammar to his pupils, and that too, in much less time, than he could by pursuing the usual course of instruction. He also found, that the labor of memorising was greatly abridged, by the conciseness of his classifications; and his mnemonical chart so assisted the memory, that the subject could be presented to the mind immediately, without any previous memorising.

The success of these efforts was so apparent, that he yielded to the solicitations of his friends, and embodied what he conceived to be the true principles of the English language, and an imperfect classification of these principles. This was done for the benefit of his own pupils, and such as might.be instructed by him.

With the aid of this imperfect text book and chart, he found that in twenty lectures of one hour and a half each, he could impart to adult pupils, a more scientific and practicaJ

IV PREFACE.

knowledge of grammar than is generally obtained, by the usual course of instruction, in months or years.

Some, who became acquainted with the Philosophical Grammar, commenced teaching with similar success; and the first edition, which was small, was taken up much sooner than the author desired. All who took the trouble to make themselves acquainted with the Philosophical Grammar, expressed their entire conviction, that it was greatly superior to any and every other system of English Philology, which claims public attention. They admired it no less for the full and clear manner in which the principles of grammatical sciencewere developed,than for the concise and consistent classification of those principles.

These persons, together with those who had adopted it as a text book, urged the author to prepare and publish a second edition, which is here presented to the public.

The author desired more time to prepare this edition than he could command, and also to bring it through the press. But the unexpected call for the first edition made it necessary that this should make its appearance at the time it does.

These are the reasons which induced the author to attempt the compilation of this work. Should it be instrumental in elucidating the principles of grammatical science, and increase a love of philosophical knowledge, he will be more than compensated for all his toil.

INTRODUCTION,

Reason is the distinguishing excellence of man, and language is the medium, through which its operations are developed. How important then, must be the instrument on which so many millions depend, in all the transactions of this life. But its importance is greatly increased, by the fact, that, through language man obtains a knowledge of his Creator, and of the account he must render at the great day.

The design of this work is to explain the principles of languages, as the medium through which the mind communicates and receives ideas. And to give such a classification of letters and words, as the peculiarities of the English tongue require.

The author is sensible, the Philosophical Grammar will oppose, in the department of English literature, the wisdom of the learned, and the practice of years. It would ill become him to pretend to equal competition with many who spent their labors and lives in the same important field, or in contemplating their important and difficult undertaking, to withhold from them the tribute justly due to their characters. But beyond the present classification of the English language, the Philosophical Grammar does not conflict with learning and practice, except in a few instances. The principles contended for, are in accordance with the principles of universal grammar, as developed in the grammars of the principal ancient and modern languages.

Language is the medium through which intelligent beings communicate their ideas; and as the operations of mind are the same in all, the medium through which those operations are communicated must be the same in all its fundamental principles. These principles are the same in all languages; for the same object is to be effected in all — which is, to communicate the operations of mind; and they are more or less developed in the grammars of different languages. Some

1*

Vl INTRODtTCTIOK.

grammars develope more of these principles than others, because they are more philosophical.

These principles may be considered under four general heads; First, The classification of letters, as the representatives of sounds; Second, The classification of words, as the representatives of ideas; Third, Variations or declensions of words, and Fourth, The classifications of words, and the influence they have over each other.

1. Sounds are divided into two general classes, vowel and consonant sounds. These divisions belong to all languages. These sounds unite and form what are called diphthongs — impure vowel sounds. Some languages have more sounds than others. These sounds unite and form words; and though the sounds of different languages are nearly the same, many of them the very same, the words sound very differently* because the sounds are differently united in those words. A perfect alphabet would have a character to represent every indivisible sound in the language.

This work contains a complete classification of all the sounds in the language, and divides the letters, which represent those sounds* accordingly; with all the mutations and elisions of the sounds represented by the letters. The principles which govern the location of the accent, and the division of words into syllables, are also given. The pronunciation of the language according to analogy, is so fully developed, that those who pay proper attention to the principles of Orthoepy, may be enabled to determine the accented syllable of a word, and the sound of every letter in it, without the aid of a dictionary.

2. Words are the signs of ideas, and there must be as many classes of words as there are classes of ideas. And as ideas are the images of things, in the mind, there must be as many classes of ideas as there are classes of things. And as things are the same, and ideas the same in all languages, every language must have the same general classification of words. This would be the case, if the philosophical principle of classification obtained. There are but two distinct classes of things, subsistences and actions. These would divide words into nouns and verbs, the true philosophical division of them.

These two general divisions are subdivided into other divisions, based upon the manner in which their meanings are signified* Some grammarians make more, others less of

INTRODUCTION. VII

those divisions. These divisions are made for practical utility.

This work contains the usual divisions except the article. This division is rejected, because there is no ground, either philosophical or practical for such a distinction. The words classed as articles being nothing but definitive adnouns, [adjectives] in their nature, origin and use. In this the philosophical agrees with the Latin philologists. But all words being either nouns or verbs, in their essential and primary signification, are clearly distinguished in the subdivisions, and their claims to nominal or verbal alliance fairly stated.

The usual subdivisions of the pronoun, are rejected, because the words denominated relative and adjective pronouns, except who, never stand for nouns. They are mere adnouns, and understood better when classed with adnouns, than they can possibly be classed with words used differently. This shortens the students course, without diminishing his means of knowledge, or enervating the vigor of his mind, by distinctions, which he cannot comprehend. Distinctions which have no foundation in nature, practice or -peculiarity.

3. Declension in language, is some variation in the form of words. Some languages are more declinable than others. The more highly a language is improved, the more declinable it is. Words are varied by affixing or prefixing frag-* merits of words to them. The words added contain the additional significations of the varied words. The added significations are contained in the affixed or prefixed fragments. These significations were expressed, in the early stage of language, by separate words. We now express by one word what was formerly expressed by two.

Declension is one of the ways in which language was contracted, to facilitate the progress of communication

These variations form the cases of nouns and adjectives; the persons, moods, tenses and participles of verbs, and the comparisons of adnouns and adverbs — They require classification. No two languages, perhaps, have the same number of variations, and therefore, do not require the same classification. Philologists err by overlooking this fundamental principle, and by giving one language the classification of another more or less declinable. This is particularly the case in English philology.

English philologists give nouns cases; they might with as much propriety give cases to adnouns, (like the Latin and

VIII INTRODUCTION.

Greek grammarians do,) neither having any variations to denote objective relations. To make rules to govern the cases of nouns, is forming laws to compel obedience, where disobedience is impossible; and perplexing the student with groundless and incomprehensible distinctions — distinctions at variance with the settled practice of general grammar.

What are called nouns in the possessive case, in the old grammars are classed with adnouns. In this the Philosophical Grammar conforms to the practice of the Hebrew. But the greatest departure from this fundamental principle, is in the classification of the verb.

The verbs, in the learned languages, are very much varied • In the English very little. The Greek verb has about five hundred variations; the Latin about one hundred and sixty; the English only five, in regular verbs. The voices, moods, tenses, supines and gerunds take up all the variations of the verbs, in the learned languages. But the English has no variation for voice, and but one for mood, one for tense, two for person and one for the present participle, making in all six jfonws, in regular verbs. These six forms are made, in the old grammars to sustain the weight of the Latin classification of mood, tense and voice. This is the great defect of those grammars.

The Latin verb can sustain this extensive classification, yea, requires it; but the English can not — the Latin verb has one hundred and sixty variations to sustain this classification, the English but five. The introduction of the Latin moods and tenses into English, not only embarrasses the student, increases his labor, but prevents him from obtaining a correct knowledge of the foundation of mood and tense, and metamorphoses English verbs into an inexplicable combination of words, having meanings and no meanings, called auxiliary combinations.

In" this work the verb is treated as it is in the learned languages. It has as many moods and tenses, as it has forms for mood and tense, and no more. And as the English Verb has no variation for voice, the passive verb or voice is rejected, on the ground that the English verb has no such voice. This renders the student's course short and easy, and gives him a more perfect knowledge of the verb, in all its uses; and also a knowledge of the true ground of voice, mood and tense, in the learned languages, which cannot fail to facilitate his progress in studying them.

INTRODUCTION. IX

The English language, having but few variations in its words, requires but a concise classification of those variations; and the classifications in this work are adapted to the peculiar structure of the language, without regard to the grammars of other tongues. This greatly abridges the student's course; facilitates his progress, and acquaints him with the true ground of grammatical classification — developes to his mind the science of grammatical arrangement.

4. Words are placed together to represent a succession of ideas, and ought to be placed as nearly as possible, in the order in which the ideas arise in the mind, that the mind, to which they are present, may conceive them in their true connection. The English language is not, perhaps, excelled in this respect by any language ancient or modern.

This work treats particularly of the order in which words should be placed in sentences, and makes Position a distinct part of Syntax.

Words are often omitted, because the ideas expressed are still present in the mind, having been previously expressed, in some other association of words. This practice is explained, and rules are given to regulate it.

Words in their associations have certain influences on each other. Nouns often become adnouns, and words take different forms by having a connection with other words. This is called government. The Philosophical Grammar differs from the old grammars, and also from the grammars of the learned languages on this subject. But although it differs in this particular, the same object is effected — grammatical accuracy, and the true cause assigned which produces the effect. Grammarians generally admit that prepositions govern objective words. I say generally, for some of the brightest stars in the literary firmament have denied it; and Horne Tooke, whose claims to the first rank of philologists, and to the first in that rank, are not denied by any, not only denied the government of prepositions, but their existence as a distinct part of speech. There can be no government without a governor, and no governor can govern without exerting some influence to affect the subjects governed, and no word can represent the influence or action of a governor, which does not represent action or influence of some kind. These are self-evident, and incontrovertible truths. And as prepositions express no actions or influences exerted by agents or governors; it is impossible in the na-

X INTRODUCTION.

ture of things, that they can govern, unless we adopt the sentiment of a late writer on grammar, " What is false in fact may, nevertheless, be true in grammar " It is true that nouns and pronouns coming after prepositions, are in the objective case or relation; but it is also true that they are affected by the action of verbs, which precede the prepositions. The preposition does not affect the noun, but the verb affects it. This is true in all languages.

This leads to a mistake of still greater magnitude; that many verbs have no objective words; that they express neither action nor influence. These definitions are in direct opposition to the evidence of our senses, in many cases; at variance with facts as they exist in nature, and do all that can be done to prevent the mind from conceiving the true connection of cause and effect. An attempt is made in this work, to present this subject in a true light, and to give such a classification of this part of grammar as shows the true connection between cause of effect, without which there can be no just conceptions of accountability, the foundation of all social and moral order.

If the classification and principles hitherto pursued, are founded in error, it is of great importance, in a national point of view, that they should be laid aside. In such an attempt many opposers must be expected; some from prejudice of inculcation, and others from the still stronger motive of direct self-interest. On the other hand, a portion will certainly be found, who are disposed to act in the spirit of candor and free investigation; and who will consider it a more important question, whether professed opinions are true or false, than whether they are new or old.

Limited, therefore, as the circulation of this volume may be, it will doubtless meet with two sorts of readers. Some will examine for themselves, whether its principles are founded in truth, and its deductions fairly drawn. They will either detect their fallacy, or candidly adopt them, if they find them correct. Others will only inquire whethe'r the ideas advanced agree with what they were told before, or read in supposed orthodox books. These persons are not expected to reason, but to denounce, when they suspect it to vary from what they take for true.

If the principles here faintly sketched, should be found incontrovertible, the last resort will be to say they are unimportant, and that the former manner of teaching, will an-

INTRODUCTION. XI

swer as well, or even be more easy for learners to comprehend. Why, in language more than in any other science, should error be plainer than truth? Can perversions promote knowledge, or form a body of useful instruction? Such inconsistencies would at once be rejected in every other department of tuition. Why then retain them in language, which is the instrument of all?

Whatever is opposed to philosophical correctness, will prove as mischievous and inapplicable in practice, as it is incongruous in theory.

In a book designed for the use of schools, extensive proofs and illustration are not to be expected. But it is hoped that those given, may, at least, produce a desire to investigate this subject. Those, who may be inclined to prosecute an inquiry into the philosophy of language, are referred to the invaluable Diversions of Purley,

The "Hieroglyphical Key" is an arrangement of great importance. It so assists the memory, that the subject can be presented to the mind immediately. And the pupil commence parsing understandingly in a few hours. By it a single teacher can teach one or two hundred pupils at once, with as much advantage to the pupils, as though he had but ten.

Small classes of adults can be taught without the "Key" nearly as advantageously as with it. But junior pupils, and large classes derive incalculable advantages from it.

SYNOPSIS

OP THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

1. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing; as 7 James, York, Wisdom.

2. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the tiresome frequency of the same word; as,» Fulton was an eminent engineer; he invented steamboats; we owe much to him*

3. An adnoun is a word added to a noun, to describe or define it; or, to another adnoun, to modify its meaning.

4. A verb is a word which signifies action; as, the farmers plow their fields; clouds shed rain; the miser dies and leaves his gold*

5. A. participle is a word which is derived from a verb* and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adnoun*

6. Adverbs are contractions of words or sentences, added to verbs or participles, to modify their meaning; as, she writes correctly; he is running swiftly. They are either principal or helping; as, she writes very correctly; he is running very swiftly.

7. Prepositions are words used to show the relation of two or more objects to each other, and in construction have preceding and succeeding objective words; as, He threw the stone into the water.

8. Conjunctions are words used to connect sentences; join-* ing two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence; as, he is happy, because he is good.

9. Interjections are words, which express a sudden emotion of the mind; as, oh! alas!

PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.

Question 1. What is grammar?

Answer. Grammar is an explanation of the principles of speech, and teaches the right pronunciation and use of words, (a)

Q,. 2. How may grammar be divided?

A. Into universal and particular.

Q. 3. What is universal grammar?

A. Universal grammar is an explanation of the principles of speech, in their application to all languages.

Q. 4. What is particular grammar?

A. Particular grammar is the explanation of the principles of speech, in their application to a particular language. (1)

Q. 5. How is grammar divided?

A. Into five principal parts — Orthoepy, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

EXPLANATORY NOTES. (1) "Grammar, as a science, treats of the natural connexion between ideas, and words which are the signs of ideas, and develops the principles which are common to all languages. These principles are not arbitrary, nor subject to change, but fixed and permanent; being founded on facts and distinctions established by nature."

Webster's Grammar.

CRITICAL NOTES.

(a) The word grammar is derived from the Greek word gramma, which signifies a letter: hence this word becomes the name of those principles collectively taken, which show the use of letters from their ^alphabetical stations into words and sentences. 2

PAST 1.

ORTHOEPY,

Q. 6. What is Orthoepy?

A. Orthoepy is that part of grammar which teaches the organic structure and sounds of letters, their constructive influence on each other, and the true pronunciation of words. (&)

Q. 7. What is a letter?

A. A letter is the representative of a simple elementary sound, and the first principle or least part of a word.

Q. 8. How many letters has the English language, and how are they divided?

A. Twenty-six; divided into vowels and consonants.

Q. 9. Which are the vowels, and how are their sounds formed?

A. -4, c, t, o, u. — Their sounds are formed by the voice alone. They are divided into pure and impure. A 9 e 9 o, are pure; i and w, impure. The first are called pure, because their sounds are made by the voice without any aid from the organs of articulation; the last impure, because the voice is slightly aided in pronouncing them by the organs of articulation.

Q. 10. Which are the consonants, and how are their sounds formed?

(b) The Hebrews call any variation in the pronunciation or sound of a noun, produced by its connection with another noun, the construct state. In this sense the word is used in the above definition. Da'- bar is a Hebrew word, and signifies word. Da' bar is put into its construct state by being changed into Deba'r. This word, thus constructed, means word of: hence Debar Elohim are equal to the English phrase, God's word, or word of God,

PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.

w, x, y, z. But w and y are only consonants when they begin a word or syllable; in any other situation they are vowels. Their sounds are formed by different constructions of the organs of speech.

Q. 11. How are they divided, and what are the reasons for those divisions?

A. They are divided as follows: b, p, to and y are labials, because their sounds are made by the aid of the lips; f and v are hissing labials, because their sounds are made by placing the upper teeth on the lower lip, accompanied by hissing; d, j, I, t and soft g are dentals, because their sounds are made by placing the tongue on the upper teeth; It, s, x, z and soft c are hissing dentals, because their sounds are formed in the same way, accompanied by hissing; n and m are nasals, because their sounds are made through the nose; k, q, r and hard g and c arp gutturals, because their sounds are formed in the throat. They are still further divided, because of the nature of their sounds. L, m, n and r are liquids; p,f, t, s and k are sharps; b, v, d, z and g are fiats; d, b, z, c and s are aspirate consonants. And they are divided by some authors into mutes and semivowels; but this division serves no scientific purpose. The above divisions- are indispensable to a knowledge of Orthoepy.

Q. 12. Does each letter represent a single elementary sound?

A. Some letters have several sounds. In some situations they stand for one, and mothers for another of these sounds; and some letters are frequently silent. The English language has thirty-eight elementary sounds, represented by its twenty-six letters. The vowels have sixteen sounds, and the consonants twenty-two. (c)

Q. 13. How many sounds has each vowel?

A. A has four sounds; a long sound; as, in fate; a flat sound; as, in yard; a broad sound; as, in ally and a short sound; as, in hat. A takes the sound of short i; as, in band-age, pronounced ban-dij; the sound of short u; as, in li-ar, pronounced li-ur, and the sound of short o; as, in wan, pronounced won.

E has two sounds; a long sound; as, in me f and a short sound; as, in met. E takes the sound of short i; as, mdu-el, pronounced du-il; the sound of short u; as,inba-ker, pronounced ba-kur, and e in some situations is silent; as, in fa-ble, sto-len, &c, pronounced fa-bt, sto-ln.

I has two sounds; a long sound; hs,inpine^ and a short sound;as, in pin. I takes the. sound of long e; as, in ma-chine, pronounced ma-sheen? the sound of short e; as, in cir-cling, pronounced cer-kling, and the sound of short %t; as, in Jnrd y pronounced burd.

(c) Fourteen of the vowel sounds are simple, and two compound- The diphthongal sounds oi and ou are the compound sounds. The consonant sounds are all simple. All the consonants have distinct sounds but c and x; they have no sounds of their own. C always sounds like k or *, and x like ks, gz or z. Th have a sound of their own; as, in their; and sh; as, in shut. T has a sound in nature and similar words, very different from its usual sound, or the sound of any other consonant., This soundis generally represented by tsh; but these letters represent not this sound. It can only be learned from voice, which is indeed the only way that a true knowledge of the sounds of language can be obtained. Those who are not able to give the sounds of the language, separately and independently of the names of the letters, are not prepared to teacfe orthoepy as it ought to be taught.

MltOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.

O has four sounds; a long sound; as, in no; a close sound; as, in do; a broad sound; as, in nor , and a short sound; as, in not. O takes the sound of short u; as, in metk-od, pronounced meth-ud; and o is silent; as, in ba-con, pronounced ba-cn. (d)

27 has three sounds; a long sound; as, in refute; a short sound; as, in but, and a middle sound; as, in fidl. ZJsome times takes the sound of close o) as, in cra-el, pronounced croo-el. — O and i have a diphthongal sound; as, in joint, and o and u; as, in sound.

Wandy where used as vowels have no sounds of their own. IF in some places takes the sound of long u; as, in dew, where the e is silent, and w takes the sound of long u. At other times the sound of close o; as, in brew, where e is silent, and w takes the sound of close o. Y, when it is a vowel, takes the sound of i; as, in type, and in either long or short,

Q. 14. What is a diphthong?

A. A diphthong is the union of two vowels having but one sound; as, the o and i in voice. Some diphthongs are pure, others impure.

(d) O has only three sounds of its own. The third sound of o and the third sound of a are the same. O in corn and a in fall have the very same sound. But as Mr. Walker. gave ofour sounds, I follow his classification, to agree with his dictionary, the best standard of pronunciation extant. But I wish it distinctly understood, that o has but three sounds; that the third sound of o is the sound of broad a. Had Mr. Walker been able to give the vowel sounds separately by voice, he would not have fallen into this mistake. Separating the elementary sounds of language from each other, and giving them separately by voice, was found necessary, by the missionaries, to form alphabets for the unwritten languages of savage nations. This very important im~ provement is a fruit of missionary enterprise, which opens si wide door of blessing to the human race.

2*

Q. 15. What is a pure diphthong?

A. A pure diphthong is one in which each vowel has a sound, yet so closely united that the sounds cannot be separated; as, o and u in wound,

Q. 16. What is an impure diphthong?

A. An impure diphthong is one in which but one vowel sound is heard. This sound, in some words, is the sound of one of the vowels in the diphthong, and in others, the sound of a vowel not in it.

Q. 17. What is a triphthong?

A. A triphthong is the union of three vowels having but one sound, either simple or compound.

A.

Q. 18. Where has a its long sound?

A. Where it is followed by a consonant and mute e; as, in hate, and where it ends a syllable under accent; as, in ba-ker.

Q. 19. Where has a its flat sound?

A. Where it is followed by r and any other consonant; as, in bar-ter, or by r in a monosyllable; as, in far. A has also a flat sound where it is followed by If, he, Im or th; as, in calf salve, calm and pat h.

Q. 20. Where has a its broad sound?

A. Where it is followed by //, Id, Is, U or Ik; as, in all, scald, false, salt and talk.

Q. 21. Where has a its short sound?