A course of composition and grammar for the primary and grammar grades of the Indianapolis public schools

Preface

The following Manual presents an outline of the course in Composition actually pursued in the Primary and Grammar departments of the Public Schools of Indianapolis, together with a detailed statement of the course in Grammar for the three upper grades.

In the first five grades, Grammar and Composition are taught together. Grammatical forms are learned as they are used ir% expressing thought. At the beginning of the sixth year the study of the sentence as a whole, and in its parts, is begun. This is a work so different from that of Composition, that the two subjects are taught separately for the next three years. Three recitations are required each week in Grammar, and two in Composition.

An outline of the course in Grammar for the Sixth Grade will be found in Chapter VI. of the Course in Composition, Part II.

Pupils in the Seventh Grade complete the first twelve chapters of " Lessons in Grammar." • These are reviewed in the Eighth Grade, and the remainder of Part I. is completed.

In the preparation of the " Lessons in Grammar," an effort has been made to lead the pupils to see that the forms and uses of words are determined by the thought to be expressed. A classification of attributes and of objects, — the material with which the mind deals in forming thoughts, — and the separation of the thought into its elements, prepares the pupil to comprehend more fully the office of the sentence in expressing this thought. Starting with the sentence as the unit of language, he learns by the processes of analysis and synthesis, the use of words, phrases, and clauses, in giving expression to an unlimited number and variety of thoughts. He is next led to see that this large amount of material out of which sentences are constructed, can all be separated into seven distinct classes or groups ; viz., (1) those words that denote objects of thought, — nouns and pronouns ; (2) those words that denote attributes of objects, — adjectives;

IV PREFACE.

(3) those words that denote attributes of attributes, — adverbs; (4) those words that denote the judging act of the mind, — verbs; (5) those words that express relations of objects and attributes,— prepositions; (6) those words that express relations of thoughts, — conjunctions; (7) those words that express feeling, — interjections.

After a brief study of each of these classes, and of the principal sub- classes under each, the pupil is prepared to see that the inflection of words is but another way of denoting a change in their meaning: that instead of using words, phrases, and clauses, changes in the form of the word itself are introduced, to denote certain modifications of the thought.

This Manual is full of errors, some of which may be charged to the printer, but the authors are conscious that the most serious faults are chargeable to them. Their apology is, that the different chapters have been written at such times as could be taken from other duties,. and no time has been found for revision or correction.

LESSONS IN GRAMMAR.

Chapter I. Attributes

The sun may be known and distinguished from other objects by its brightness, its warmth, its roundness, etc. ; a slate, by being hard, opaque, etc. ; an apple, by being ripe or unripe, large or small, red, green, etc.

Brightness, warmth, hardness, ripeness, etc., are called attributes of the objects to which they belong.

An Attribute is that by which an object is known or distinguished.

Of the attributes mentioned above, brightness, warmth, roundness* and hardness are permanent attributes of their objects. They can not change unless the nature of the object changes. An object that was not bright, warm, and round would not be the sun, but some xlinerent object. Such attributes are called qualities.

A Quality is an attribute that is viewed as belonging to its object permanently.

When we think of the sky as cloudy, the weather as rainy, the apple as hard or mellow, we do not regard these attributes as perrna^* nent, enduring so long as the object exists; but as states or conditions 1 of the objects. We can think of them as ceasing or changing, without any such change in the nature of the object as to make it a. v different object from what it was before. Such attributes are called attributes of condition.

An Attribute of Condition is an attribute that i» viewed as belonging to its object only for a time, and may change without a change in the nature of the object.

Exercise.

Distinguish the words in the following that express attributes of quality, from those expressing attributes of condition:

Cold winter. Frosty weather. Round earth. White snow. Cloudy sky. Shining sun. The old man. Green grass. The hungry dog. The rising sun. The new moon. Balmy spring. An open window- Bright days. Sour apples. Black cloth. Skillful artisans. Soaring eagles. Working bees.

Model— A red flower. A faded flower. The word red expresses a quality. The word faded expresses a condition.

Give five original illustrations of attributes of quality; five of attributes of condition.

John studies. My horse runs. Those swallows fly. Here the subjects are known by certain actions they perform. These actions are therefore attributes.

An Attribute of Action is one that represents an object as acting.

In the sentence, "The apple is larger than the peach," we distinguish the apple by stating the relation that it bears to the peach in respect of size. When we say " The rose is more fragrant than the lily," we have distinguished the rose by stating the relation it bears to the lily in respect of odor.

" A large house stands on the bill." Here, by the use of the word large, we imply that there is something else with which the house is compared. It is either compared with other houses of its own class, or with other houses in general, or with the use commonly made of houses; and the conclusion is reached that this particular house is large. If the house be a dwelling house, it may be large when com* pared with other dwelling houses, but when compared with a church or a court-house it is small. Or if it is large when compared with other houses in general, yet when compared with a mountain it is small. i

Thus we see that objects may be known or distinguished by certain relations that they bear to other objects. These relations are, therefore, attributes.

An Attribute of Relation is an attribute that distinguishes its object by referring in some way to some other object.

The relation between objects may be in respect of color, odor, size, form, weight, etc.; or it may be that of cause and effect; as, the rain moistens the earth; sunshine ripens the fruit; or it may be that of action ; as, John outran James. The different classes of relations that may exist between objects are very numerous.

In the sentence, " James is here," the word, here, shows where James is; or, stated differently, it shows his relation to space. Soin the sentence, "'The pencil is in my hand," the words, in my hand,, show the place of the pencil, — where it is located in space.

In the sentence, " The meeting was yesterday," the word, yesterday, tells when the meeting was ; it expresses the time of the meeting.. Hence we say that it shows the relation of the meeting to time.

Attributes of relation may be of three classes: (1) those that show the relation of the object to space ; (2) those that show the relation, of the object to time ; (3) those that show the relation of one object to another.

We have found that there are four classes of attributes ; viz., Qualities, Actions, Conditions and Relations.

Exercise.

Classify the attributes expressed in the following: Chalk is brittle. Fishes swim. Glass is transparent. My brother is sick. The court-house is on Washington street. The child is asleep. The street is muddy. The eclipse was yesterday. You are in haste. Kubber is elastic. Frost benefits the soil. The blue sky is overhead. The grass is parched and dry.

John is more industrious than his brother. The workmen built the house. Paint improves houses. The elm is more symmetrical than the ash. Common air outweighs smoke. The weather is cold and rainy. The ship is in decay. Aloes are bitter. The old man is here. John is the tallest man in town. Life is sometimes bright and fair, and sometimes dark and lonely. Severe exercise in summer is exhausting.

Write fire original sentences, illustrating attributes of quality j of condition; of action; of relation. State the kind of relation expressed in each. State the difference between the attributes of quality and those of condition.

Note.— The attributes of objects should be carefully distinguished from the parts of objects.

Chapter II. Objects

A bstracts, Concretes.

The object to which aiTattribute belongs, is the subject of the attribute.

Exercise.

Name, in the following, the words expressing attributes, and those 'expressing the subjects of these attributes:

James is studious. Frank grows. Doves coo. The weather is warm. The old man is here. The brave soldiers fought. The busy bee gathers honey. The lecture was on Friday. My new book is on the table. Tall, graceful pillars support the roof.

The attributes expressed in the preceding exercises are all viewed as connected with their subjects. This is the original and natural way of viewing attributes. The color green, for example, is first known as connected with and belonging to the grass, the leaves, or to some other object. It is possible, however, for us to think of the color green, without connecting it with any particular object. We thus abstract it from all objects and think only of the attribute itself ; as when we say, " Greenness is a color belonging to many objects."

When thus separated or abstracted from all objects, the attribute itself is viewed as an object. It has no real existence apart from fiome object, but we think of it and talk of it as if it had.

An attribute thought apart from its subject is called an abstract object, or an abstract.

The form of the word expressing an abstract is usually different from that which expresses the attribute proper: Examples. — The word u hard " expresses an attribute proper, " hardness," an abstact; " beautiful" expresses an attribute proper, " beauty," an abstract; " timid," an attribute; " timidity," an abstract.

Note.— Words expressing abstracts end in "ness," "ty," "th," "nee," "tioa, M 4t sion," "ing," "age," " ment," "ure," ete.

Exercise.

State which of the following words express abstracts, and which, attributes proper: — White; whiteness; soft; heavy; smoothness; quickness; large; solidity; humid; honesty; true; truth ; 'color.

Since there are four classes of attributes, there must be four classes of abstracts: viz., Abstracts (1) of quality, (2) of action, (3) of condition, (4) of relation.

Name and designate the classes of abstracts expressed in the following:

Change all the words expressing abstracts to forms that will express attributes proper.

The brightness of the sun is dazzling. Fragrance belongs to the rose. The sickness of his brother detained him. Running is tiresome. Resistance is useless. The tartness of the apple is unpleasant. By exercise we gain strength. The excessive heat of the summer was depressing. The superiority of his brother was manifest Gravity and dignity are becoming. The remoteness of the country made communication difficult. Patience and perseverance remove mountains. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me.

Write five original sentences, in which abstracts of quality are expressed; five, of condition; five, of action; five, of relation.

Both abstract objects and attributes proper may have attributes.

Examples :—Singing pleases. Modesty is attractive. Kind actions promote happiness. The orator speaks fluently. The white snow falls softly and silently. The words, " pleases," " attractive," " kind," and

LESSONS IN GRAMMAR.

" promote " express attributes of abstracts. 4< Fluently," " softly," and " silently" express attributes of other attributes.

Write five original sentences, expressing in each an attribute of an attribute; five, expressing an attribute of an abstract. Designate.

Select sentences from the reader illustrating the same. Name the attribute in each case.

There is another class of objects that are real objects. A horse, a man, the sun, a house, the mind, are not first known as attributes of other objects, as abstracts are, but they are known only as subjects of attributes. Such objects are called concrete objects or concretes.

A Concrete is aD object only known as a subject having attributes :

Or,

Objects that are not known as attributes, are Concretes.

Exercise.

Point out in the following sentence, (1) all words expressing concretes; (2) all those expressing abstracts; (3) all those expressing attributes of concretes^ or of abstracts; (4) all expressing attributes of attributes.

Name the class to which each attribute belongs.

The house is new. Charity is kind. Forbearance is praiseworthy. Eain fell last night. The children are poor, hungry, cold, and friendless. Wisdom is better than gold. Truth and candor possess a powerful charm. White clouds float along the sky softly and tranquilly. Virtue attendeth at her right hand. Down the smooth rock, melodious waters glide.

They softly lie and sweetly sleep, Low in the ground, f Quality.

I Condition. f Concrete.

Attributes, -J Objects, <

Action. I Abstract.

Keiation.

| State the resemblances and differences between Concretes, Abstracts, and Attributes.;

Chapter III. A Thought Or Judgment

When we think something of some object, a thought or judgment is formed.

Examples: The apple is sweet. Snow is white. The pencil is hard.

"When we analyze the first example, we find that there are three elements to be considered: (1) that of which we think; viz., the apple: (2) that which we think of the apple; viz., sweet: (3) the relation that the mind discerns as existing between these, expressed by " is." The first and second elements constitute the matter of thought. They are the material with which the mind deals; but there is no thought formed, nntil the mind discerns that sweetness is an attribute belonging to the apple : that is, until it discerns the relation existing between the first two elements.

NoTE.-*-This relation is different in different thoughts. In the example, "Grant is President," that of which we think,— Grant,— and that which we think of this object,— the president,— are represented as being one and the same person. There is no difference between the president, and Grant; they are totally indentical. The relation discerned between these two elements is that of total identity.

In the example, " The snow is white," whiteness is thought to be identical with •one attribute of snow only ; it is only partially the same as snow. The relation is, therefore, one of partial identity.

In the example, "Chalk is not black," we think that there is no attribute of chalk that is the same as blackness. Hence we say that the relation discerned between chalk and black is one of non-identity.

In every thought, some one of these relations must be discerned.

The three elements of the thought are named the subject^ the predicate; and the copula.

The Subject of the Thought is that of which something is thought.

The Predicate of the Thought is that which is thought of the subject.

The Copula of tlie Thought is the relation between? the subject and predicate, as discerned by the mind.

Note to Teachers.— In this discussion, the thought has been viewed as a product. It is possible to view it as a process ; in which case the copula would be denned to be the thinking or judging act of the mind.

Chapter IV The Sentence

There are many ways of expressing thoughts : e. g., by signs and gestures, by inarticulate sounds, by pictures, by objects. In fact, everything that exists is an expression of thought. The house that we live in, the clothes that we wear, the food that we eat, the flowers, the grass, the trees, the stars, all express thoughts. Among rational beings, the commonest way of expressing thoughts is by the use ol words.

A group of words expressing a thought is a Sentence*

Exercise.

State which words in the following sentences express subjects of thought; which express predicates; which express copulas. State whether the subject and predicate are identical or non-identical, and whether the identity is total or partial:

The knife is new. John is not studious. The earth is round. Two and two are four. The man is an artist. James is erect. • Slate is transparent. The ship was the Pacific. Iron is a mineral. A tree is root, trunk, branches, and leaves. Truth is virtue. A triangle is a three-sided figure. Leaves are green. Austin was the governor. John is a post master. Birds are fowls.

Since the subject, predicate, and copula are each essential to the existence of a thought, they are called the elements of a thought.

Since the thought has three elements, the sentence which expresses the thought has three elements, called subject, predicate, and cvpula*

The Subject of a Sentence is that element which expresses the subject of the thought.

Tlie Predicate of a Sentence is that element which expresses the predicate of thought.

The Copula of a Sentence is that element which expresses the copula of the thought :

Or,

The Copula of a Sentence is that element which expresses the relation discerned between the subject and predicate of thought.

Exercise.

Point out the subjects, predicates, and copulas, in the following sentences:

Water is tasteless. Fawns are timid. Dogs are quadrupeds. Man is mortal. Diamonds are combustible. Stars are suns. Vinegar is sour. Snow is not black.

What relation exists between the subject of thought and the subject of the sentence? What, between the subject of thought and the subject of an attribute?

The copula and the predicate in each of the sentences in the preceding exercise are separate words. In the sentences, " Flowers bloom," "Ice melts," "Birds twitter," and the like, they are united in one word.

Write five original sentences in which each element consists of a single word; five, in which the predicate and copula are united in one word.

Select from the reader ten sentences of each class.

Predicates may express concrete or abstract objects, or they may express attributes of these objects.

Examples: — Trees are plants. (concrete.) Patience is a virtue. (abstract.) Washington was brave, (attribute of concrete.) Cowardice is disgraceful (attribute of abstract.)

m A predicate that expresses an attribute, is an attributive predicate.

Predicates that express concrete or abstraet objects, are non- attributive predicates.

Exercise.

Write ten original sentences containing attributive predicates: ten, containing non-attributive predicates.

Classify the predicates in the following sentences:

Grass grows. Knowledge is powerful. Knowledge is power. Dogs are animals. The mind thinks. The sun is in the heavens. The sea is at rest. The lightning flashes. The apple is mellow. John is a good boy. The dead leaves fall. The tree is a poplar. Pure water is tasteless. Vulcan was a blacksmith. Morning dawns.

Mary is superior to her classmates.

Note.— When the copula and predicate are united in one word, the predicate is always attributive.

Chapter V. Modifiers

In the sentence, " Man is mortal," all human beings are included. The application of the word man is not limited to an individual, nor to a class of men. In the sentence, " That tall man is a soldier," the word man applies to only one individual. This change in the application of the word, is produced by the words that and tall. They limit the meaning to one particular man. If we say, " Man is a soldier," we include all men. By the addition of the word tall, we exclude all except tall men, but we include all tall men. We limit the application of the word to a class. But when we say, " That tall man," we limit the application to a single one of the class.

Words used to limit the application of other words are called modifying words.

"Sparkling diamonds," " Silent flowers." — The words sparkling and silent are not here used to limit the application of the words to which they are added. All diamonds are sparkling and all flowers are silent. They are used to call attention to, and make more prominent, qualities that belong to all diamonds and all flowers. Such words are also called modifying words.

The office of all modifying words, — whether they limit the application, or give prominence to an attribute,— is to make the meaning of the words to which they are added, more definite.

A Modifying Word is a word added to another word to make its meaning more definite.

Exercise.

Point out the modifying words in the following, and distinguish those limiting the application of other words, from those used to give prominence to some attribute : — Red apples. Twinkling stars. Revolving planets. Pleasant faces. Bristling spears. Old men. Purple flowers. Checkered life. Tall girls. Kind hearts. Unfading hope. Starless despair. Golden clouds. Ruffled spirits. Green emeralds. A wild, woody dingle.

That part of the subject, predicate, or copula, to which modifying words are added, is the principal part

That part of each element consisting of one or more modifying words, is the modifying part.

The predicate and copula, whether combined or uncombined, may contain a principal and a modifying part.

Examples. — John is probably very studious. John probably studies very hard.

In the first sentence the copula and predicate are uncombined and each contains a modifier. In the second example, the predicate and copula are united in one word and each element contains a modifier. As predicate, the word " studies " is modified by the word " hard ; " as copula, by the word " probably."

Note:— The sentence, "John is studious,"' shows that we think the attribute expressed in the word ' studious," of John. But when we say, " John is probably studious," it shows that we are in some doubt as to whether John is studious or not. The relation between John and this attribute is expressed as uncertain or doubtful. But when we say, ''John is certainly studious." we make it very emphatic that we think the attribute expressed in the word "studious" belongs to John. We see that both " probably " and "certainly " refer to the relation discerned between the subject and the predicate of thought: therefore they belong to the copula of the sentence.

Exercise.

Write five sentenc.es in which the predicate and copula are combined, and each element contains a modifying word ; five, in which they are uncombined and each element contains a modifying part; five, in which all the elements contain modifying words.

The principal part of the subject, predicate, or copula, is called the grammatical subject, predicate, or copula.

When there are no modifying words, the grammatical and logical elements are the same.

Exercise.

Separate each of the following sentences into its logical and grammatical elements:

State whether the predicate and copula are combined or uncombined, and whether the predicate is attributive or non-attributive.

Mary writes. Gold is valuable. He is brave. You are indeed kind. No fearful plague raged there. The north wind blows violently to-night. He necessarily remains weak. He finally started. The standard was probably low. Undoubtedly he is a great man. The large hall was brilliantly illuminated. These, perhaps, are foolish feelings. A crimson rose is certainly a beautiful flower.

The principal part of an attributive predicate may be modified by a word expressing an attribute; as, Mary thinks accurately, James works well. The sea is beautifully blue. •

Such words are called Attributive Modifiers.

Write five sentences which shall contain attributive predicates having attributive modifiers.

Point out the attributive modifiers in the preceding exercise.

In the sentence, " Cain slew Abel," the principal part of the predicate is modified by the word " Abel," which expresses the immediate object of the action expressed in in the word " slew." In the sentence, u John outran James," a relation is expressed having James as the direct object. In the sentence, " He gave the book to me," the principal part of the predicate is modified by the words " book " and "me." The word "book" expresses the direct object of the action expressed in the word "gave," and the word "me" the indirect or remote object.

A modifying word that expresses the object of an action or relation, is called an Objective Modifier,

An objective modifier that expresses the immediate object of an action or relation, is a direct objective modifier. One that expresses a remote object, is ah indirect objective modifier.

Exercise.

Define an attributive modifier; an objective modifier; a direct objective modifier ; an indirect objective modifier.

Write sentences illustrating the use of these different classes of modifiers.

Point out the attributive and the objective modifiers in the follow* ing, and distinguish the direct from the indirect objective modifiers:

The rain falls softly. The cattle eat grass. The clouds are wonderfully beautiful. The boy broke the window. The great ship moves slowly. Grace lost the ball. The water is very deep. "William conquered England. I am too idle. The sun fades the carpet. He went to New York. He saw the general. He was lately here. The smoke descends slowly. The party visited the falls. John spoke of his father. Do me the favor. A soft answer turneth away wrath. She wrote a letter to her sister* Sunlight falls on the castle walls. They stopped where night overtook them. I work for my uncle. Provide the stranger food. Deliver us from evil. Tell me the story.

When we say, "Victoria, the queen," "Milton, the poet," "Hendricks, the governor," — we use the words "queen," "poet," and "governor," to show more clearly to whom the names " Victoria,"

14 LESSONS IN GKAMMAR.

" Milton " and " Hendricks," apply; i. e., to explain or identify the meaning of these words.

Such words are called appositive modifiers or appositives. Define an appositive.

Write five sentences with appositive modifiers in the subject; five, with appositive modifiers in the predicate.

A modifier may be two or more words connected in meaning. If these words are so connected as to express a thought they form a Clause. If they are connected in meaning without expressing a thought they form a Fhrase.

Examples.— Mary sings very sweetly. The long expected summer came. The tree that fell was an elm. I know why they came.

The words, very sweetly and long expected, are here used as phrase modifiers. The words that fell, and why they came, form clause modifiers.

Distinguish the phrase and the clause modifiers in the following:

The class solved a difficult problem. They heard Webster, the great orator. This is the lesson that I recited. James w T rote a long letter to his aged father. Washington, the first president, served eight years. I know* John is studious. A king who is just, helps the people. He is the man who rendered the service. John rides that wild horse. The place where he fell is unknown.

Select from your reader ten sentences containing phrase modifiers; and ten, containing clause modifiers.

Write five sentences in which phrase modifiers are used in the subject; five, in which clause modifiers are used in the predicate.

The copula may contain a phrase or a clause modifier.

Examples. — It is without doubt a fine picture. If he had been here, the accident would have been prevented.

Any element or part of an element of a sentence, that of itself expresses a thought, forms a clause.

Stated differently,—

A sentence that forms an element or a part of an element of another sentence, is a clause.

Note.— The principal part of an element of the sentence is eometimes a phrase or a clause.

LrESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 15

Examples. — Mary is in the room. The statement is, matter is indestructible.

Why do we use modifying words?

Chapter VI. Parts Of Speech

Nouns and Pronouns.

Concretes and Abstracts are either expressed by words which are names of these objects; as, Henry, book, goodness; or they are expressed by words which denote the objects without naming them * as, 7, thou, he, she, it, they, who, which, what, that.

Words that are names of concretes and abstracts are called Nouns. Words that denote these objects without naming them are called Pronouns.

A Noun is a word that is the name of an object.

A Pronoun is a word that denotes an object without naming it.

Exercise.

Select the nouns and the pronouns in the following, and tell to what element of the sentence they belong:

We all consented. Columbus was a native of Genoa. He ran forward and kissed him. An unyielding firmness was displayed* While the bridegroom tarried they all slumbered and slept He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the mast. The deafening waves dash angrily. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there.

Dear little blossoms down under the snow, You must be weary of winter I know.

The subject of thought is always a concrete or an abstract object j hence a word that is the principal part of the subject of the sentence is always a noun or a pronoun.

The noun is used in other parts of the sentence, but since it names that of which something may be predicated, it is properly a subject-word.

Another definition of the noun is, A word which is properly a subject word.

Nouns that name concretes are called concrete nouns; those that name abstracts are called abstract nouns.

Exercise.

Point out the concrete and abstract nouns in the following: The trees are in their fullest foliage. The multitude ran before him. Gloom filled every house. The bees make a perpetual murmur of delight. Each moment is a perfumed rose. Labor disgraces no man. Even the green trees partake the deep contentment. The woods are gay with the clustered flowers of the laurel. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. Kindness of manner makes politeness. The acquisition of knowledge is one of the most pleasing employments of the human mind. Rivulets should send a voice of gladness from their winding paths.