The training of teachers for secondary schools in Germany and the United States

Front matter

lilll'

Class 13 i 1^4- Copyright N^

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT

Preface

It is just one hundred years since Prussia consciously and seriously faced the problem of providing adequate training for the teachers of her higher schools and, under the leadership of WiUiam von Humboldt, sketched the broad, statesmanHke policy which it has been the work of a century to develop. The specific forms which the problem has taken at different times within this period find striking analogy in the United States to-day. We cannot adopt in toto German means and methods, — the social and poHtical ideals of the two nations are so different as to make such action impossible even if it were desirable; but we can carefully study them and adapt them to our needs, thus profiting by the century of thought and experience which have made the German schools the most famous in the world.

It is the purpose of this book, first, to describe as concretely as possible the standards and institutions which exist in Germany to-day for the training of teachers in the higher or secondary schools, giving enough of their history to show their evolution during the past century ; second, in the light of Germany's experience, to discuss a standard and a plan for the training of teachers in American high schools.

VI PREFACE

The material for Part I was largely gathered in 1909 while I was serving as exchange teacher of English in the Oberrealsckule of the Franckesche Stiftungen at Halle a. S. The courtesy of German officials and educators in furnishing assistance and information left nothing to be desired. While I cannot name them all on account of the number, I wish to express my obligations to them and my hearty appreciation of their kindness. I should be ungrateful, however, if I did not mention specifically Dr. Wilhelm Fries, Director of the Franckesche Stiftungen, Director of the Gymnasial Seminar, and Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Halle, whose scholarly writings, personal kindness, and professional interest in my report were invaluable. Without his unfailing assistance the work in its present form would have been impossible. I am also indebted to several English and American friends who have given valuable suggestions in connection with Part II and the Appendix.

J. F. B.

New York, November, 19 10.

CHAPTER II The Certification of Teachers in Prussian Higher Schools

Before 1810 20

The Edict of 1810 21

Provisions prevailing in 183 1 25

Regulations of 1866 28

Regulations of 1887 31

Regulations of 1 890 33

Regulations of 1898 33

Lines of Development 72

CHAPTER III The University 75

A. The University as a Whole 75

B. The Theological-philological-pedagogical Seminar . 76

C. The Pedagogical Seminar ...... 82

The Gymnasial or Higher-school Seminar . . . .112

A. The Royal Pedagogical Seminar in Berlin . . .112 vii

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PAGE

B. The Pedagogical Seminar of the Franckesche Stift-

C. Other Modern Seminars ...... 143

The Probejahr ......... 144

A. Candidates in the Seminarium PrcBceptortim . . 145

B. General Regulations 146

CHAPTER IV Opinion and Practice The Study of Education in the University .... 149

The Practical Pedagogical Seminar in the University . . 167 The Gymnasial Seminar . . . . . . .172

Length of Period of Practical Training 180

CHAPTER V Standing of the Teacher in the Higher Schools

Professionally 183

Socially 187

CHAPTER VI General Academic Training . . , . . . .189

Theoretical Pedagogical Training in the University . . 192

The State Examination {Staatsexatnen) . . . .194

The Seminarjahr . . . . . . . . • IQS

The Probejahr ......... 200

Chapter VII

The Sphere of the American Secondary School . . . 207 Standards of Certification in the Different States . . . 208

CONTENTS IX

PAGE

The Qualifications of Secondary School Teachers . . . 232

The Need of Higher Standards 234

CHAPTER Vni

Institutions for the Training of Secondary Teachers

Normal Schools ......... 236

The College as a Whole ....... 237

Departments and Schools of Education ..... 237

CHAPTER IX Who is Responsible ? The Responsibility of the State 244

The Responsibility of the Individual Teacher . . . 249

The Responsibility of the College and University . . .251

The Responsibility of School Authorities .... 252

CHAPTER X A Desirable Standard of Training Report of the Committee of Seventeen ..... 256

The Period of Training 259

Academic Training ........ 261

Theoretical Professional Training ...... 263

Practical Professional Training ...... 263

CHAPTER XI A Plan for Providing the Desired Training

General Academic Training should be Organized . . . 266 Theoretical Professional Training should be more General

and of Higher Grade 267

Practical Professional Training 268

State Supervision . . . . . . . . -275

The State Examination ........ 276

The Life Certificate 277

Summary of Plan . 278

X CONTENTS

PAOS

Advantages of the Plan 279

Objections to the Plan 283

The College or University Demonstration School . . . 286

Appendix

A Brief Account of the Training of Secondary School Teachers in Austria, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, France, England, and Scotland 293

Bibliography 327

PART I THE TRAINING OF GERMAN TEACHERS

THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

IN GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES

Chapter I

In Germany as in the United States each individual state has its own school system; but unlike our state control, that of Germany is thoroughgoing and exhaustive. Especially is this true in Prussia, where it often extends to the most minute details. It is exercised through ministries at BerUn, which are directly under control of the crown.

Aside from the universities and the distinctly professional and vocational schools, which are not included in this discussion, the schools of Prussia consist of two rather sharply separated divisions. The first division includes those schools which are designed to train the children of the laboring and the lower business classes and may be named elementary. The second division

^ There are some differences between the schools of Prussia and those of the other German states, but the former may be regarded as typical of German schools.

Elementary school division:

includes the so-called higher or secondary schools, which are designed to train those who are to enter the universities and those who are to serve as lower state officials or as representatives of the larger business life. The two parts of the system may be represented as follows : —

Volksschule, Mittelschule, . Forthildungsschule,

Vorschule,

Gymnasium,

Realgymnasium,

Oberrealschule,

Reformgymnasium and Re-

formrealgymnasium, Progymnasium, Realpro gymnasium, Realschule, Hohere M ddchenschule or

Tbchterschule, Gymnasium, Realgymnasium,

and Oberrealschule for girls, Frauenanstalt, Lehrerinnenseminar.

Elementary Schools. — The Volksschule is the school for the children of the lower classes, including mainly laborers and the small business people. It is entirely

Higher or secondary school division:

free and in necessitous cases books and clothing are furnished the children. Attendance upon it is absolutely required from the age of six to fourteen unless the child attends some other school or receives satisfactory private instruction. The subjects taught are reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, history, geography, drawing, gymnastics, singing, and religion. Every detail of the ordinary Volksschule is regulated by the ministry of education. The management of the Hilfsschule, or auxihary school, a new and special department of the Volksschule for backward and incompetent children, is left largely to the director and teachers.

The MiUelschule is organically very similar to the Volksschule, the principal difference being that French and EngHsh are taught and the course is often one year longer. The real difference between it and the Volksschule Hes in the fact that the pupils attending it come from distinctly better homes and are superior in intelligence and ambition. In its spirit and m the quaHty of the work done it is more like the Realschule than the Volksschule. A tuition fee of from ten to twenty-five dollars per year is required. It is patronized by the lower middle classes, especially the tradespeople. Not more than one twentieth as many pupils are found in the MiUelschule as in the Volksschule. The MiUelschule has taken the place of the earher Bilrgerschule and, in its present form, is a relatively recent development. Conditions for its management have not yet been definitely prescribed by the ministry, and each director is given large freedom in the control and management of his own school. When tlie collective experience of these men seems sufficient to form a satisfactory basis for expert judgment, a detailed program of procedure will probably be issued by the ministry for the management of the Mittelschule. At present it is rejoicing in its freedom.

The Foribildungsschule takes the boys and some of the girls when they have finished the work of the Volksschule and the Mittelschule and gives them instruction in subjects connected with trade or business. Attendance for girls is voluntary, for boys it is usually required six hours per week until they are seventeen years old. Many of these boys and girls are already serving as apprentices in trade or business, and their employers are required to allow them time in the afternoon or evening to attend their classes. It is the purpose of this school not to duplicate but to supplement the instruction by the employer, thus rendering the apprentice more efficient than he would otherwise be. Every means is used to make the work of the pupil directly helpful in his chosen vocation. Instructors are chosen from the ranks of Volksschule and Mittelschule teachers and from competent mechanics and tradespeople. The work of the Foribildungsschule, like that of the Mittelschule, is now left largely to the discretion of the director and his local advisers. The establishment of a Forthildungsschule is optional with local school authorities, but an imperial decree requires that if one is established, the employers of boys and girls for whom it is intended must give them opportunity to attend it.

Higher Schools. — The Vorschule is an elementary school, so far as its work is concerned, but it is ranked with the higher schools because it is preparatory to them, and it is usually connected with a higher school. Boys enter it at six, and the course is three years in length. The subjects taught are the same as those in the first three years of the Volksschule, but they are taught with reference to the needs of the boy when he shall enter the higher school. The greater ability and higher ambitions of pupils make possible a much better grade of work. It is possible for pupils to enter the higher schools from the Volksschule or the Mittelschule, but nearly all of themx go by way of the Vorschule. >

The higher schools, of which the Gymnasium is the oldest form, lead to the university, and their graduates are given certain social and vocational privileges. The history of the Gymnasium goes back to the middle of the sixteenth century. For a long time it held sway alone. The Realgymnasium and the Oberrealschule first appeared some two hundred years later, and, in their present form, they are creations of the last quarter of the nineteenth century. In Prussia in 1908 there were 332 Gymnasien with 101,094 pupils, 124 Realgymnasien with 37,683 pupils, 75 Oherrealschulen with 30,702 pupils, and 171 Realschulen with 33,465 pupils.^ The Gymnasium has fought hard to maintain its supremacy, but the Realgymnasium and the Oherrealschule are slowly gaining on it. Since 1900 the three schools have been legally equal in rights, but practically the prestige of the Gymnasium remains greater because of the influence of tradition and the preference given it by many educators. The higher classes still prefer to send their boys to a Gymnasium. The great majority of higher schools of all kinds are public day schools. The relatively few private boarding and day schools conform to state requirements so far as quantity, quality, and kind of work are concerned. The course of study of the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oherrealschule is nine years in length. Pupils usually enter at nine and leave at eighteen, although some, requiring more time to complete the work, remain till they are twenty. There are no sharp limitations with reference to age. In Prussia the course of study for each of the higher schools is prescribed by the ministry. A boy is at liberty to choose which kind of school he will enter; but, once he has chosen, he is required to pursue the curriculum prescribed for that school. With slight exception in the Gymnasium, he

^ Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen, XXX, 2, 146.

can secure other subjects only by taking them as extras, and the average boy finds the prescribed curriculum so heavy that he attempts nothing more. Election is practically limited to the choice between schools, and for pupils who Hve in a community in which but one kind of school is available, there is really no choice. The prescribed curricula for the Prussian Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oherrealschule for boys are as follows^: —

CURRICULUM OF BOYS' GYMNASIUM

VI

V

IV

UIII

OIII xni

OH

UI

Religion . .

German and

M

(■4 h stories

I

I )

Latin . .

i i

Greek . .

—

—

—

French . .

—

—

History . .

—

— i^

.3

,3

Geography .

I

I

I

Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry . .

4|

Natural sciences .

Writing . .

—

—

Drawing

—

—

—

—

Total .

Required, in addition, 3 hours gymnastics for all classes an-d 2 hours singing for

classes VI and V.

Optional, in addition, from UII on, 2 hours drawing; from OH on, 2 hours

English and 2 hours Hebrew.

^ Lehrplane und Lehrauf gaben f iir die hoheren Schulen in Preussen.

lO TRAINING OF TEACHERS TOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Special instruction in writing is prescribed for pupils in IV and III whose handwriting is poor.

In the three higher classes (OH, UI, and 01), English may be substituted for French, the French remaining a,s an optional subject with 2 hours per week.

For Greek in UIII, OHI, and UII, may be substituted Enghsh 3 hours per week for each year, and in UIII and OHI 2 hours French and i hour mathematics; in UII I hour French and 2 hours mathematics and natural science.

01, or Oherprima, is the highest class; VI, or Sexta, the lowest. UI is called Unterprima; OH, Obersecunda; UII, U titer secunda; OHI, Ohertertia; UIII, Unteriertia; IV, Quarta; V, Quinta.

CURRICULUM OF BOYS' REALGYMNASIVM

VI

V

IV

UIII

OHI

UII

OH

UI

Religion . . .

ig

German and history stories .

\V

Latin ....

French . . .

—

—

4) 3 1

Enghsh . . .

—

—

—

3,

History . . .

—

—

Geography . .

II Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry

Natural sciences

Writing . . .

—

—

—

Drawing . . .

—

Total . .

Required, in addition, 3 hours gymnastics for all classes and 2 hours singing for classes VI and V.

Optional, in addition, from OHI on, 2 hours hnear drawing.

Special instruction in writing is prescribed for pupils in IV and HI whose handwriting is poor.

II

CURRICULUM OF BOYS' OBERREALSCHULE

VI

V

IV Uiii

OIII

UII on

UI

Religion . . .

German and history stories

French . . .

English . . .

History . . .

Geography . .

Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry . . .

Natural sciences

Writing . . .

Free-hand drawing ... .

2 2

4 6

2 2

2 3 6 5

2 2

2 2

3 6

2 2

5 4

2 3

I

S 6

I

5 6

I

5 6

I

S 6

34 47

18 14

Total . .

Required, in addition, 3 hours gymnastics for all classes and 2 hours singing for

classes VI and V.

Optional, in addition, from OIII on, 2 hours linear drawing. Special instruction in writing is prescribed for pupils in III whose handwriting

is poor.

Choice between theGymnasium, the Real gymnasium, and the Oberrealschule must be made for the boy when he is not more than nine years old, otherwise he will be at a disadvantage in the rearrangement of his work if he changes from one to the other. The manifest objections to this requirement have given rise to schools known as the Reformgymnasium and Reformrealgymnasium. The subjects pursued in the reform schools are the same as those required in the others of similar name, but the arrangement and grouping are such that final decision concerning the course to be taken can be deferred to the age of twelve. French takes the place of Latin in the earher years, and the number of hours of Latin is correspondingly increased during the later years of the course.

The Progymnasium, Real pro gymnasium, and Realschule are schools in which only the first six years' work of the nine-year course is given. They are found in those cities which are unable to support the full course. In some cases the arrangement of the work is slightly changed from that prescribed for the nine-year course, but it is always possible for a boy to go from the six-year school to the corresponding nine-year school and complete the course in the regular time. These six-year schools have prospered especially because of the fact that boys who have satisfactorily passed the examination required for the leaving certificate are given the much-coveted privilege of serving but one year in the army and of entering upon the career of an officer in case they choose the army as a profession.

The higher Madchenschule (also called Tochterschule) for girls is a ten-year institution, covering the years from six to sixteen. For some time the nine-year school and the ten-year school existed together, the former being considered the standard, the latter an experimental deviation from it ; but the number of ten-year schools rapidly increased, and in 1908 this type was officially recognized as the normal. The higher M ddchenschule is a public day school organized and managed much as are the higher schools for boys, curriculum is as follows : —

The prescribed

GENERAL CURRICULUM FOR HIGHER MADCHENSCHULE

Religion ......

German

English

History ^ and History of

Art

Arithmetic, algebra, and

geometry

Nature study ....

Drawing^

Needlework ^ . . . .

Singing _.

Gymnastics

Total . . . .

Lower

Classes

(Vorschule)

X IX VIII

Middle

Classes

VII VI V

Higher

Classes

IV III II I

VII-I

17 32 32 16

13 14

21 17

3 14

6(14) 14 18

18 22 22 31

Religion, German, French, English, history, geography, mathematics, and nature study are called scientific subjects; writing, drawing, needlework, singing, and gymnastics are called technical subjects.

1 Instruction in religion and arithmetic in the Vorschule classes may be divided

into half periods.

2 In class VII German along with history stories. 5 In class VIII domestic art.

^ In classes X to VIII exercises in drawing and modeling are given occasionally

in connection with German instruction. * Instruction in needlework is optional in the higher classes.

By comparing this curriculum with those for the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberrealschule for boys, it will be seen that the former falls short of the latter by two years. Until 1908 the Prussian state provided no school for girls which offered them an education equal to that available for boys. The additional training had to be secured, if at all, in private schools. The success of these private schools and the demand for larger educational opportunities for girls resulted in an imperial decree bearing date of August 15, 1908, according to which provision was made for establishment, by the state, of girls' higher schools corresponding to those already existing for boys. These new schools are to be formed by adding three years to the course previously prescribed for the higher Mddchenschule and by making certain modifications in the arrangement of the earlier work, beginning with the fifth year of the course in the case of the Gymnasium and with the sixth year in the case of the Realgymnasium and Oberrealschule. It remains to be seen how many of the previously established ten-year schools will become thirteen-year schools. The curricula for the three kinds of schools, beginning with the fourth year, are given below.^ The work of the first three years, the Vorschule, is the same as that given in the curriculum for the higher Mddchenschule. These curricula correspond to those previously given for the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberrealschule for boys,

^ Bestimmmigen tiber die Neuordnung des hoheren Madchenschulwesens in Preussen.

IS the apparent difference being due to a different way of designating the classes. The girls are given ten years to do the work done by the boys in nine years.

CURRICULUM OF GIRLS' GYMNASIUM^

X

IX

VIII

VII

VI V

IV m

II

I

Religion .

German ^ Latin . .

Greek French » .

English 3.

History * Geography Mathematic Nature stud Writing .

Drawing Needlework Singing .

Gymnastics s .

y ■

3 6

3 5

2 2

3 5

S

2 2 3 2

4 4

2 2 3 3

3 6

3 3

I

4 3

3 6

3 3

I

4 3

3 6 8

I

3 2

3 6 8

I

2 3

3 6 8

3 6 8

I

3 2

Total . .

Optional, in addition, singing i hour from class VI on; drawing 2 hours from class IV on ; needlework in VII.

^The term Studienanstalt is used to include the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium,

and Oherrealsckule for girls. ' In the higher classes the elements of philosophy are taught along with German. ' In the four higher classes English may be substituted for French. * In class IX German with history stories.

CURRICULUM OF GIRLS' REALGYMNASIUM

X

IX

VIII VII

VI

V

IV

III

II

I

German i

Latin .

English

Geograph

Mathema

Nature st

Drawing

Needlewo

Singing

Gymnasti y ■

tics iidy

rk!

cs .

3 6

3 S

2 2

3 5

4 4

2 2 3

2 3 6 3 3

I

4 3

2 3 6 3 3

I

4 3

2 3 6 3 3

I

4 4

3 6 3 3

I

4 4

4 4

3 6 3 3

2 I

4 4

38 36 38

22 18 14 36 31

20 6 8

Total .

Optional, in addition, i hour of singing from class VI on.

1 In the higher classes the elements of philosophy are taught along with German.

2 In class IX German with history stories.

CURRICULUM OF GIRLS' OBERREALSCHULE

X

IX vm

VII

VI

V

IV

HI

II

I

Religion . .

German ' . .

French . .

Enghsh . .

History 2 . .

Geography .

Mathematics Nature study Writing . .

Drawing . .

Needlework .

Singing _ . .

Gymnastics .

3 6 6

5 5

5 S

4 4 4 2 2 3 3

2 3

2 4 4 4 2 2 3 3

2 3

2 3

J!

1'

2 3 t!

I

4 * 2

2 4

t\ h

2 3

2 4

ti

I

M

4) 2

3 20

6 10 27

Total .

3og

Optional, in addition, i hour of singing from class V on; needlework 2 hours in

VII and VI. > In the higher classes the elements of philosophy are taught along with German. * In class IX German with history stories.

Besides the higher Madchenschule and the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oherrealschule for girls, all of which are nonvocational general culture schools, there is another class called the Lyzeum that is distinctly vocational in character. The Lyzeum has two divisions, the Frauenanstalt, or school for women, and theLehrerinnenseminar, or normal school for female teachers. The former has a two-yea course immediately following that of the higher Madchenschule, and the work, which consists largely of training in the household arts and the care of children, is designed to prepare girls for the duties of the home.

CURRICULUM OF LEHRERINNENSEMINAR

III n

Practice Year

Religion ....

Pedagogy . . .

German ....

French ....

English ....

History ....

Geography . . .

Mathematics . .

Nature study . .

Theory and method Practice teaching .

Special studies 2 .

Drawing ....

Singing ....

Gymnastics . . .

9 6 9

6(

4 4-6

* Included in the study of particular subjects.

2 A special study of subjects that the student will teach. In the practice year method is studied in coimection with the different subjects.

The Lehrerinnenseminar is a school for the training of teachers, most of whom enter the elementary schools ; some of them, however, are admitted to the girls' higher schools as nonacademically trained teachers. The curriculum of the Lehrerinnenseminar, as given above, presupposes the completion of the course in the higher Mddchenschule.

This brief sketch of the Prussian schools shows in a general way the sphere of the teacher, especially of the teacher in the higher schools. It may be added that he has no responsibility for the making of curricula or for the selection of subject matter in any form. All of this is done for him by state authority, and specific instructions are given him as to how the various subjects should be taught. His task is sharply defined, and he is held responsible for its proper performance. The organization of the schools emphasizes the importance of good teaching quite as much as of scholarship. The teacher must learn to adapt himself and his work to the nine-year-old child as well as to the youth of eighteen or twenty. Good teaching is the one thing required of him.

The management of the schools mentioned is vested in two entirely separate ministries located in Berlin. The Fortbildungsschulen are under the direction of the ministry of trade and industry (Handelsministerium). The others are under the direction of the ministry of education {geistliche, Unterrichts- und Medizinalange-

PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS ig

legenheiten) . Further, in the management of the Volksschule and the Mittelschule, the ministry of education works through the county board (Regierung) ; in the management of the higher schools, through the provincial school board (Provinzialschulkollegium) . Both of these subauthorities are responsible to the ministry of education, but they have very little to do with each other. This fact serves to emphasize the sharp separation between the elementary schools and the higher schools. Just as everything else in Germany, the schools are highly specialized.