The forester; a practical treatise on the planting, rearing, and general management of forest trees with an improved process for transplantation of trees of large size

Front matter

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Lpi-Fiyt

U.B.C. LIBRARY

Preface

The Author desires to express to the public his gratification at the rapid sale of the First Edition of " The Forester," as it indicates that the spirit of improvement is rapidly progressing among all interested in Arboriculture. In order to render the book worthy of continuance in public favour, it has been entirely re-written, a number of new sections upon important subjects added to it, and the whole brought out more in detail, for the purpose of making it better adapted as a complete guide in all forest operations : in short, it has been so much enlarged and improved, that it may be considered altogether a new book.

Since the appearance of the First Edition in 1847, the Author has been extensively employed by landed proprietors, in various parts of England and Scotland, in surveying and reporting on the present state and future management of plantations, and of grounds adapted for planting. His observations and experience have thereby been much extended, inasmuch as each district usually presents some distinctive features, depending on the nature of the soil, aspect, and elevation above the sea. The ordinary conditions of such lands, their capability of improvement.

PREFACE.

and the views of proprietors as to the extent and position of woodlands on their estate, are matters rather of private business than of public interest, and hence the instruction to be gained by such surveys, and from the details of any practical report thereon, is interwoven with, and forms a part of, the general contents of the book. But, as regards districts which are of great 'extent, and which correspond in the great features of geological structure, and elevation from the sea, it has been suggested that, as a considerable portion of the high-lying parts of the kingdom is implanted, and in a great measure unproductive, some specific information might be useful as regards the fitness of such lands for the profitable growing of timber. The Author having, in his recent surveys, examined several mountainous districts, where planting has not hitherto been adopted on a large scale, has been led to consider this subject as one of peculiar interest and importance. It embraces several considerations which admit of wide application — such as the employment of the industrious inhabitants of the respective districts — the improvement of adjacent lands by the draining which is often indispensable for new plantations — the shelter afforded to the land generally, and the consequent amelioration of climate, to say nothing of so ornamental an addition to the landscape beauty of a mountainous district. In many parts of both England and Scotland, the value of timber for mining purposes is a further and great inducement for planting ; and one reason why so obvious an improvement has not been carried out, seems to be a distrust whether trees can be profitably grown in moorlands

PBEFAI ix

of great elevation. Another and still greater discouragement arises from the want of that plaiu and practical information which it is the object of this book to supply; and here it is that detailed examples are of use in showing the several points to be observed, and the right course to be pursued, in adapting the various kinds of trees to the proper soil and' situation. In an Appendix, therefore, the Author has now added some extracts from his Notes on Lands so situated, (omitting merely local descriptions and names,) and trusts they may be found useful as examples for surveying and reporting on other districts corresponding in their general features to those which are described in the several Notes.

In the present Edition of " The Fokester," as also in the former one, the Author has confined himself entirely to a detail of the results of his own experience in forest operations ; and, in doing so, his whole aim has been that of making his work plainly useful as a forester's guide. He is of opinion that every book pretending to be practical should be written in the plainest and most simple language, so that the most common workman may understand.

It may by many be considered that a practical work, such as the present, is incomplete without a chapter being devoted to the most successful method of growing the different kinds of Conifers recently introduced into Britain. Relative to this point the Author begs to remark, that he has, dining the last six years, been planting out the most approved kinds on a variety of soils aud situations between five hundred and a thousand feet elevation ; but as he has not as yet had his views fully brought out with regard to

PREFACE.

these, and as he does not wish to lay before the public any part of tree culture which he cannot treat of with confirmed experience, he has deferred such a chapter till another opportunity, which he hopes yet to have in due time.

January 1851.

CHAPTER I. Sect

I. Importance of Woodlands in Great Britain, II. Present Prospects of Forestry in Britain,

III. The Value of Wood as a Crop upon Land,

IV. Laying out of Ground for New Plantations, V. Utility of fencing and enclosing of Ground for Young Trees,

VI. Management of Hedge Fences,

VII. The Management of Whin or Furze Hedges, VIII. Stone and Lime Walls as applied to making Sunk Fences,

IX. The building of Dry Stone Dykes, X. The building of Turf Dykes,

XI. The Method of erecting Various Sorts of Wooden Palings

XII. The erecting of Wire-Fences upon Wooden and Iron Posts,

XIII. The Purpose and Situation for which each sort of Fence is most

properly adapted,

XIV. The making and hanging of Gates upon Fields and Plantations,

Chapter II

I. Prepai-ing of Ground for the growing of Young Trees, II. Draining of Plantation Ground, ....

III. Laying out of Roads in New Plantations,

IV. Making of Close or Shut Drains in land occupied by Forest Trees, V. S< aeon of the Year best adapted for Planting Operations,

VI. Distribution of Young Trees so as to suit different Situations in a

New Plantation, .....

VII. Descriptive Character of the Elm : its Habit and Peculiarities,

VIII. The Beech: its Habit and Peculiarities, IX. The Aah : its Habit and Peculiarities,

X. The Great Maple or Sycamore, Xf. The Norway Maple,

XII. The Poplar",

XIII. The Willow,

XIV. The Birch, XV. The Alder, ....

r*.*iiK 1

99 104

111 115 127 129 134

CONTENTS.

Sect.

XVI. The Oak, XVII. The Sweet Chesnut, XVIII. The Horse Chesnut, XIX. The Lime Tree, XX. The Scots Pine, XXI. The Spruce Fir, XXII. The Larch, .

XXIII. The Silver Fir,

XXIV. The Pineaster, or Cluster Pine, XXV. The Weymouth Pine,

XXVI. General Kcinarks,

CHAPTER III. Ill

Different Methods of planting young Forest Trees, . . 234

Distances at which Young Trees should be planted one from

How to choose young Forest Trees, when buying them from

Public Nurseries, ...... 242

IV. Utility of Proprietors having their own Home Nurseries, . 244

V. Manner of proceeding with Planting Operations, . . . 247

VI. Kinds of Forest Trees which may be most profitably planted in

any given District of the Country, . . . .278

Kinds of Trees best fitted for Hedge-row Timber, and Management

Expenses of laying down Ground under Plantations, . . 291

IX. The Keeping of Trees in a Young Plantation clear from Grass and

VII

VIII

Chapter IV

I. The Nature and Necessity of thinning Plantations, II. The Nature and Practice of pruning Trees,

III. System of thinning and rearing up of Fir Plantations,

IV. System of thinning and rearing up of mixed Hardwood Planta-

V. Rearing up and thinning of Oak Plantations,

296 300 317

328 354

Chapter V

I. Management of general Coppice Plantations, . . . 367

II. Management of Oak Coppice, ..... 385

III. The peeling and drying of Bark used for Tanning, . . 390

Chapter VI

I. Trees best adapted for growing to useful size upon land termed

II. Causes of Disease among Larch Plantations, . . . 407

III. External Symptoms of Disease in Trees, and general causes of the

IV. Periodical Increase of Timber in the different Species of Forest

V. How to find the Value of growing Plantations, and of full-grown

Timber Trees, ....... 434

CONTENTS.

Chapter VII

I. Effects of Transplanting on the Constitution of Trees, as that has hitherto been practised, .....

II. Method of preparing Large Trees for transplanting, III. Method of transplanting Large Trees, and description of Machine for performing that operation, ....

IV. Method of renewing the Health of old or decaying Trees, V. Fencing of Park Trees, so as to protect them from Deer, Horses Cattle, &e., ......

Effects of Underwood on the Health of Trees in a Plantation, Kinds of Plants best fitted for Underwood, and how they may be planted in a Wood so as to produce Useful and Ornamental Effect, ..... .

Rules and Regulations necessary to be observed in the Cutting down and Selling of Timber, .....

Hints to young Foresters relative to the Nature and Amount of Education necessary for them, .....

VI

VII

VIII

IX.

441'

484 489

Appendix

REPORT ON THE STATE OF BUSTING PLANTATIONS, AND GENERAL EXPE- DIENCY OF PLANTING ON AN EXTENSIVE SCALE.

No. Pa ob

I. Plantation, 1 500 feet above the Sea, 30 years old. — Detailed direc-

tions for thinning and partial Replanting, . . . 511

II. Plantation, 1550 feet elevation, 25 years old. — Draining, shelter

III. Plantation, 1400 feet elevation, 28 years old. — Injurious effects of

Dampness on the growth of Larch, &c, . . . ib.

IV. Plantation, 1400 feet elevation, 40 years old. — Importance of

breadth in exposed situations, . . . . .514

V. Plantation, 1480 feet elevation, 18 years old. — Thinning and

VI. Plantation, 1370 feet elevation, 1G and 20 years old. — Injurious

effects of pruning live branches from Firs, &c, . . 516

VII. Plantation, 1500 feet elevation. Newly planted. — Effects of

ct of draining, and proper selection of 1 . . 517

VIII. Plantation, 1200 feet elevation. 20 years old. — Importance of

timely thinning to hardwi ... . . . ib.

IX. Plantation, 1050 feet elevation, 36 years old. — Thinning, shelter fr'.in prevalent winds, and advantages of trees having room to grow, &.c, . . . . . . .518 xiv CONTENTS.

No. Pagb

X. Plantation, 1000 feet elevation, 18 years old. — Selection of trees for ultimate crop, and importance of planting each kind of tree in a suitable soil, . . . . . .518

XL Plantation, 1070 feet elevation, 45 years old. — Removal of

diseased trees, and cause of disease, &c, . . . 519

XII. Proposed plantation at an extreme elevation of 1700 feet. —

Production of shelter. — Draining. — Selection of trees, &c, . 521

XIII. Proposed plantation at an elevation of 1350 feet. — Species of

trees for different localities, &c, . . ... 523

XIV. Proposed plantation, 1100 feet elevation. — In planting, depth of

Moss on surface to be taken into consideration, . . 524

XV. Proposed plantation, 1500 feet elevation.— Scotch fir as a break-wind, &c, ....... ib.

XVI. Proposed plantation, 1700 feet elevation. — Not advisable to plant

trees on Moss land above that elevation, . . . 525

XVII. Proposed plantation, 1700 feet elevation. — Trees will succeed at

that elevation if not on deep Moss land, ib.

XVIII. Proposed plantation, 1400 feet elevation. — Draining and distribution of trees according to the nature of soils, . . . 526

DIRECTION TO BINDER.

The Diagram to be Inserted at page 328.

THE FORESTER

Chapter I

Importance of "Woodlands in Great Britain — Present prospects of Forestry in Britain — Value of Wood as a Crop upon Land — Laying out of Land for new Plantations — Utility of Fencing and Enclosing of Ground for young Trees — Management of Hedge Fences — Whin Hedges — Making of Walled sunk Fences — Building Dry-stone Dikes — Building of Turf Dikes — Wooden Palings — Wire Fences — Gates and Wickets.

Section I. — Importance Of Woodlands In Great Britain

The cultivation of woodlands, as a source of profit to the proprietor, is not of equal importance to the welfare of every country. In any country thinly inhabited by man, or in a country but newly taken possession of by civilised man, such as America, New Zealand, or Australia, natural forests prevail in great abundance ; indeed, often to such an extent that the new settlers find forests of timber trees to be a mere nuisance, and are very frequently obliged to destroy them, in order to have the land put under a crop more profitable for their purpose for the time being. We are aware that this is frequently the state of things relative to forestry in many newly settled districts of a newly discovered country, but it is ultimately a very unprofitable way of going to work, even in a country where natural forests prevail; for, were forestry maintained as an art among new settlers in such countries, much profitable ami useful timber might be retained upon the newly improves lands, which might prove of great advantage to

A

2 IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN.

generations coming after, as well as to the settlers themselves; and, as an example of this, witness the scarcity of useful wood in some parts of the United States of America at the present day. And from this I mean to infer, that the raising of artificial forests in any newly inhabited country is not of primary importance to the settlers ; but the retaining a part of the natural forests is of great ultimate importance to them, and provision should be made by the laws of such a country for preserving a proper quantity of the natural forests for ultimate good. But the case is altogether different in an old-established country like Britain, where the natural forests have for centuries disappeared, and where the inhabitants must either buy timber from other countries, or raise it upon the land in the form of a crop.

There is no country upon the face of the earth which would be more benefited by an extended system of forestry than Britain. The navy demands skilful forestry and extending of woodlands in order to support it ; the present advanced state of agriculture demands the same thing; and the general welfare of the whole country has a right to it. Relative to each of these heads it will be necessary to make a few observations. First, The navy of Great Britain demands skilful forestry and extending of woodlands in order to support it. Many have argued that " there is no need of being apprehensive of wood becoming scarce for the supply of the navy, so long as we can procure plenty of the best of wood for shipbuilding from foreign countries, in addition to the large supply growing in the Government forests in the different parts of England." I cannot agree with those who reason in such a superficial manner. When we reflect upon the enormous quantity of oak wood consumed in the building of one man-of-war ship, the conclusion is forced upon us, that, as a nation, we Avould soon be wrong in the extreme, were we to neglect the rearing of a supply of timber for the purpose, and to depend upon foreign supplies, which at best must always be precarious. It takes fully one hundred and fifty thousand cubic feet of timber to build a seventy-four gun-ship; and allowing, upon an average, that the trees in an oak forest, when arrived at maturity and ready for shipbuilding, stood at the distance of about thirty feet from each other, we could only have about fifty

IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 3

trees from an acre: and supposing- that the same trees were from one hundred to one hundred and twenty years old, there would probably be about seventy feet of timber in each at an average ; consequently, we see from this calculation, which is pretty near the truth, that no less than the matured crop of forty-four acres of woodland, or two thousand two hundred full-grown trees, are required for one such ship.

It is stated upon good authority, that there is very little more than one-sixteenth part of the timber used at the royal dockyards supplied by the Government forests, extensive as they are considered to be ; consequently the remaining quantity, excepting what may be purchased from private landholders in the country, must be furnished from abroad ; and from this it is evident to every man who has the welfare of his country at heart, that the produce of the Government forests, in order to answer the end in view, ought to be increased tenfold.

The policy of depending upon foreign countries for the supply of timber for such a great work as our navy is therefore ridiculous in the extreme, and more particularly when we have so much waste land in the country, of excellent capabilities for the growing of timber, the greater part of which is inaccessible to the plough of the farmer, and therefore would by no means diminish the available quantity of land which might be improved for the increase of food for our population.

Another important question naturally arises here — namely, Are the natural forests abroad in a state likely to supply the great and increasing demands for the British navy? "We must answer in the negative. Every country upon the face of the globe, with which England has ready communication, is rapidly progressing in the march of improvement ; and it is well known that, as civilisation makes progress, and agricultural pursuits nd, natural forests diminish and eventually become extinct, — as is the case with ourselves at the present day; and at the same time as civilisation increases, the demand for timber increases also. Now we must infer from this, that each country, M it becomes more refined in the arts and comforts of life, will have at least enough to do with its own home timber, and will

4 IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN.

require to encourage forestry in order to keep good its own supply. Let us consider the state of America relative to timber, as an example of what I have above asserted, and I am of opinion that in a very short time many other countries will be in like condition. A. H. Hillhouse, in his translation of Michaux's North American Sylva, says — " Though three-fourths of our soil (North America) are still veiled from the eye of day by primeval forests, the best materials for building are nearly exhausted. With all the projected improvements in our internal navigation, whence shall we procure supplies of timber fifty years hence for the continuance of our marine ? The most urgent motives call imperiously upon Government to provide a seasonable remedy for the evil."

I may farther add, under the present head, that, at the present day, the United States are depending upon the wooded regions in Canada for the supply of their useful timber; and in that country, where so much wood is necessarily consumed for fuel, the supply cannot meet the demand for a great many years ; and it is now the opinion of many practical men, that in a few years wood will not only be very scarce, but at the same time very dear — much beyond any price we can form any adequate idea of at the present day. But it is to be hoped that these matters will undergo serious consideration, in order that such a state of things may be in a great measure avoided ; and the remedy is, an improved and extended system of forestry throughout the whole of our island.

Second, The present advanced state of agriculture in Great Britain demands a skilful and extended system of forestry.

It is allowed by all who have laid their attention to the improvement of waste lands in our country, that the rearing up of healthy plantations improves the general climate of the neighbourhood ; and not only is the climate improved to a great degree, but the very soil upon which forest trees grow is much improved by the gradual accumulation of vegetable matter from them.

I would ask this plain question, What is the natural cause of so much waste land being found in the north of Scotland, and in many parts of England ? Can it be denied that it is the want of trees to give shelter ? Why is it that proprietors of land com-

IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 5

plain so much of great tracts of it being- worthless, growing nothing but the inferior grasses, mosses, rashes, and heaths, upon which even one sheep cannot find food upon two acres ? Is it not for the want of plantations to give shelter '? It is. And now that Government is very wisely granting loans of money for the improvement of such lands, we may naturally expect to see great things done in this department in the course of a very few years. Xow that the agriculture of our country is improving rapidly, forests ought to go on in the same degree — not keeping behind, but rather in advance ; for what profit will be derived from a superior system of cultivation in the land, if the fields we cultivate be not sheltered from the evil effects of our uncongenial climate by healthy and judiciously laid out plantations *? In the improvement of all waste lands there ought to be at least one-tenth part of the same planted, in order to give shelter; and wherever this is not attended to, disappointment is the natural result : for if this be not done a3 the improvement of waste lands advance, such will, without doubt, be unproductive ; and very likely, from the holder of such land finding that it will not pay him, he will allow the same to fall back into its original state of nature.

Third, The general welfare of the country demands an extended and improved system of forestry.

If the population of Britain is doubling itself every fifty years, where is our supply of food to come from, in one hundred years hence, if the waste land be not improved by forestry ? This is a question which demands serious consideration, and must, upon reflection, point out the influence of planting upon the general welfare of the country. If any piece of waste land, after being drained and ploughed, will yield six bolls per acre, in a state unsheltered by forest trees, the same land will yield at least ten bolls per acre if judiciously sheltered by them ; and from this we are bound to conclude, that the inhabitants of the country have a right that such a state of things should exist, seeing that in so many cases they are compelled to leave their native country tin m the want of such a state of things, and expend their money upon works of the very same nature in a foreign country. Were proprietors of waste land to lay off the same in a judicious manner

6 PRESENT PROSPECTS OF FORESTRY IN BRITAIN.

with plantations, the money which is now carried away by industrious men to America, &c. would be spent at home upon their estates. And not only is the community at large benefited by an extended system of improvement, but every proprietor who will plant forest trees, not only gives shelter to his fields, but, at the same time, greatly enhances the value of his estate, as shall be treated upon in the proper place.

Section II. — Present Prospects Of Forestry In Britain

'Considering the present rapid advances which agriculture is making towards perfection, it appears very evident that forestry will, and indeed must, follow at the same rate.

It is very observable that the principal improvements which have, for the last twenty years, taken place in the science of farming, have, for the greater part, been confined to the draining and manuring of the best lands upon proprietors' estates, where, indeed, plantations for the greater part do exist, or are not, in consequence of superior locality, much needed in order to produce shelter. But, now that the improvements in farming are becoming of a more extended nature, even to the cultivation of the bare moor and ban-en moss — which cannot, properly speaking, be made fruitful without the influence of shelter — we must, and indeed will, ere long see plantations spreading wide in all such districts. We now observe that landed proprietors are becoming aware of this fact, and are wisely acting upon it. They see that the bringing in of moorland will not pay them, until shelter be produced by plantations. Several extensive proprietors of land of the description above alluded to have, within the last ten years, gone on extensively in making plantations in such districts ; and this at once points out that a grand era in the history of arboriculture is about to take place throughout the whole island of Great Britain. Moreover, I am convinced that, ere another period of fifty years shall have elapsed, there will be as much attention paid to the rearing of timber trees as there is now bestowed upon the rearing of farm-cropping; for, in all high-lying districts of a country, the rearing

PRESENT PROSPECTS OF FORESTRY IN BRITAIN. 7

of plantations will become, not a secondary object, as at present, but a primary one, seeing that the land will not produce abundance by any other means.

I am aware that there are not a few who entertain the unnatural opinion, that, by and bye, the art of arboriculture will be so well understood that timber trees will be made to grow much more rapidly than at present; and, as this appears to me to be a false notion, I shall here speak my mind upon the subject, because I am anxious that no false estimates should be made by people who may indeed be enthusiasts in the matter of tree-growing, but who want the practical knowledge to enable them to speak soundly, and with experienced judgment, upon the matter.

Relative to the above opinion, I lately read the following paragraph in a public print: " In an age when everything useful and ornamental becomes the subject of scientific investigation and general study, it seems singular that arboriculture should be at once so universally practised, and in its principles so utterly neglected. We may reasonably expect that the time is not far distant when arboriculture, being of the same family as agriculture and horticulture, will at length share the same distinction— that it will be taken out of ignorant hands, and engage the attention of the ingenious and scientific. Nothing seems wanting to this charming art but some successful method of giving a speedy effect to wood, and of bringing the enjoyment of it, in some sort, within the lifetime of the planter — that is, giving it at once a magnitude sufficient for picturesque purposes."

With regard to the above quotation, I have to remark, that I perfectly agree with the author in his opinions relative to forestry, M contained in the two first sentences; but his enthusiasm for forest improvement, as expressed in the last sentence, betrays the want of sound practical knowledge upon the subject in question; and, as I have already said that 1 am aware of several men of influence and character who hold the same opinion, I hereby begto give my advice, as a practical man, not to hold by the same, as it is not founded upon sound scientific principles; and my real for differing from such men arc as follows ;

8 PRESENT PEOSPECTS OF FORESTRY IN BRITAIN.

Every individual species of tree has, by the laws of nature, a tendency to grow at a rate peculiar to itself; and if any tree should be urged to grow at a rate beyond what nature has allowed it to do in general circumstances, the same tree will be unhealthy and soft in the quality of its wood ; and although it may appear healthy and large in bulk of timber, it must be, and always is, worthless for any permanent purpose. For let it be here particularly understood, that, in the cultivation of every vegetable substance whatever, the cultivator, in adding unnatural bulk to it, as in the case of the turnip, does not add woody matter or carbon to it in the natural proportion which exists in the plant as found in a state of nature; but, upon the contrary, he adds merely a watery half-prepared matter, which is liable to perish quickly after the life of the plant has become extinct. And this is exactly the case in the growing of trees, as in the growing of turnips or potatoes. Let us take another example in illustration of the point. The poplar is the fastest growing of all our forest trees ; and I may say that the oak is the slowest in coming to useful bulk. The poplar, at forty years of age, agreeably to its common nature, will often contain sixty cubic feet of timber ; while the oak, at the same age, will not, agreeably to the same law, contain more than the third part of that quantity. Now, if it were even possible to urge the oak to grow at the same rate as the poplar, what would be the natural consequence ? Would it not be that of deteriorating the quality of the wood, and consequently lessening its value as useful timber? And yet this is the state of things, relative to forestry, which the author, in the above sentence, wishes to see speedily brought about, where he says, " giving it (wood) at once a magnitude sufficient for picturesque scenery." I have always observed, in the case of making fences, gates, &c, both with oak and larch wood, that the trees which had been grown rapidly, of either sort, when converted into those purposes, never last more than half the time that the wood of the same age does, but of a slower growth. Moreover, I have also had occasion to observe, that of two trees of equal age, and of the same sort of timber — if grown, the one exposed freely to the air, and upon a moderate soil, and the other confined and drawn up weakly in the heart of a plantation, in a rich soil — the wood of the