A grammar of rhetoric, and polite literature: comprehending the principles of language and style ... with rules

Front matter

PE 1407 .J3 Copy 1

GRAMMAR OF RHETORIC,

AND

CHAPTER I.— Of the several Parts of which Speech or Language is composed 3?

Of Nouns 38 Of Number 39 Of Cases 40 Of Gender ib Of Articles 4J

*

X G0NTENT5.

Of Pronouns 42

Of Adjectives ib.

Of the Verb 43

Of Tenses 44

Theory of Moods 46

Auxiliaries 47

The Infinitive Moo<$ ib.

Of the Adverb 48

Prepositions 41)

Conjunctions ib.

Interjections 50 CHAPTER II.— The Nature and Character of the Use which

gives Law to Language ib.

Language mainly a species of Fashion ib, Use, or the Custom of Speaking, the sole original Standard of Conversation, as far as respects the Expression; and the Custom of Writing the chief Standard of Style 61 Reputable Use ib.

Vulgarisms ib.

Authors of Reputation 52 National Use 53 The English Language, properly so called ib.

Professional Dialects ib.

National Use, as opposed to Foreign ib.

Present Use 54 CHAPTER III— The Nature and Use of verbal Criticism, with its principal Rules or Canons, by which, in all our decisions, we ought to be directed 65 Good Use 56 The divided Use ib.

Conon the First, when Use is divided as to any particular Word

or Phrase 57 Canon the Second. Tn doubtful cases, regard ought to be had,

in our decisions, to the Analogy of the Language ib.

Canon the Third, prefers what is most agreeable to the Ear ib.

Canon the Fourth, allows simplicity to determineour choice 68 Canon the Fifth, prefers what is most conformable to ancient

Usage ib.

Every thing favoured by good Use, is not on that account worthy to be retained , ib.

Conon the Sixth, points out such Words and Phrases as merit

degradation 59 Criteria, by which we may discriminate the objectionable Words

from all others 60

Canon the Seventh, points to Words that require dismission 61 Canon the Eighth, respects Words become obsolete , ib., Canon the ^inth, enables us to detect Solecisms and idiomatical

Phrases ib.

Canon the Tenth, regards the suppression of a significant Term,

which hath come into good Use 63

CHAPTER IV— Of Grammatical Purity 64

Pure English Composition ib.

CONTENTS. , 5>i

Tage The reproach of Barbarism may be incurred in three different ways: 1st,- By the Use of Words entirely obsolete ; 2dly, By the Use of Words entirely new; or, thirdly, By new Formations and Compositions, from simple and primitive Words in

present Use y*

By the Use of absolete Words ib.

The Use of new Words inundates a Language - ib.

By the use of good words new modelled 66

The Solecism €7

The Impropriety 69

Of Improprieties arising from a similitude in Sense 3b.

The Idiotism ?0

The Pleonasm ib.

The Vulgarism 71

Impropriety in Phrases 72

Precision 73

Of Words reckoned Synonymous 77

Book III

ON THE NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES, THE GENE- RAL PRINCIPLES OF PERSPICUITY, AND THE HARMONY OF PERIODS*

CHAPTER I.— Of the Nature of Sentences and Periods SI

Simple Sentences S3

Complex Sentences ib.

Short Sentences / 84

The full Period 65 CHAPTER II.— Of the Errors to be avoided in the Structure

of Sentences, and the Arrangement of Single Words S6

The Arrangement of the Agent, the Action, and the Subject 83 Of the Arrangement of the other Parts of Speech, Pronouns,

Participles, Prepositions, and Conjunctions ib.

CHAPTER III.— On the Structure of Sentences 90 The distinction of Long and Short ones ib

The Properties most essential to a perfect Sentence 91

Clearness and Precision ib.

In the Position of Adverbs 92

f n Circumstances in the middle of a Sentence ib. In the proper Disposition of the relative Pronouns, who, which,

what, whose ib.

Unity 94 Strength 95 Redundant Words, redundant Members, new Ideas, newThoughts 97 The Copulative Particle ib.

Disposition of the capital Word or Words 100 The Members of Sentences rising and growing in their Importance above one another 102 Oratorical Climas ib

CHAPTER IX— Of the Harmony of Periods 121 How a melodious Structure is formed 122

The Distribution of the several Members 124

The Close or Cadence of the whole Sentence 125

A falling off at the End always injurious ib- Vivacity and Strength of Composition promoted ; various

Measures 126 All Appearances affecting Harmony are disagreeable 127 The Curn-nt of Sound adapted to the Tenor of a Discourse 128 CHAPTER X — Resemblance between Sound and Sense — Inversion 129 Inversion 132 The Inversions of Modern Languages 13$

CHAPTER I.— Of the Character and Advantage of Figures 13$ Figures of Words ib

Figures of Thought ib.

Tropes, or Figures 137

Table of Figures, which, among related Objects, extend the

Properties one to another 139

Table of Subjects expressed figuratively 14Q>

Table of Attributes expressed figuratively 142

CHAPTER II.— Metaphor H3

CONTENTS. Sm

Page All Metaphor imports Comparison, and is, in that respect, a

Figure of Thought 143 Of ati the Figures of Speech, none comes so near to painting

as Metaphor 144.

Metaphors must be suited to the Nature of the Subject of which

we treat 'b.

The Choice of Objects from whence Metaphors, and other Figures are to be drawn. 145 Metaphors drawn from Objects of Resemblance, which is the Foundation of the Metaphors, be clear and perspicuous, not far-fetched, nor difficult to discover 146 In the Conduct of Metaphors, we are never to jumble metaphorical and plain Language together 147 Never make two different Metaphors meet on one Object 148 Addison's Rule for examining the Propriety of Metaphors 149 Metaphors must not be too far pursued 150 CHAPTER III.— Comparisons or Similes 152 The Difference between Comparisons or Similes ib. All Comparisons may be reduced to the following Heads 153 Explaining Comparisons ib.

Embellishing Comparisons 154 Comparisons employed to elevate or depress the principal Object 155 Comparisons should not be instituted between Objects, the Resemblance of which is either obscure, faint, or remote 156 Comparisons should not be deduced from Objects which rise

much above the primary Object. 157 Comparisons destitute of Dignity, transfer Insignificance to the

principal Object ib.

Comparisons are censurable when they prompt Feelings discordant with the Aim of the principal Object, or when they

suggest Sentiments painful or disagreeable 15S Comparisons should never be founded on Resemblances which

are too obvious and familiar, nor on those which are imaginary ib. Extended Similes may be introduced with Advantage on various Occasions ' 159 Improper Occasions on which circumstantial Similies make their

Appearance 160 Short Similes appear in the most passionate Scenes loi CHAPTER IV.— Personification 162 Descriptive Personification ib.

Passionate Personification 164 The English Language possesses a singular Advantage in marking Personification 166 A capital Error in Personification, is to deck the Figure with

fantastic and trifling Circumstances ib, Personifications should not be introduced when the Subject of

Discussion is destitute of dignity 167

CHAPTER V.— Allegory 1 68

Allegory ornamental ]69

Allegories communicate Instruction ib.

Allegory of a moral Species 170

The Allegory of Prodicus ib.

The Tablature of Cebes 171

Or

XIV CONTEXT*.

Pagtr

Allegories calculated both for Ornament and Instruction- 171 Homer personifies Prayers 172 CHAPTER VI.— Apostrophe 174 Picturesque Apostrophe ib.

Apostrophes class the Offspring of deep Agitation 175 A principal Error in the Use of Apostrophe, is to deck the Object addressed with affected Ornaments ib.

Another frequent Error is, to extend this Figure to too great

Length ib.

Apostrophe frequently appeared in the Oratory of Antiquity 176

Anostrophe in modern Oratory ib.

CHAPTER VII.— Hvperbole , 177

This Figure peculiarly graceful and pleasant 178

All Discourse and Writing admit Hyperbole ib.

Errors in the Use of Hyperbole 179 Hyperboles are not properly introduced till the Mind of the

Reader is prepared to relish them 180 Hyperboles improper when they may be turned against the Argument of the Author who uses them 181 CHAPTER VIII.— Climax, or Amplification ib.

The Effect of this Figure 182 Climax appears with Grace in the calmer Parts of Oratory ib. It is consistent with moderate Agitation ib.

CHAPTER IX.— The Antithesis 183 Antithesis makes the most brilliant Appearance in the Delineation of Characters, particularly in History 184 Unsuccessful Attempts have been made to acquire it 185 A Climax and Antithesis conjoined and carried on through several Sentences ib.

CHAPTER X. — Interrogation, Repetition, Exclamation, Irony,

and Vision 186

Interrogation gives Life and Spirit to Discourse ib.

Interrogation used to rouse and awaken the Hearers ib.

Interrogation commands with great Emphasis 187

Interrogation denotes plaintive Passion ib.

Repetition is significant of Contrast and Energy ib.

Exclamations the Effect of strong Emotions of the Mind ib.

Vision proper onty in animated and warm Compositions 188

Vision in Tragedy 189

Irony ib.

Exclamations and Ironvare sometimes united 190

Book V. «.\ The Nature Of Taste, And The Sources 05 Its Pleas- Ures

CHAPTER I.— Taste 192

Taste is possessed in different Degrees by different Men ib.

Taste, an improvable Faculty, and refined by Education 193

CONTEXTS. XV

Page

Exercise is the Source of Improvement in all our Faculties, m ' our bodily, in our mental Powers, and even in our external

Senses The Improvement of Taste, from the Application of Reason and good Sense, to Works of Composition, and Productions of Genius Delicacy and Correctness the Characters of Taste, when brought

to its most improved State 195 Correctness of Taste *"■ Delicacy and Correctness of Taste mutually imply each other H>. The Diversity of Tastes which prevails among Mankind 196 Staudard of Taste 19 ?

Uniformity of Taste and Sentiment resulting from our Conviction of a common Standard 199 CHAPTER II —Criticism 200 Transgressions of the Laws of Criticism 202 CHAPTER III.— Of Genius ib.

This Talent improved by Art and Study 203 A Genius for any of the fine Arts always supposes Taste ib. CHAPTER IV.— The Sources of the Pleasures of Taste 204 The Pleasures of Imagination ib.

The Pleasure which arises from Sublimity or Grandeur 205 Of external Grandeur ib.

The terribly Sublime, Darkness, Solitude, and Silence 206 The moral or sentimental Sublime 208 High Virtue the most natural and fertile Source of this moral

Sublimity ib.

CHAPTER V.— The Sublime in Writing 209 The sacred Scriptures afford us the highest Instances of the

Sublime 210 Homer .greatly admired for Sublimity 211 The Works of Ossian abound with Examples of the Sublime ib, Conciseness and Simplicity essential to sublime Writing 212 Milton an Author whose Genius led him eminently to the Sublime 213 Strength is another necessary Requisite in sublime Writing 214 The Sublime depends upon a just Selection of Circumstances 215 The Faults opposite to the Sublime, are chiefly two ; first, the

Frigid ; and, secondly, the Bombast 216

CHAPTER VI— Beauty, and other Pleasures of Taste 217

.Colour, the simplest Instance of Beauty 218

Figure opens to us Forms of Beauty complex and diversified jb,

Regularity a Source of Beauty jb.

Hogarth's Analysis of Beauty 219

Motion another Source of Beauty ' 0j

The Beauty of the Human Countenance 221 -Beauty arising from the Perception of Means being adapted to

an End fo This Sense of Beauty, in Fitness and Design, has an extensive

Influence over many of our Ideas 222

Of Beauty, as it is applied to Writing or Discourse ib.

Novelty 22.3

Imitation is another Source ib.

XVt CONTENTS

Page

The Pleasures of Melody and Harmony 223

Wit, Humour, and Ridicule, open a Variety of Pleasures to

Taste 224

Wit ib.

Humour ib-.

Ridicule i&

Book VI The General Characters Of Style

CHAPTER I.— The Diffuse and Concise Styles 227 A diffuse Style generally abounds in long Periods 230 The Nervous and the Feeble of the same Import with the Concise and the Diffuse ib.

CHAPTER II.— Of the Dry, Plain, Neat, and Flowery Style 232 A drv Manner ib.

A plain Style 233 A neat Style ib An elegant Style % ib.

A florid Stvle 234 CHAPTER III.— The Simple, Affected, and Vehement Styles 235 Simplicity of Composition ib.

Simplicity of Thought ib.

Simplicity opposed to Ornament or Pomp of Lang-uage 236 Simplicity respecting (he easy and natural Manner in which our

Language expresses our Thoughts ib.

The highest Degree of this Simplicity 237

Simplicity in general ib.

Simplicity, the great Beauty of Archbishop Tillotson's Maimer ib. Sir William Temple, another remarkable Writer in the Stvle of

Simplicity 238

Addison the most perfect Example of this Style ib.

An Author may write simply, and yet not beautifully 240

Of the Vehement ib.

Lord Bolingbroke's Stvle 241

CHAPTER IV.— Directions for forming Style 242 The Foundation of all good Style, is good Sense, accompanied

with a lively Imagination ib.

In order to form a good Style, the frequent Practice of Composing indispensably necessary ib.

With respect to the Assistance that is to be gained from the

Writings of others 244

Danger of a servile Imitation of any Author ib. Style must be adapted to the Subject, and to the Capacity of

one's Readers ib.

CHAPTER V.— Conduct of a Discourse in all its Parts— Introduction, Division, Narration, and Explication 245 The Exordium, or Introduction, common to all kinds of public

Speaking 245

Page

Knat, to conciliate the good Will of the Hearers 246

Secondly, to raise the Attention of the Hearers »b.

The Introduction should be easy and natural 247

Introductions should not be planned, till after one has meditated

in his own mind the Substance of his Discourse ib.

Correctness should be carefully studied irt the Expression ib.

Modesty is another Character which it must carry ib.

An Introduction should usually be carried on without Vehemence and Passion 248

Introductions must not anticipate any material Part of the

Subject ib >

The Introduction ought to be proportioned, both in length, and

in kind, to the Discourse that is to follow ib.

The Proposition or Enunciation 'b.

The Division 249

First, the several Parts into which the Subject is divided must

be really distinct from one another ! b>

Secondly ,'in Division, we must take care to follow the Order of

Nature ib.

Thirdly, the several Members of a Division ought to exhaust

the Subject ib.

Fourthly, the Terms in which our Partitions are expressed

should be as concise as possible ib>-

Fifthiy, avoid an unnecessary Multiplication of Heads 230

Narration, or Explication ib»

To be clear and distinct, to be probable, and to be concise, are

the Qualities which Critics chiefly require in Narration ib.

Of the argumentative or reasoning Fart of a Discourse 251

The analytic, and the synthetic Methods of Reasoning ib,

Avoid blending Arguments confusedly together, that are of a

separate Nature 252

The three great Subjects of Discussion among Mankind, are,

Truth, Duty, and Interest ib*.

With regard to the different Degrees of Strength in Arguments, the general Rule is, to advance in the way of Climax 253-

Observe not to extend Arguments too far, and multiply them

too much ib,

The Pathetic, in which, if any where, Eloquence reigns 254

Consider carefully, whether the Subject admit the Pathetic, and render it proper, and if it does, what Part of the Discourse

is the Attest for attempting it ib.

Never to set apart a Head of a Discourse in form, for raising

any Passion ib,

The Difference between showing the Hearers that they ought

to be moved, and actually moving them 255

The only effectual Method is, to be moved yourself ib.

Attention to the proper Language of the Passions ib.

Avoid interweaving any Thing of a foreign Nature with the pathetic Part of a Discourse 256

Never attempt prolonging the Pathetic too much ib.

Concerning the Peroration, or Conclusion ib.

CHAP'l ER VI.— Historical Writing 257

Historical Composition comprehends Annals, Memoirs, Lives ib,

XV111 6S0NTENT>

Page

In order to fulfil the End of History, the Author must study te trace to their Springs the Actions and Events which he records 258

The first Virtues of historical Narration, are Clearness, Order,

and due Connection 259

Gravity must always be maintained in the Narration ib.

The Embellishment of Orations 260

The drawing of Characters one of the most splendid, and at the same time, one of the most difficult Ornaments of historical Composition ib.

Sound Morality should always reign in History 261

Memoirs ib.

Biography 262

Great Improvement of late Years introduced into historical

Composition ib

CHAPTER VII.— Philosophical Writing, Dialogue, and Epistolary Correspondence 263

Epistolary Writing 264

BOOK Vli.

POETRY.

CHAPTER I.— The Origin and Progress of Poetry 267

CHAPTER II.— Versification 271

Feet and Pauses the constituent Parts of Verse 272

Of poetical Feet ib.

The Nature of the Principal Feet 273

Secondary Feet 277

Blank Verse 279

CHAPTER VII.— Epic Poetry 2^3 Episodes 296

The Unity of the Epic Action 207

Personages proper to the Poem 299

Poetic Characters are general and particular ib.

The Machinery of the Epic Poem 300

CHAPTER V11I.— On Pronunciation, or Delivery 302

Distinctness of Articulation ib.

Emphasis, Pauses, Tones, and Gestures 303

Emphatical Pauses 304 Tones in Pronunciation consist in the Modulation of the Voice,

and the Notes or Variations of Sound 305

Of Gesture ib,

A

GRAMMAR OF RHETORIC

OF LANGUAGE AND STYLE AS THE FOUNDATION OF ELOQUENCE.

Chapter I

OF THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE IN THE STRUC- TURE AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS.

.. ' ANGUAGE may be denned, the art of communi- " I i eating thought, or the ideas of the mind, by certain articulate sounds, which are used as signs of those ideas.

Illustration. Articulate sounds are those modulations of simple voice, or of sound emitted from the thorax, which are formed by means -of the mouth, and its several organs, the teeth, the tongue, the lips, and the palate.

2. The connexion between words and ideas is arbitrary and conventional, owing to the agreement of men among themselves.

Illus. Different nations have different languages, or a different set of articulate sounds, which they have chosen, or framed, for communicating their ideas.

3. When we consider written language as a symbol of spoken, and spoken language as a representation of our ideas, and observe also how little relation subsists between letters and sounds, and again between sounds and ideas, we shall be satisfied that much artifice and singular efforts of ingenuity were at first employed in the construction of language, that it might accomplish the purposes of communication.

£0 Of the Rise and Progress of Language

Corollary. As speech must have been absolutely necessary previou? to the formation of society, the language of the first men, would be barely adequate to their present occasions } but they would enlarge and improve it as their future necessities required.

4. The cries of passion, accompanied with such motions and gestures, as are further expressive of passion, are the only signs which nature teaches all men, and which ail understand. (Art. 30. and 31.)

Illus. Cries indicative of fear, and gestures expressive of peril, would' be used by him who sought to warn his neighbour of danger.

Corol. Those exclamations, therefore, which have obtained the name of interjections, uttered in a strong and passionate manner, were 7 beyond doubt, in the rudest ages of the world, the first elements or beginnings of speech. IN ames began to be assigned to objects, when more enlarged communications became necessary.

5. The invention of words arose from the imitation, as nearly as it could be carried, of the nature or quality of the object which was named, by the sound of the name which the object or its quality received.

Illus. As a painter, who would represent grass, must employ a green colour ; so in the beginning of spoken language, the man who gave a name to any thing harsh or boisterous, would employ a harsh or boisterous sound in the pronunciation of that name. He could not do otherwise, if he meant to excite in the hearer the idea of that thing, which he sought to name. (See Art. 16, 17, and 18.)

Corol. The desire of men to paint, by speech, the objects which they named, in a manner more or less complete, according as the vocal organs had it in their power to effect this imitation, must have been the general motive which led men to the assignation of one name to a particular object rather than another. (See the Illustrations to Art. 7.)

6. Whatever objects were to be named, in which sound, or noise, or motion, was concerned, the imitation by words was abundantly obvious. Nothing was more natural, than, by the sound of the voice, to imitate the quality of the sound, or noise, or motion, which the external object made : and to form its name accordingly.

Illus. Thus, in all languages, we find words constructed upon this principle. A certain bird is called the cuckog from the sound which it emits. The analogy between the word and the thing signified is discernable, when one sort of wind is said to whistle, and another to roar, when a serpent is said to hiss, a fly to buzz, and falling timber to crash, —when a stream is said to flow, thunder to roar, and hail to rattle.

7. This analogy becomes more obscure in the names of objects which address the sight only, where neither noise nor motion is concerned, and still more in the terms appropriated to moral ideas ; but even here it is not altogether lost ; and throughout the radical words of all languages some in the Structure und Composition of Words. 21

degree of correspondence may be traced with the object signified.

Illus. 1. The terms significant of moral and intellectual ideas, are derived from the names of sensible objects to which they are conceived to be analogous.

2. The most distinguishing qualities of sensible objects, pertaining merely to sight, have, in a great variety of languages, certain radical sounds appropriated to the expression of those qualities. The organs of voice assume but an obscure resemblance to such external qualities as stability and fluidity, hollowness and smoothness, gentleness and violence, yet are these words painted by the sound of certain letters or syllables, which have some relation to those different states of visible objects.

3. Words formed upon si, usually denote firmness and strength, analogous to the Latin sto ; as, stand, stay, staff, slop, stout, steady, flake, stamp, stallion, stately, he.

4. Sir, in the beginningof words, intimates violent force and energy, analagous to the Greek s-awvupt ; as, strive, strength, struggle, stride, stress, stretch, strike, stripe, he.

5. Thr, implies forcible motion ; as, throw, thrust, throb, through, threaten, thraldom, he.

7. Sw, indicates silent agitation, or lateral motion ; as, sway, swing, swerve, sweep, swim, he.

8. SI, implies a gentle fall, or less observable motion ; as, slide, slip, sly, slit, slow, slack, sling, he.

11. Ush, in the ending of words, implies something acting more obtusely or dully ; as, crush, brush, hush, gush, blush, he*

Observation. These significant roots have been considered as a peculiar beauty or excellency of our native tongue, which, beyond all others, expresses the nature or qualities of the objects that it names, by employing sounds sharper, softer, weaker, stronger, more obscure , or more stridulous, according as the idea requires which is to be suggested.

8. The immense field of language, in every nation, is, however, filled up by numerous fanciful and irregular methods of derivation and composition.

Corol. Words, therefore, come to deviate widely from the primitive character of their roots, and frequently lose all analogy or resemblance in sound to the thing signified. Taken generally, as we now employ them, words may be considered as symbols, not as imitations ; as arbitrary, or instituted, not natural signs of. ideas.

* The President Des Brosses has very ably examined this subject in his work", entitled " Trajte de la Formation Meehaiiique des Langues."

22 Of the Rise and Progress of Language

Chapter II

OF THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE IN THE MANNER OF UTTERING OR PRONOUNCING WORDS.

9. A SECOND character of language, in its early state, is drawn from the manner in which mankind at first pronounced or uttered words.

Illus. 1. Interjections or passionate language being the first elements of speech, (Corol. Art. 4.) men would labour to communicate their feelings to one another, by those expressive cries and gestures, which they were taught by nature. (Art. 4. Illus.)

2. Language in its infancy, picturesque but barren, would be intermixed with many exclamations and earnest gestures. Its scanty vocabulary rendered these helps necessary for explaining the conceptions of uncultivated men.

3. Tones, rough and unmusical at first, and significant gesticulations would supply the temporary absence of the few words which men knew ; and by these supplemental methods they would endeavour to make intelligible to others what they themselves understood. (Art. 46. Corol.)

Corol. It may hence be assumed as a principle, that pronunciation, ?n the earliest languages, though learnt from the uninterrupted use of gutteral sounds, was accompanied with more gesticulations than are used when men become refined by civilization, arts, and sciences.

10. What had risen from necessity continued to be used for ornament, after language became more extensive and copious. Wherever there was much fire and vivacity in the genius of nations, the imagination was gratified with a great deal of action ; and, as their ear acquired delicacy and sensibility, their language would gradually attain softness and melody of tones in conversation, or public discourse.

Illus. Upon this principle men spoke by action. Jeremiah, in sight of the people of Israel, breaks a potter's vessel — throws a book into the Euphrates — puts on bonds and yokes, and carries out his household stuff. The Indians of North America, also, declare their meaning, and explain themselves by belts and strings of vjampum, as much as by their discourse, with all its significant but flowery modes of expression. (Illus. Art. 18.)

11. Some nations have found it easier to express different ideas, by varying the tone with which they pronounced the same word, than to contrive words for all their ideas.

Illus. Thus, the number of original words in the Chinese language is not great, but, in speech, the sound of each word is varied on no fewer than five different tones. The same word may therefore signify five different things ; and be expressed by five different charactersin the Manner of Pronouncing Words. 23

Hence arises their unwieldly alphabet, or lexicon. This melody, or varying the sound of each word so often, is a proof of nothing, however, but of the fine ear of that people. (Corol. Art. 13.)

12. When the harsh and dissonant cries of speech have become gradually polished, they pass into more smooth and harmonious sounds (Art. 10.) ; and hence is formed what grammarians call the prosody of a language.

Obs. Without attending to this we shall be at a loss to Understand several parts of the Greek and Roman classics, which relate to public speaking, and the theatrical entertainments of the ancients. (Illus, Art. 13.)

13. When the Greek and Roman languages became flowing and harmonious, the pronunciation of both became melodious in a very high degree. It does not, however, appear

-that the languages of any cultivated nations have ever been regulated by any musical principles. As the copiousness and accuracy of speech keep pace with civilization and improvement, its melody corresponds to the refinement of the public ear. (Illus. Mrt. 11.)

Hlus. 1. The declamation of the Greek and Roman orators, and the pronunciation of their actors upon the stage, were not indeed subjected to a geometrical scale of proportion, as the notes of music are ; but the melody of their periods was artfully regulated by the superior refinement of their ear.

2. The sounds of speech and music are regulated by different scaler both in point of length and elevation. In point of length, the sounds of speech are only two, the one double the other ; for all words consist of syllables either long or short, and the long syllable is invariably double the length of the short one. The sounds of music being meas uced by a geometrical scale of proportion, may be extended as far as the composer pleases. In respect of elevation and depression the sounds of speech arc subject to no rule : their distances are neither equal nor great. The speaker may divide them according to his inclioation, and the utmost compass of ordinary speech seldom extends beyond the distance of a few notes in music. It is not so with the tones of music : their distances are all determined by rule, and the elevations and depressions, though sometimes very considerable, are adjusted with the greatest nicety of geometrical science.

3. Aristotle considers the music of tragedy as one of its chief and essential parts ; but lie does not assuredly mean that the Greeks spoke in recitative, or that part of the word, or part of the sentence, was uttered in the ordinary, tones of conversation, while the remaining part was pronounced in tones of music. The whole of an oration, or tragedy, might be accompanied with musical instruments ; but the language of passion is inconsistent with recitative, The tones of music are not the language of passion, and the language of nature is the same in all ages and countries. (Art. 10. Illus. and also Art. 11.)

4. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his book on composition, that treats professedly on the melody of language, is at great pains to illustrate his sentiments from the compositions of Demosthenes, and t«*

3 ; <

9A Of the JRise and Progress of Language

point out how artfully that great orator had consulted the melody oi his periods, by inserting in his cadences many dactyles, spondees, iambics, and other agreeable metrical feet. The introduction of these feet he calls — " writing rhythmical," or " melodious prose."

5. It is plain also from the oratory of Cicero, that the Romans did not speak in tones of music, or recitative. He informs us that numerus or rhythm was not employed except in the most splendid parts of an oration ; and that it ought not to be long continued, lest the artifice of the orator should be detected, and his aim to impress his hearers defeated.

6. Dionysius, however, proceeds further than Cicero, and contrasts the harmonious examples extracted from Demosthenes, with specimens adduced from the writings of Polybius, " the harshness of whose periods," he asserts, " is owing to the neglect of rhythm."

Corol. 1. Therefore, the melody of a language is a proof of nothing but of the fine ear of the people who use it, (Mm. Art. 11.) ; other evidence is necessary to shew that it was spoken in what the Italians call recitativo.