English grammar

Front matter

o cr

IMPROVED SYNTAX.

FART I.

Preface

Several elementary works on English Grammar having already appeared before the public, the necessity and expediency of adding another to their number may perhaps be doubted. The ability, however, with which some eminent authors have treated this subject, does not preclude the possibility of further improvements. All sciences must advance by slow degrees towards perfection. The author believes that he has done something, at least, to elucidate the science of English Grammar, or he would not presume to give publicity to the result of his labours.

In the first part of this work, every thing relating to the subject of English Grammar has been embodied, which was deemed important for the learner to commit to memory. The object in making this arrangement was, to relieve the instructer from the trouble of marking detached passages ; and to encourage the pupil by showing him, at one view, how small a tax is laid on his patience, in this least interesting part of his study. The ground which he is to go over, he sees, at once, is of very limited extent 5 and the reflection that by diligent and persevering efforts, he can accomplish, in a

PREFACE.

very short time, the task of committing, will inspire him with fortitude in the undertaking, and render his progress more rapid and pleasing.

In the second part of the work, the elements of the science are exhibited in a more full and extended form, accompanied with a variety of familiar illustrations. Terms and distinctions, in a style adapted to the capacity of the youthful mind, are carefully explained. Words of doubtful construction, whose nature and office are changed on account of the different connexions which they sustain in a sentence, have received special attention ; and their various applications have been illustrated by familiar examples. No pains have been spared to render the whole subject intelligible — to divest it of mystery and difficulty — and to make it an interesting and useful study.

The improvements in syntax, it is believed, are of considerable importance. Rules have been added, by which the pupil will be able to parse many difficult sentences and phrases which have always, particularly to young beginners, been a source of perplexity and discouragement. The fact is not to be denied, for every teacher has felt its truth, that many sentences which are unexceptionable in their grammatical construction, cannot be parsed with propriety by any rules in the common systems of English Grammar. Of this description are the following : — " The book is worth perusing — or worth a perusal : He was offered a large sum for his estate : The bridge is twenty rods long : He died seven years ago : The article cost me a dollar" The words marked with italics, are those which demand particular attention. The awkward and forced manner in which sentences like these are attempted to be parsed by the application of the rules in our common grammars; clearly proves that their syntax is greatly deficient. But these sentences, and those of a similar nature, which have been a source of so much vexation and discouragement to young grammarians, may be parsed with the greatest ease, by means of a good syntax, comprising suitable rules.

It may not be improper to remark, that, in preparing this work, the Author has used the common privilege of elementary writers : so far as it was convenient for his purpose, he has availed himself of the labours of his predecessors. For the omission of authors' names, it is perhaps unnecessary to apologize. " From the alterations," says Mr. Murray in his Introduction to English Grammar, " which have been frequently made in the sentiments and the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the particular purposes for which they are introduced ; and, in many instances, from the uncertainty to whom the passages originally belonged, the insertion of names could seldom be made with propriety. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this nature would derive no advantage from it, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references."

Part I. Part IL Substantives. 1 17

Gender. - 2 19

Number. 2 20

Case. 2 22

Articles. 3 23

Adjectives. - 3 25

Degrees of Comparison. - - - - 3 26

Pronouns. 3 28

Personal Pronouns. - - - - 3 29

Relative Pronouns. - - - - 5 30

Adjective Pronouns. 5 33

Regular Verbs. - - - - 6 41

Irregular Verbs. - - - - 6 41

Defective Verbs. - - - - 6 41

Number and Person of Verbs. - - - 6 42

Moods and Participles. - 7 42

Conjugation of tbe Verb to be. - - - 8 48

Formation of tbe Tenses. - • - 8 48 Remarks on tbe different forms of tbe Subjunctive

Conjugation of tbe Verb to have. - - 11 54

Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their simple form. 57

Remarks on the meaning and force of tbe Auxiliaries. 61

Conjugation of the Verb to love. - 63

List of Irregular Verbs. - 72

Prepositions. - - - - 12 83

Conjunctions. - 13 87

Interjections. - - - 13 89

Derivation. - 90

CONTENTS.

Agreement of the Verb with its Nominative. The Infinitive Mood or part of a sentence a Nominative. - If. 4' - l*.l*-

Nominative Independent.

Nominative Absolute. -

Government of a Noun in the Possessive Case.

Objective Case governed by a Transitive Verb.-

Objective g-overned by a Participie.

Verbs governing- two Objectives.

Objective governed by a Preposition.

Objective governed by the Conjunction as.

Objective governed by an Interjection.

Objective governed by the Adverb like and the Adjec

tives worth and like. -

Nouns in the Objective without a governing word. Objective governed by a Participial Noun. Nouns in Apposition. ....

Verbs having the same case before and after them. Agreement of Pronouns with their Antecedents. Construction of the Relative Pronouu in regard to case. 16 Relation of Adjectives &c. to Nouns Office of Adverbs. ....

Office of Conjunctions. ...

Nouns connected by a Conjunction Copulative, &.c. A Noun of Multitude. ...

Government of the Infinitive Mood.

Supplementary Observations.

Specimen of Parsing.

Promiscuous Exercises in Parsing.

Parti.

Part n.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PART I.

1. English Grammar is the art or science of speaking and writing the English language with propriety.

2. It is divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

3. Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just method of spelling words.

4. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation.

5. Syntax treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence.

6. Prosody consists of two parts; the former teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone ; and the latter, the laws of versification.*

ETYMOLOGY.

7. Words are divided into nine sorts, commonly called parts of speech ; viz. substantive or noun, article, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.

Of Substantives.

8. A substantive or noun is the name of a thing. The name of any thing which we can see, taste, smell, hear, feel, or conceive of, is a noun.

* Orthography and Prosody are not particularly treated ; the former more properly belongs to the exercises of the spelling-Ltpok; and the latter, to the study of Rhetoric.

I

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part J.

9. Substantives are either proper or common. Proper substatnives are names appropriated to individuals, without any reference to kind. Common substantives are appropriated to kinds, or whole species, containing many individuals under them.

10. To substantives belong gender, number, and case.

11. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. There are three genders, viz. masculine, feminine, and neuter.

12. The masculine gender denotes animals of the male kind ; the feminine gender denotes animals of the female kind ; the neuter gender denotes objects which are neither male nor female.

13. Number is a term which has reference to quantity, as consisting of one or more particulars or objects. •

14. Substantives are of two numbers, viz. singular and plural. The singular number expresses but one object; the plural number expresses more objects than one.

15. Case is the state or relation which the noun sustains to the other words in the sentence.

16. Substantives have three cases, viz. nominative, possessive, and objective.

17. The nominative case expresses the name of a thing existing or acting as the subject of discourse.

18. The possessive case expresses the relation of property or possession, and in general has an apostrophe with the letter s coming after it,

19. The objective case generally expresses the object of an action or relation.

20. Substantives are declined in the following manner.

Singular. Plural.

Nominative case. Man. Men.

Possessive case. Man's. Men's.

Objective case. Man. Men.

Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 3

Of Articles.

21. An article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point them out and limit their signification. -

22. There are two articles, a and the ; a usually oecomes an before a vowel or silent h.

23. A or an is styled the indefinite article, because it is used in an indefinite or vague sense to point ou one single thing of a kind or species ; the is styled the definite article, because it is used in a definite sense to point out what particular thing or things are meant.

Of Adjectives.

24. An adjective is a word added to a substantive to qualify it.*

25. To the adjective are ascribed three degrees of comparison, viz. positive, comparative, and superlative.

26. An adjective of the positive kind is in its simplest state ; the comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification ; and the ..superlative increases or lessens the signification of the positive to the highest or lowest degree.

27. The simple word, or positive, becomes the comparative by adding r or er ; and the superlative by adding st or est. The adverbs more and most, placed before the adjective, have the same effect.

Of Pronouns,

28. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word.

29. There are three kinds of pronouns, viz. personal, relative, and adjective pronouns.

30. There are five Personal Pronouns, viz. i, thou or

* By qualifying a substantive, is meant, either lo point out its kind, to express some circumstance respecting it, or in any way to fit it to sustain, in the best manner, its office in a sentence. See remarks ujider the head of Mjectives, Part II,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

[Part I.

you* he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they.

31. The persons of pronouns are three in each number, viz

1 is the first person }

Thou or you is the second person > Singular.

He, she, or it, is the third person S

We is the first person }

Ye or yow is the second person > Plural.

They is the third person S

3!2. The gender of pronouns has respect only to the third person singular ; He is masculine, She is feminine, It is neuter.

33. Pronouns have three cases, viz. nominative, possessive, and objective. The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form different fiom that of the nominative or the possessive case.

34. The personal pronouns are thus declined.

First.

Case.

CJVom.

Singular.

Plural.

We.

< Poss.

Mine.

Ours.

1 Obj.

Me.

Us.

C Norn. < Poss.

Thou or Thine oi you. • yours.

Ye or you, Yours.

1 Obj.

Thee or you.

You.

C Norn. < Poss.

He.

His.

They.

Theirs.

1 Obj.

Him.

Them.

C JVom. < Poss.

She.

Hers.

They.

Theirs.

1 Obj.

Her.

Them.

C JYojn. < Poss.

It.

Its.

They.

Theirs.

1 Obj.

It.

Them.

Second.

Third, Masc.

Third, Femin.

Third, JVeuter.

* You is used either in the singular or plural number, but requires the verb, with which it agrees, to be always in the plural form

Part J.] ETYMOLOGY. 5

35. Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general to some word or phrase going before, which on this account is called the antecedent. They are who, which, that, what, and sometimes as.

36. Who is applied to persons, which to things, and that to both persons and things ; what is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which.

37. Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined :

Singular and Plural,

Nom.

Who.

Poss.

Whose.

Obj.

Whom.

38. Who, which, and what are called interrogatives when they are used in asking questions.

39. Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives ; and may be divided into four sorts, viz. possessive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite.

40. The possessive are those which relate to property or possession. There are seven of them, viz. my, thy, his, her, our, your, their.

41. The distributive are those which denote the persons or tilings that make up a number as taken separately and singly. They are each, every, either.

42. The demonstrative are those which point out precisely the subjects to which they relate. They are this and that, these and those.

43. The indefinite are those which express their subjects in an indefinite or general manner. The following are of this kind, viz. some, other, any, one, all, suck, he*

* The distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite adjective pronouns are frequently joined to the substantives to which they relate. They then become adjectives and should be parsed as such. For 1*

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part 1.

44. Other is declined in the following manner :

Singular.

Plural.

Norn.

Other.

Others.

Poss.

Other's.

Others'.

Obj.

Other.

Others.

Of Verbs.

45. A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer. Verbs are of three kinds ; transitive, intransitive, and passive. They are also divided into regular, irregular, and defective.

46. A transitive verb is one which passes over from the agent or subject and terminates on some object.

47. An intransitive verb is one which does not pass over to an object, but whose being or action is confined to the subject or actor.

48. A passive verb expresses passion or suffering, or the receiving of an action.*

49. Verbs are called regular, when they form their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or ed ; and irregular when they do not.

50. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of their moods and tenses.

51. Auxiliary or helping verbs are those, by the help of which the principal verbs are chiefly conjugated ; they are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, with their variations ; and let and must, which have no variation.

52. To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense. The number and person of verbs always correspond with the nouns or pronouns with which they agree.f

the sake of distinguishing them from other adjectives, they may be called pronominal adjectives.

* Verbs implying action, and which terminate on an object, are, by some grammarians, styled uctirt verbs ; those which imply simply being or state of being, neuter verbs.

i Verbs of themselves, i. e. independently of the noun or pronoun

Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 7

53. Mood or Mode is the particular form which the verb assumes to express different states of the mind, and different circumstances of being; or action.

54. There are five moods of verbs, viz. the indicative, the imperative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the infinitive.

55. The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing.

56. The imperative mood is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting.

57. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, power, will, or obligation.

58. The subjunctive mood represents a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &lc. and is preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by another verb.

59. The infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or person.

60. The participle is a certain form of the verb, and derives its name from its participating not only the properties of a verb, but also those of an adjective and noun.

61. There are three participles, the present or active, the perfect or passive, and the compound perfect.

62. Tense or time is made to consist of six variations, viz. the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and theirs* and second future.

63. The present tense represents an action or event as passing at the time in which it is mentioned.

64. The imperfect tense represents the action or event either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past.

65. The perfect tense not only refers to what is past, but also conveys an allusion to the present time.

with which they agree, have no number or person. See remark* no this subject, Part II.

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part I.

66. The pluperfect tense represents a thing not only as past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence.

67. The first future tense represents the action as yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time when.

68. The second future intimates that the action will be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event.

69. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses.

70. The verb to be is conjugated as follows :

To Be.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I am 1. We are.

2. Thou art, or you are. 2. Ye or you are.

3. He, she, or it is. 3. They are.

Imperfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. 1 was. 1. We were.

2. Thou wast, or you were. 2. Ye or }ou were.

3. He was. 3. They were.

Perfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I have been. 1. We have been.

2. Thou hast been, or you 2. Ye or yon have been.

have been. 3. They have been.

3. He has been.

Pluperfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I had been. 1. We had been.

2. Thou hadst been, or you 2. Ye or you had been.

had been. 3. They had been.

3. He had been.

Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 9

First Future Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be.

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, or 2. Ye. or you shall or will

you shall or will be. be.

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be.

Second Future Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been.

2. Thou wilt have been, or 2. Ye or you will have

you will have been. been.

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been.

Imperative Mood.

Singular. Plural.

2. Be thou, or do thou be, 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. or be you, or do you be.

Potential Mood.

Present Tense.

Singular. ♦ Plural.

1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be.

2. Thou mayst or canst be, 2. Ye or you may or can

or you may or can be. be.

3. He may or can be, 3. They may or can be.

Imperfect Tense.* Singular. Plural.

should be. or should he.

might, could, would, or wouid, or should be.

should be. 3. Tbey might, could, would,

3. "He might, could, would, or should be.

or should be.

♦This form of the verh in the potential mood has usually been ranked in the imperfect tense, and it is frequently used in a manner which will hear the signification of that tense ; but it is not less frequently found in the present or future. Indeed it is a f >rm of the verb which is used indiscriminately, to express past, present, or future time ; the construction of the sentence alone determining towhich tense it belongs.

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part I.

Perfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I mayor can have been. 1. We may or can have been.

have been, or you may have bee n.

or can have been. 3. They may or can have

3. He may or can have been.

been.

Pluperfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

should have been. or should have been.

might, could, would, or would, or should have

should have been. been.

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would,

or should have been. or should have been.

Subjunctive Mood.

Present Tense. — First Form.*

2. 3.

Singular.

If I am.

If thou art, or if you are.

If he is.

Plural.

1. If we are.

2. If ye or you are.

3. If they are.

, — Second Form.

2. 3.

Singular.

If I be.

If thou be, or if you be.

If he be.

1. I we be.

2. If ye or you be.

3. If they be.

— Third Form.

Singular.

If I were.

If thou wert, or if you

were.

If he were.

Plural.

1. If we vrere.

2. If ye or you were.

3. If they were.t .

* See remarks on the different forms of the subjunctive present, Part IT.

t In the subjunctive imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first future, and second future, the verb is conjugated just as it is in those tenses of the

Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 11

Infinitive Mood.

Present Tense. To be. Perfect. To have been.

Participles.

Present. Being. Perfect. Been.

Compound perfect. Having been.

71. The verb to have is conjugated as follows : To Have.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I have. 1. We have.

2. Thou hast, or you have. 2. Ye or you have.

3. He, she, or it hath or has. 3. They have.

Imperfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I had. 1. We had.

2 Thou hadst or you had. 2. Ye or you had. 3. He had. 3. They had.

The perfect and pluperfect are formed from the present and imperfect by annexing had; as, (perfect) / have had, he. (pluperfect) J had had, &c. The first future is formed from the present by prefixing the auxiliary shall or will, as, 1 shall or will have, he. The second future is formed from the first by annexing had; as, I shall have had, You will have had, he.

Imperative Mood.

Singular. Plural.

2. Have thou, or do thou 2. Have ye or you, or do

have, or have you, or ye or you have,

do you have.

indicative mood, except that will and wilt are not used in the subjunctive second future, and that a conjunction is added implying doubt or condition.

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \Part I.

The potential mood is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries may, can, might, could, would, should, in the manner they were applied to the verb to be in all its variations ; as, J may or can have ; Thou mayst, he.

The subjunctive is formed by the addition of a conjunction ; as, If 1 have, he.

Infinitive Mood.

Present. To have. Perfect. To have had.

Participles.

Present or active. Having.

Perfect or passive. Had.

Compound perfect. Having had.

72. A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect participle to the auxiliary to be through all its changes of number, person, mood, and tense.*

Of Adverbs.

73. An adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjective, a preposition, and other adverbs, to qualify them.

74. Some adverbs are compared ; as, Soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftener, ofienest ; those ending in ly are compared by more and most ; as, Wisely, more wisely, most wisely.

Of Prepositions.

75. Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and to show the relation between them. They are for the most part put before nouns and pronouns, and always require an objective case after them, expressed or understood.

* A conjugation of transitive and passive verbs throughout, see in Part II.

Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 13

Of Conjunctions,

76. A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences; so as out of two or more sentences to make but one. It sometimes connects only words.

77. Conjunctions are properly divided into two sorts, the copulative and the disjunctive.

78. The conjunction copulative serves to connect or to continue a sentence by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c.

79. The conjunction disjunctive serves not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in different degrees.

, Of Interjections,

80. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the speaker.

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* [PaH I.

SYNTAX.

81. Syntax treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence.

82. A sentence is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.

83. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence.

84. Syntax principally consists of two parts ; Concord and Government

85 Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, number, case, or person.

86. Government is that power which one part of speech has over another, in directing its mood, tense. or case.

SYNTAX OF THE DIFFERENT CASES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

Nominative Case.

Rule 1. A verb agrees with its nominative, in number and person.

Rule 2. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes used substantively, and performs the office of a nominative case to a verb

Rule 3 When a direct address is made, the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independei t.

Rule 4. A noun or pronoun connected with a participle, and standing independently of the rest of the Sentence, is in the nominative case absolute.

Part I.] SYNTAX.

Possessive Case.

Rule 5. When two nouns come together, signifying different things, the former implying possession, is in the possessive case,* and is governed by the latter.

Objective Case.

Rule 6. Transitive verbs govern the objective case.

Rule 7. Participles of transitive verbs govern the objective case.

Rule 8. Verbs of teaching, giving, and some others of a similar nature, govern two objectives, the one of a person, the other of a thing.

Rule 9. Prepositions govern the objective case.

Rule 10. The conjunction as, when it takes the meaning of for, or, in the character of, becomes a preposition, and governs an objective.

Rule II. Interjections sometimes govern the objective case.

Rule 12. The adverb like, and the adjectives worth and like, sometimes govern the objective case.

Rule 13. Nouns implying measure, price, length of time, and distance of space, are put in the objective, without a governing word.

Rule 14. Participial nounsf may have the same cases, and be governed in the same manner, with common substantives. They also have the power of governing other words in the objective case.

Cases Corresponding.

Rule 15. Two or more nouns coming together and signifying the same thing, are put by apposition in the same case.

Rule 16. Any intransitive or passive verb may have

* This is sometimes called the genitive case.

t A participle supplying the place of a substantive, is styled a participial noun.

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part L

the same case after it as before it, when both words refer to the same thing.

Miscellaneous Rules.

Rule 17. Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number. The relative pronoun is of the same person with the antecedent.

Rule 18. If there is no nominative between the relative and the verb, the relative is nominative case to the verb. When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own member of the sentence.

Rule 19. Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun or participle used adjectively, belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood.

Rule 20. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, participles, and other adverbs. They sometimes also qualify a preposition, and sometimes a phrase or whole sentence.

Rule 21. Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns.*

Rule 22. Two or more nouns, connected by a copulative conjunction, require the words with which they agree to be plural. If connected by a disjunctive conjunction, the verb, noun, or pronoun, with which they agree, must be singular.

Rule 23. A noun of multitude, or signifying many, has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either in the singular or plural number.

Rule 24. The infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or participle f

* To this rule there are some exceptions. See remarks on this rule, Part II.

| It may also be governed by a conjunction, adverb, or preposition. See Part II.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.