A practical English grammar for upper grades

Preface

The use of English grammar as a branch of study in the schools has been, and still is, a disputed point. The uncertainty of educators in their attitude toward the subject is shown by the changing place it has had in the elementaryschool course in recent years, — now pursued in all its formal technicalities, and now dropped altogether or else given a minor place in so-called language lessons. So far as the practical results of the study afford a basis for judgment, it must be confessed that such results in many places stand as an argument for its exclusion altogether from the grammar schools. But it is believed that the reason for failure lies in the fact that too much has been attempted in the learning of many principles and forms, and too little in their application to what is useful and comprehensible to the pupils. Too frequently the courses of study and the textbooks show that an endless mass of facts is required, much of it independent of any immediate use to the pupils. The facts presented are also in many cases fit only for mature minds and then merely as a means of '' mental discipline." The result is that many pupils after years of study are unable to apply the commonest and simplest rules of syntax, either in speaking or in writing, while they seem to be almost wholly lacking in that knowledge of grammatical relations which helps them in the study of English literature or of a foreign language.

It is the aim of this book to present in simple form the most important facts of correct English construction and to iv ENGLISH GRAMMAR

provide abundant practice in the application of them, with the object of accomphshing certain definite practical results. These results are : ( i ) such a knowledge of the relations of words in sentences as will give the pupils ability to analyze intelligently the best literature of our language ; (2) such a knowledge of the common principles and rules of construction as will help the pupils to express themselves correctly in language which they are likely to use ; and (3) such a knowledge of the inflections and relations of words as will assist the pupils in acquiring a foreign language.

The introductory chapter is intended only as a hint to the teacher of what should be done to prepare pupils for the study of grammar. Quite extended drill should be given upon the topics covered in the first two sections ; for the value of grammar to pupils will greatly depend upon their having a clear notion of the difference between ideas and thoughts on the one hand and words and sentences on the other.

It is assumed that the pupils have had a good degree of practice in the use of correct language before the study of grammar is begun, especially in the constant practice of repeating sentences involving rules of construction most frequently violated. Before these rules are studied there should be such a repetition of correct forms as to offset the influence of incorrect speech, to which children are so often exposed. The importance is apparent of getting the ear accustomed to correct forms both as an end in itself and as a preparation for grammatical study. Special exercises for correctness, therefore, should be given during the first six years of school life. It is at the close of this period that the formal study of grammar should be begun, to continue for two or three years in the upper grades of the grammar school.

PREFACE V

It is believed that the facts given in the body of the book are all that will be needed for ordinary uses either in expression or in interpretation. The more difficult uses and relations of words are given in the Appendix, mainly for reference and for the benefit of those pupils who are able to do more than the ordinary work of a class. By this means there is avoided the confusion of too many details and the danger of making the work too difficult for the pupils.

Grateful acknowledgments are due to Miss Katharine H. Shute of the Boston Normal School, to Mr. William D. Parkinson, Superintendent of Schools, Waltham, Mass., and to the proof readers of the Athenaeum Press for the invaluable aid which they have given in reading the proof.

Among the grammars consulted in the preparation of the book are Whitney's, Meikeljohn's, and Matzner's, to which the author is under special obligations.

J. T. P.

Contents

Page

INTRODUCTION . . ' i

Chapter

Introduction

WHAT ENGLISH GRAMMAR IS, AND WHY IT IS STUDIED

The first thing that a boy or girl wants to know before a new piece of work is taken up is whether it is of any use, and, if it is of any use, what that use is. Before these questions can be answered in respect to Enghsh grammar, it will be necessary to show just what is meant by grammar, and what relation it has to language.

1. Ideas and Words. When you see an object or hear a sound, there is made on your mind an impression which you are able to recall afterwards. This impression is called an idea. Thus you have an idea of the size or color of an apple which you have seen, or of the sound of an explosion which you have heard. These may be called ''quality ideas." You may also have ''action ideas," as when you see the movements of boys and birds. All these ideas may be expressed by the words "large," "red," "loud," "run," and ''fly," which may be spoken or written.

Again, when you hear words spoken or see them written or printed, they suggest or call up in your mind ideas. For

Note. Heavy-type figures in parentheses refer to numbered sections in the body of the book. Parts of the Appendix are referred to by Roman numerals preceded by the abbreviation ^^ App." Thus, App. IV means Part IV of the Appendix.

example, the words ''dog" and ''tricks" may suggest to you your dog at home and what you have taught him to do.

Words used in speaking or writing are expressions or signs of ideas.

2. Thoughts and Sentences. When you say the word "candy" you express an object idea. When you say the word "sweet" you express a quahty idea. Neither expression taken by itself tells or asserts anything. But when you connect the tvv^o words by "is," you assert or tell something ; that is, you express a complete thought when you say," Candy is sweet," and the words so expressed are called a Sentence.

You may use several words together and still not make a sentence, as when you say, "This candy in my hand." Such an expression is not a sentence because it does not express a complete thought. What word could you insert in this expression so as to make a sentence ?

Sometimes an object idea and an action idea are brought together in the mind, as when we join the idea of "birds" and of "flying." When we do that we have a complete thought, and when we express the thought in words we have the sentence "Birds fly" or "Birds are flying."

Which of the following expressions are sentences, and why ?

1. The beautiful flowers.

2. The flowers are beautiful.

3. The boys of this school.

4. Excused for absence.

5. The largest tree in the middle of the forest.

6. I saw a squirrel in the woods.

7. Ripen the last of August.

8. The apples growing upon this tree.

9. A very pleasant day for our excursion.

WHAT ENGLISH GRAMMAR IS 3

Join 3 and 4 so as to form a sentence. The insertion of what word in 5 will make a sentence ?

From what you have learned, can you define a sentence ?

Two things should be kept in mind in defining a sentence : (i) that it is a group of words ; and (2) that it expresses a complete thought.

A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

3. English Language. The term '' language" as commonly used means the expression of ideas and thoughts. By English language, or English, is meant the language used by the people of England and by all others who speak like them. The history of this language shows that its present condition has been attained by very slow growth, its form having been changed by influences which have been going on for over fifteen hundred years, until at the present time it is one of the richest of modern languages.

English language as it is spoken and written is either ''good English" or ''bad English." English is good which clearly, exactly, and correctly expresses what the speaker or writer intends to say. Correctness of language, which is the main purpose of our present study, means the right constiiLction of sentences, and is gained by following the practices of the best speakers and writers.

English language as a study is that knowledge which has for its object the right construction of sentences.

4. English Grammar. The object of the study of English language is a knowledge of the usages of the best speakers and writers. The purpose of English grammar is simply to aid in attaining that object by explaining or interpreting the language that is thus used. This is done by showing the correct forms and uses of words in their various relations.

English grammar is that knowledge which has for its object the interpretation of the right construction of sentences.

5. Purpose of the Study of English Grammar. Without the study of English grammar we might know the correct uses and forms of words from imitation, and be able to express ourselves with unvarying correctness. But to possess this knowledge and ability it would be necessary for us to come in contact with correct forms only. If we heard and saw none but correct English we should know from the sound or appearance of the words whether they were right or wrong, and of course it would be only by accident if we used a word incorrectly or if we used the wrong form of a word. As it is, however, we cannot trust our ears or eyes to guide us in the correct use of language, so accustomed are we to hearing and seeing wrong forms and uses of words.

Suppose, for example, you supply in each of the following blanks the word which you think is correct :

He called to see my sister and . (Use ^^ I " or " me.")

I did not know it was. (Use '^ who " or '' whom.")

Neither of us to blame. (Use '' was " or " were.")

The flower in your hand looks . (Use '' beautiful " or

^^beautifully.")

You may be able to use the correct words in the above expressions, but unless you can give some principle or rule founded upon the best usage to account for them, you will not be sure that you are right. One use of the study of grammar, therefore, is the knowledge of principles and rules which will help us to speak and write correctly, or which will be a test of the English we use.

WHAT ENGLISH GRAMMAR IS 5

Again, if we know the correct forms of words and their relations in sentences, we are enabled to see more clearly than we could otherwise the meaning of what we read. This knowledge is found especially useful in interpreting difficult or obscure passages. Take, for example, the lines :

True hope is swift, and flies with swallow's wings ; Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures, kings.

What can you say of the meaning of the second line ? Are you so sure of the meaning that you can express it fully in your own language ? You may be able to do this, but you will be surer of the true meaning if you have had much practice in the analysis of sentences, which is seeing the relations of words in sentences.

There is another use of a good knowledge of English grammar, and that is, the help it gives in learning a foreign language. A knowledge of the forms of English words and their relations in sentences will enable one to understand and learn more easily similar variations of form and relations in another language.

These, then, are the direct practical uses of knowing English grammar, namely :

1 . Assistance in speaking and writing correctly by knowing the rules and principles of the construction of sentences (syntax).

2. Ability to understand more clearly the meaning of what is read by knowing how to separate a sentence into parts and by knowing the function of these parts in the sentence (analysis).

3. Preparation for the study of a foreign language by knowing the classification and inflection of English words (etymology).

There is still another use of the study of elementary grammar which is perhaps as important as those which have been mentioned, and that is, its use as a preparation for the higher study of English in high school or college. There is no better foundation for good scholarship in any department of study, especially in English composition and literature, than a thorough knowledge of the principles underlying the structure of our language.

To secure all these ends of grammatical study, it will be necessary to apply by much practice the facts of construction that are learned. Opportunities for practice are given in the many special exercises which are scattered throughout this book. It is hoped that the directions they contain will be carefully followed, so as to make the study of the greatest value to you.

Chapter I The Sentence

6. Kinds of Sentences according to Use. You have learned that a sentence is a group of words so arranged as to express a complete thought ; but in all the examples of sentences given in 2, only one form of a complete thought is expressed, — that of asserting or telling something. This kind of sentence is sometimes called an assertion.

There are two other kinds of sentences which are frequently used :

1. The kind used in asking questions.

2. The kind used in making an entreaty or in giving a command.

The use of these three kinds of sentences is shown in the following examples :

The door is shut.

Is the door shut ?

Please shut the door.

Sentences of these kinds may also be used in exclamation or in some excited state of mind as when we say :

What a strong wind this is !

Does n't the wind blow !

Hear the wind blow !

The names and uses of all these kinds of sentences will be seen in the sections which follow.

7. Declarative Sentences. The sentence '' Football is a good game " declares or asserts something. The same is true of each of the following sentences :

I saw a good game of ball yesterday. The game began at two o'clock. It lasted two hours.

All such sentences are called Declarative Sentences/

A declarative sentence is a sentence that declares or asserts.

I. Make declarative sentences telling about (i) bananas; (2) a horse; (3) what you like to do; (4) where you went yesterday ; (5) Abraham Lincoln.

II. Make five declarative sentences telling about the town or city in which you live.

III. Find, if you can, five short declarative sentences in this book.

9. Interrogative Sentences. If you say to one of your classmates, '' Where is the lesson in arithmetic ? Have you performed all the problems ? " you are expressing complete thoughts in the form of questions. That is, you are using sentences that interrogate or ask questions. They are therefore called Interrogative Sentences.

Write a sentence which asks a question about (i) the weather ; (2) that apple ; (3) where some one has been ; (4) what some one has done ; (5) what some one intends to do.

What kind of sentences have you written ? How do they differ from declarative sentences ?

An interrogative sentence is a sentence used in asking a question.

1 They are also called sometimes Assertive Sentences.

THE SENTENCE 9

I. Point out all the interrogative sentences you can find on page 8.

11. Construct interrogative sentences that can be answered by the following declarative sentences :

1. The oldest town in the United States is St. Augustine, Florida.

2. It was founded by the Spaniards in 1565.

3. Jamestown, Virginia, was settled by the English in 1607.

4. Plymouth, Massachusetts, was settled by the Pilgrims in 1620.

5. They were Separatists from the Church of England.

6. The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by the Puritans in 1629.

III. Construct five interrogative sentences and five declarative sentences that have some connection with your lessons.

11. Imperative Sentences. If you say, '' Put the book on the table," you express a command. If you say, ''Please shut the door," or '' Pardon me," you express a request. Such sentences as these are called Imperative Sentences.

Make an imperative sentence such as a boy might use in speaking to a dog. Make an imperative sentence such as a boy might use at the dinner table. If a man wishes to apologize to some one for something he has done, what might he say ?

An imperative sentence is a sentence expressing a command or a request.

I. Find three imperative sentences in this section.

II. Find five declarative sentences in one of your textbooks and change them into imperative sentences.

lO ENGLISH GRAMMAR

III. Construct five imperative sentences such as an officer might use in giving orders.

13. Exclamatory Sentences. Sometimes a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence expresses surprise or strong emotion, as

Oh, how warm it is !

This is a declarative sentence which expresses strong feeling. Strong feeling is also expressed in some interrogative and imperative sentences, such as

Is n't the music grand !

Ay, tear her tattered ensign down !

All such sentences are said to be Exclamatory Sentences.

An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses strong feeling.

Tell whether each of the following exclamatory sentences is declarative, interrogative, or imperative :

1. Rouse, ye Romans !

2. Will ye give it up to slaves !

3. Sail on, O Union, strong and great !

4. The ground 's your own, my braves !

6. How sublime is the sea at such a time !

I. Change the following into exclamatory sentences :

1. I wish he were here. 4. It was a glorious sunset.

2. Is this not great fun ? 5. It is a very pleasant day.

3. Do not speak a word. 6. Are you going home so soon ?

II. Select ten exclamatory sentences from your reading book and classify them into declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.

THE SENTENCE II

Tell the kind of each of the following sentences :

1. Be ye all of one mind.

2. This is the forest primeval.

3. Woodman, spare that tree !

Touch not a single bough !

4. How are the mighty fallen !

5. Listen to this Indian legend, To this song of Hiawatha.

6. '' Will you walk into my parlor ? '^ Said the spider to the fly.

7 . There 's no rain left in heaven.

8. Is it so nominated in the bond ?

9. What is so rare as a day in June ?

Then, if ever, come perfect days.

10. Give me liberty or give me death.

11. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! Sail on, O Union, strong and great !

12. Love is sunshine, hate is shadow, Life is checkered shade and sunshine ;

Rule by love, O Hiawatha.

13. O mighty Caesar, dost thou lie so low !

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea.

15. Oh, what a fall was there, my countrymen !

16. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall. But at every gust the dead leaves fall.

And the day is dark and dreary.

17. There 's no dew left on the daisies and clover.

18. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight.

19. Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn,

The sheep 's in the meadow, the cow 's in the corn.

20. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh.

21. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways and be wise.