School administration, including the organization and supervision of schools

Preface

American conditions do not seem to favor an easy, simple and effective administration of schools. Among the adverse conditions existing in many places are: (1) an overpowering sentiment in favor of local self-government and a strong opposition to centralization of any kind; (2) a non-recognition by the people of the need of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the schools; (3) a tendency to adopt political methods in the election of school officials as well as in matters of school control; (4) the comparatively short terms of administrative offices and the frequent changes of membership in them; (5) the large extent of sparsely inhabited regions and the consequent difficulties of school attendance and classification; and (6) the difference of financial ability in the various sections of a State and the variety of needs to be met. Such conditions as these are likely to foster mistakes of administration which can be avoided only by the greatest care and effort.

Among the mistakes of school administration actually existing in this country may be mentioned first the tendency of over organization in which the attention of the workers is turned away from the product to the machinery which turns it out. Again there is the other extreme of a lack of organization by which the time and effort of school officials are wasted. But more frequently perhaps than all else is the loose organization by which the duties of school officials overlap one another, frequently resulting in confusion and friction of a serious kind.

In matters of school supervision also there is the same tendency to extremes of practice which exists in vi Preface

school organization — the over-supervision on the one hand which takes away the original freedom and originality of the teachers, and the absence of supervision on the other which gives an opportunity for teachers to carry out in questionable ways the lowest ends of education and which gives no encouragement or support to teachers who are striving to attain the highest ends.

It is difficulties like these which this book is intended to meet. It is not expected that theories of administration can be applied everywhere exactly as they are here given; but it is hoped that their presentation will be of substantial assistance to members of School Boards, Superintendents and Principals of schools, as well as to professional students of education in Colleges and Normal Schools.

It should be said that many of the recommeded plans and outlines are simply a transcript of existing practices. Full credit, however , could not be given in all cases because of the changes in them which were thought desirable to make and because of the fact that in a few instances the authorship was unknown.

CO ]S^ TENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I The Nature, and Source of School Organization 1

II Legislative Provisions respecting the Organization of Schools 6

III State Administration of Schools 21

IV City and Town Administration of Schools.. 32 V District and County Administration of

VI The Superintendent as Organizer 59 — -

VII The Superintendent as Supervisor 150.___^

VIII The Superintendent and Community Interests 181_.

IX The Principal as Organizer and Supervisor 187

X The Teacher as Organizer 202

XI Schools for Defectives and Delinquents 220 ^

XII Records and Reports 226

APPENDIXES

A The Evolution of School Supervision 247

B The Supervision of Rural Schools 265

C Consolidation of Rural Schools 272

D School Revenues and their Distribution 283

E Special Schools and Classes , 290

E School Hygiene 298 t.

G General Plan of Studies for Elementary

H Plans of Studies for High Schools 404

Chapter I The Nature And Source Of School Organi- Zation

The organs comprising a system of education are the essential means or instruments by which the work of education is done — the or- The nature 2:anization becomins: more and more complex as ^^] necessity

. • 1 1 01 orgamza-

the system extends m function or in the number tio^ of pupils reached. A school of one pupil with one subject of instruction must have its organization no less than a system of many schools with a large number of subjects. The place and means of instruction must be provided even though they be only Garfield's well-known log with a teacher at one end of it. The reach from such an organization to the organization needed for a city system is very great, and yet in these extremes of conditions and in all the intermediate points, a choice of means must be ' made; and it will be found that that organization is most effective in which each part or The most organ is best suited to perform its particular ^^^f^^^f ^^'• function with reference to all other functions and the result to be reached.

Before considering the functions of these

organs or what the organs should be, it may be

Protection of schools against partisanship and sectarianism.

The adjustment of local and central authority.

well to refer briefly to the power which lies behind the organization and which is alike its source and defence. This power is the will of the people as expressed in the constitution and laws of the state. In the constitution there should be a recognition of the necessity of maintaining free schools, and provision should be made to protect them from the debasement of partisanship and sectarianism. The statutes should go further by designating certain conditions and means for the establishment and maintenance of the schools. In the creation of offices and in the authorization of official functions the utmost wisdom is needed. The fostering of the people's interest in the schools and the protection of their rights will vvarrant the placing of a large measure of power and responsibility directly into their hands and into the hands of local boards.

On the other hand the protection of the schools from neglect and mistakes occasioned by indifference or ignorance on the part of those most directly concerned will require some centralization of power, either by restrictive legislation or by the giving of authority to a central board or commission. To what extent general laws should be made in matters of education and how the powers conferred upon local and state authorities should be adjusted are difficult questions and can be determined only by principles of wise government and by a careful consideration of circumstances.

It should be borne in mind that the influence

Nature and Source of School Organization 3

of illiteracy or of poor schools extends beyond the circle iramediately concerned. What affects for ill one part of the state affects to a greater or less extent all other parts. If therefore a large majority of people are desirous of maintaining a high degree of intelligence throughout the state they are justified, in the interests of the state and of all the children in it, in making conditions to which the minority must conform. For this reason the state rightfully establishes a standard of educational opportunity for children which must be met by every town ; and lest some of the towns may be too heavily burdened in meeting the requirements, the state should provide for such equalization of taxation as will Equalization enable all towns with reasonable effort to comply ^^ educational with the provisions of the law. To carry out andTaxation these beneficent ends there must be provided by law an organization both of official functions and of material means. Such an organization involves questions of the adjustment of central and local powers which are as difficult of solution as they are important.

Among the advantages of influential centralization in education may be mentioned (1) the certainty of maintaining a high standard of excellence in the schools of all parts of the state (2) the prevention of sudden changes of policy due to local jealousies or to the ignorance of local oflfi- of centraiizacials (3) needed assistance in determining the tion. curriculum and in making a course of studies (4) the securing of uniformly good attendance of pupils throughout the state.

Advantages of decentralization.

Constant changes in systems of education.

The advantages of centralization are positive and apparent, but they are no more positive and apparent than are the advantages of giving a large degree of responsibility and power directly to the people or of- what is sometimes called decentralization. The chief of these advantages are (1) the encouragement of individual interest and effort in behalf of the schools on the part of the people (2) the ready adaptation of means to the peculiar needs of given localities (3) the opportunity for a healthy and progressive rivalry among communities (4) the stimulus to personal exertion and professional skill on the part of teachers and supervisors.

It is to be expected that the organization of any new system of schools will partake somewhat of the character of existing civil conditions, and that modifications in the direction of centralization or decentralization will be made as the needs and the intelligence of the people demand them. Thus it is that the systems of education in Europe are highly centralized but are changing slowly in the direction of placing the schools in the control of the people. In this country there is a great variety of practice. In some sections the direction and support of the schools are largely under state control, while in other sections a large share of their control and financial support devolves upon the municipality. As might be expected, a constant change is going on in the administration of the schools of all sections — some of the states changing in the direction of local control and support and others

Nature and Source of School Organization 5

in the direction of centralization. These changes will doubtless go on until a fair balance of general and local control is reached, when, it may be supposed, the forms and conditions of school administration throughout the country will be alike in many important respects.

CHAPTER TI

A sufficient number of schools required by law.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS RESPECTING THE OR- GANIZATION OF SCHOOLS

The following brief outline embraces the main features of legislative provisions needed for the establishment of a system of schools in which a large measure of power is given to the people subject to some needed restrictive conditions :

1. The, mai7itenance in every town and city of a sufficient number of elementary schools for all the children of a certain school age and for a given time in the year ; and the maintenance of high schools in cities and large towns.

The general requirement of a '^ sufficient number of schools" seems wiser than that of designating the distance beyond which pupils may not be obliged to walk or ride to school, inasmuch as what might be regarded as a reasonable distance under some conditions would be under other conditions quite unreasonable. A distance limit also might preclude towns from furnishing free conveyance of children to the schools as is provided in several states.*

The term " sufficient number of schools " also has reference to efficiency as well as to con-

"^^ For a statement as to the desirability of consolidating the schools and for suggestions relating to means and method of consolidation, see Appendix C.

Legislative Provisions f 07' Organization of Schools 7

venience. For the protection of the schools it may be found necessary to designate by law a '

maximum number of pupils for each teacher. Some countries and states have made such a limit, but the number in a few cases has been placed so high as to set a wrong standard for com- '^^^^ number munities which regard the consideration of econo- j^g^JJJ^gj! ^ ^ ^ my more than that of the children's welfare. In some instances also the legal limit is ignored in ' practice. It is very important in this as well as in other educational matters that the legal requirements be kept not greatly in advance of public sentiment.

The time during which schools should be required to be maintained will depend somewhat 15 time re-

^ ^ quircment of

upon circumstances, but 8 months would seem school mainto be the least time for which any state should tenance. require the schools to be kept in the year. Similiar reasons for an indefiniteness of statement may be urged respecting the legal period of compulsory school attendance. A reasonable regard for the welfare of the children however would warrant the state's requiring 6 years at least of attendance upon the schools all the time they are in session.*

* The compulsory school attendance laws vary considerably in the United States. In most of the 30 states having compulsory laws children from 8 to 14 years of age are required to attend school for 12, 16 or 20 weeks duririg each year. In some of the states the required time for school attendance is greater — thus in Colorado, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Minnesota the required time for school attend-

High schools to be established by law.

In addition to the requirements respecting elementary schools, there should be provision made by law for the establishment of high schools. That such schools should be free and within reach of all the children in a republic like ours is coming to be regarded as wise and, for many parts of the country, as feasible. They may be required to be maintained in certain accessible centres or they may be required in all cities and in towns of a given size. The studies required to be taught may be designated or there may be a provision that ihe schools shall prepare pupils for entrance to college or the higher technical schools.*

ance is from 8 to 16 years of age with some exceptions during the last 2 years. In Massachusetts and New York children of compulsory age are required to attend school all the time the schools are in session and the schools must be in session 32 weeks. In Germany children are, with some limitations, obliged to attend school for 7 and 8 years after the age of 6. In France the compulsory age is from 6 to 13, and in England it is from 5 to 14. For further details respecting school attendance in this and foreign countries see Hughes's "The Making of Citizens", pp. 134-141.

* In Massachusetts such high schools are required to be maintained in all cities and towns containiag 500 families, and provision is made for the children of other towns to attend some high school at the expense either of the town in which they live or of the state.

Several of the central and western states have provided by law for county high schools to be

^. The maintenance of schools for the care and education of habitual school absentees, of juvenile offenders, and of abnormal or defective children who cannot be cared for in the ordinary public schools.

Compulsory school attendance implies an obligation on the part of the state to make suitable ^^^ ^aainteprovision for habitual violators of the law, either schools for by placing the absentees in good homes or by school absenestablishing truant or parental schools. These *^^^* schools should be situated in convenient localities and be under the control and care of the state. *

Other schools should be established for those morally delinquent and physically defective children who cannot be educated in the ordinary

supported and controlled by the county. In New York tuition in high schools of non- resident pupils from schools not maintaining an academic department is paid by the state, at the rate of 120 for 32 weeks. In Nebraska the law permits pupils of country towns to attend an existing high school and provides for tuition fees at fixed rates to be paid by the county in which they reside. In Minnesota state aid is given to city high schools, approved by state educational authorities upon condition of providing free tuition. For information relating to free high schools for rul^al pupils see report of the Commissioner of Education for 1899-1900, p. 643.

* There seem to be good reasons for keeping all reformatory and penal institutions in the care of the state. Possible exceptioDs may be those institutions which are supported by large cities mainly for their own benefit. In any case they should be in charge of unpaid boards or commissions, with paid executive agents.

Schools of reformation and special -scliools for defectives.

The function of state board of education advisory.

public schools, such as juvenile offenders, blind, deaf, and feeble-minded. Attendance at these schools, as in the case of normal children, should be compulsory for all children of a certain age whose education is not otherwise provided for. Such schools should be entirely separate from truant schools and from the ordinary public schools, and should be so organized and conducted that the fullest beaefits to all concerned may be secured. *

S. The establishment of a state board of education and the designation of its 'powers and duties.

The powers and duties devolving upon the state board should be very general so far as its administration of the schools is concerned. In all matters pertaining to the direct management of the schools its function should be mainly advisory rather than directive. Through its executive officers it should lead and guide the educational sentiment of the state and be ready to shape such legislation as will be needed to promote the greatest efficiency of effort in behalf of the schools, t

In the composition of the state board, as well as in the method by which its members are selected, much latitude may be given in the statute

* A fuller treatment of this subject will be found in Chapter VI, under the heading of "Special Schools and Classes" — also in Appendix E.

t For details respectiag the duties of the state board of education and its executive officers see Chapter III.

requirements. The desirability of having the

affairs of education removed as far as possible

from pontics would favor the appointment of

members by the governor rather than election by

the legislature or people. And to secure the

needed knowledge and continuity of service, the

term of office of members should be at least four

years in length. If the board has, as it should ^^^mbership of , ^ • ^ 1 i J . state board

have, executive oincers who act as experts m ^nd term of

educational matters, it need not and perhaps office. should not be composed of professional teachers. This restriction will be especially apparent in the case of teachers in institutions which are under the charge of the board. There are good reasons for having upon the board one or more members of the state executive departrnent. The number of appointed members should be small, perhaps not more than five. Better attendance at meetings will be secured and a greater degree of responsibility will be felt in a small board than in a large one.*

*Tn Prussia and other states of Germany the general board consists of skilled men to whom large powers are given. They are appointed by the minister of instruction, who is a member of the government. In France the general board or council also consists of educational leaders endowed with large powers; they are variously appointed, some by the president of the Republic and some by officials of educational institutions. In the composition of state boards in this country there is a great variety of practice, some of the boards consisting chiefly or wholly of professional teachers, some of designated officials, and some of all classes of citizens. In

If,. The establishment of a local board for each town and city, with some provision to meet the needs of country districts or small towns.

The question of organization respecting the local school boards has mainly to do with the manner of selection, number of members, and term of office of members.

First as to the selection of members. Shall they be elected by the people, by the city or town council, or by the executive? No doubt has been raised in this country either in practice or in theory as to the advisability of the popular

states where members of the board are not designated by law, they are either elected for a term of years by the general assembly or appointed by the governor. In Michigan 3 members are elected by the people. In New York all state education is in the hands of a board of regents of the University of the State of New York, consisting of 11 members elected by the legislature on joint ballot, each for a term of 11 years, one retiring each year. The following examples serve as types of practice followed in the various states :

Indiana : Board composed of governor, state superintendent, president of state universiy, president of Purdue university, president of state normal school, and superintendents of the three largest cities of the state.

Massachusetts: Board composed of governor, lieutenant-governor, and 8 persons appointed by the governor, one retiring each year.

Connecticut : Board composed of the governor, lieutenant-governor, and 4- persons elected by the general ssembly.

election of members in rural communities or small towns. But the arguments in favor of popular elections in such communities are equally strong in all. The public schools are the schools Members of of the public, that is of the people; and the local school people should be trusted in the control of their pje^ted by the schools to the extent at least of electing proper people. persons to manage them. For special reasons the administrative board should be given large powers — in fact almost unlimited powers in all questions of management. The largeness of their powers and the direct interest the people have in the schools will induce the people to make a careful selection. While in some communities there may be possible dangers attending a popular election of members, the dangers in the long run of taking it out of the haods of the people and of placing it in the hands of a single person or commission are far more likely to be realized.

The tendency in recent years to reduce the number of members of the board and increase g^^^j^ boards their term of service is noticeable. A board of desirable. 3, 5, or 7 persons is likely to represent the best sentiment of the community quite as well as a larger one. Moreover the members of a small board are likely to be more carefully selected than those of a large one.

The responsible and intricate duties of local school boards render it advisable to make the term of service for which members are elected ,

^ long one. Three years is not too long a time for members to acquire a good knowledge of the needs of the schools and of the means of meeting

The term of service of school boards.

Eligibility of members.

The organization of county boards.

them. It seems also advisable that the terms of service of the members shall not expire at the same time. It would be well for the length of the term and the time of election to be such as will oblige only a third of the members to retire in any one year. By this plan at least three years would be required to effect an entire change of membership by ordinary elections. A further provision should be made that no teacher shall be eligible for membership on any school board which elects him to his position as teacher or which fixes his salary.

To meet the needs of rural schools where the county is the unit area of organization, laws should be passed enabling them to have privileges as nearly equal to those of villages and cities as possible. Provision for the election of a county board should be made which shall have jurisdiction over all the schools of the county. This board may be elected and organized in a manner similar to that of the town boards already alluded to, and it may have essentially the same duties."

5. Provision for the appointment of such officers and teachers as will be needed to secure regular attendance of children upon the schools, to insure the health of the pupils, and to raise the schools to the highest possible degree of efficiency.

Compulsory laws of school attendance presuppose the existence of the means of their execution. Chief among these means are properly

* For the details of a possible plan of county organization for the supervision of schools see Chapter IV. Also Appendix B.

Local and state appointed attendance officers to look after those pupils who are, without good reason, absent from school. In addition to attendance officers appointed by local boards there should be one or more state attendance officers appointed by the _ ,

attendance

state board of education whose duty will be to officers to be see that the compulsory attendance laws are en- appointed. forced. This will be especially needed in country districts where the obstacles to the enforcement of attendance laws are the greatest.

The practice which prevails in many cities of appointing health officers for schools should be extended so as to include by law all the schools of the state. It should be required of the school board in every city and town to appoint one or more health officers whose duty will be to inspect tt i ^^ ^ . the physical condition of the pupils and to pro- to be appointvide not only for the prevention of disease but ed. also for the promotion of health among them.

Such provision should be made by law as will insure for all the schools the best possible service both in teaching and in supervision. A mini-

o i-r. J- J? . 1 1 IT 1 A minimum of

mum of qualifications for teachers should be qualifications designated by the state board of education, and of teachers to provision should be made whereby each local ^^ designated. board in making a selection of teachers may select from candidates only those whose character and ability are unquestioned.

The school board of each city and large town should be required to elect a superintendent of skilled superschools, of given scholastic and professional qual- intendents of

ifications. For the smaller towns district super- ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^

elected

vision which has worked so well in some states

School supervision in small towns.

County 'superintendents.

Subjects of study to be designated by law.

might well be made a requirement of statute law. The essential features of such a plan might be as follows :

(1) Two or more towns to unite for purposes of supervision, the valuation of each town not to exceed a certain sum and the aggregate number of schools in all the towns to be witliin given limits.

(2) The formation of district limits to be made by the state board of education.

(3) The superintendent to be elected by the combined boards in such a way as to protect the interests of each town and with designated limitations of choice.

(4) Provision for such aid from the state as will be needed to pay the superintendent's salary.

In states where the district plan of supervision is not feasible, one or more county superintendents should be appointed by the county board, with certain limitations as to number of schools, qualifications, etc."^

6. The designation of subjects to be taught in the schools.

The required subjects to be taught in the elementary schools should be language (including reading, spelling, penmanship, composition, writing and English grammar), arithmetic, geography, elementary science, physiology and hygiene. School boards should be free to provide for the teaching of any subject not required to be taught,

" For possible plans of district and county supervision see Chapter V and Appendix B.

Provisions for high schools.

but certain desirable subjects may be named in the law as optional, such as geometry, algebra, industrial training and a foreign language. *

In the law for the establishment of high schools there should be provisions which will insure a certain degree of efficiency. These provisions may include fitness of teachers, subjects of instruction, and length of course. f

7. Provision for the financial support of the schools. \

There is no part of school legislation more difficult to formulate than that relating to taxa- ^difficulties m tion for the support of schools, especially in sdioois. states where the wealth is unequally distributed and where other conditions of school maintenance are widely different. Not only is the matter of equalization of taxation to be considered, but the question of how far local support of the

* For details concerning the curriculum in this and foreign countries see Chapter VI and Appendix G.

t In the Massachusetts high schools, teachers of " competent ability and good morals " are required to give instruction in such subjects "as may be required for the general purpose of training and culture as well as for the purpose of preparing pupils for admission to state normal schools, technical schools, and colleges. " These schools are required to maintain one or more courses of study at least 4 years in length 40 weeks in each year. The requirement to maintain high schools is made of all cities and towns having 500 families. Towns having fewer than 500 families are to permit qualified pupils to attend high schools in other towns, the tuition for the same to be paid in whole or part by the state.

Two methods of distributing school funds.

Importance of local taxation for support of schools.

schools is Decessary to a proper public spirit in relation to education and to the prevention of a weakening dependence upon the state on account of benefits received.

General laws of taxation for the support of schools and distribution of funds are found to proceed either from the municipality to the state or vice versa. For example the law may provide as it does in some states that a certain sum per pupil or per school shall be raised by local taxation, with the understanding that the balance needed for the support of the schools shall be drawn either from an established fund or from funds raised by general or state tax. Or as in other states the law may provide that each municipality shall receive a certain sum per pupil or per teacher from the state with the understanding that the balance needed shall be raised by local taxation.