Methods of instruction and organization of the schools of Germany

Preface

This book is intended to give a general idea of the organization of the schools of Germany, and such a view of their inner working as may be suggestive and helpful to teachers. If the purpose were to give a complete report of the schools, to show their character as a whole, and to pass judgment upon them, it would be necessary to give fuller extracts from existing laws than are given here, and to go into details of management and methods which the limits of a single volume would not permit.

The aim has been to give important features of organization only, and to confine the statement of methods to what is best and most useful for American teachers to know. Nearly every school exercise noted is one which has a special point of value to teachers. Unprofitable details of lessons, and, so far as possible, repetitions of the same or similar work of teachers, have been avoided.

The fragmentary and incomplete character of the notes of lessons heard, is accounted for from the fact that they were copied from my note-book almost exactly as

iii

IV PREFACE

they were written in the recitation-room. I preferred not to revise them or put them in more complete form lest I should give an incorrect report of what I saw.

Information relating to statistics and organization of the schools has been derived from several sources ; from teachers and other school officers, and from various school laws, courses of study, catalogues, etc., including S^indtx's Lexikonder Pddagogik, 1889; Giebe's Verordnungen betrejfend das gesanimte Volksschulwesen in Preussen (Glebe's Verordnungeii) ; Preussische Statistik lOi (Preus. Stat. loi) ; Y^ockXo's Lehrplan fiir die einfackeit Volksschulen des Konigreichs Sachsen^ DresdeUy 1890 {Lekrplan Sachsen) ; Pddagogischer Yahresbericht^ 1889, von A. Richter {Pad. Yahresbericht) ; Gesetz ueber die Gymnasien, Realschulen und Seminare^ von R. GotZy Leipzig, I ZjJ (Gotz's Gesetz) ; to which reference is made in abbreviated forms as noted in the parentheses. Other references are given in full.

Reference to sources of information has not in all cases been made, owing to the fact that some of the notes were taken with no thought of putting them in permanent form.

Some of the chapters consist of a revision and extension of articles which originally appeared in the New England Journal of Education, Atlantic Monthly, and Educational Review, whose publishers have generously consented to their use in the present form.

Special acknowledgments are due to my colleague,

PREFACE V

Prof. George A. Walton, who has kindly assisted in reading and correcting the proof-sheets ; also, for a similar service, to Dr. Larkin Dunton, Head Master of the Boston Normal School, and Miss Margaret K. Smith, of the Oswego, N. Y., Normal School, whose knowledge of the German schools has enabled them to give valuable suggestions. With their approval of the book so far as its general accuracy is concerned, it is offered to the profession with the confident belief that it will meet the wants of those who desire material in small compass for the study of the current history of education in Germany. Of special value will such material be to members of normal schools and reading-circles, to whom, as well as to the general reader, the marginal topics will be of great convenience.

J. T. P.

January i, 1892.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

I. ORGANIZATION i

Kinds of Schools. — Administration. — Supervision. — Qualifications of Teachers. — Appointment of Teachers. — Female Teachers. — School Buildings and Furnishings.

Chapter I

There are in Germany both private and public schools. The private schools are established and supported by private individuals under a certain Kinds of amount of governmental supervision, and S^^°°^^- are of all kinds and grades. The public schools are supported wholly or in part at public expense, and are controlled by the state or municipal government. They may be classified as follows: —

1. Normal schools {L ekrer- Seminar e) in which teachers for the elementary schools are trained.

2. High schools including {a) classical schools {Gymnasien) in which especial emphasis is placed upon Latin and Greek ; {b) Non-classical schools {Realschtilen) in which the sciences are chiefly taught ; {c) Schools of various kinds in which the courses of studies of the Gymnasien or Realschulen are modified in some degree.

3. Elementary schools known under various names and quite generally designated as people's schools {Volkschulen) .

The organization and characteristics of these and other schools will be treated in subsequent chapters.

The chief power in the administration of educational affairs lies in the central government of each state. Adminis- The details in the execution of this power tration. differ somewhat in the various states ; and

yet, as would be expected, there is a quite general uniformity of practice in the main features of school administration throughout the empire. In the organization of school affairs Prussia has to some extent doubtless served as an example for other neighboring states. Especially at the time of and since the federation of the empire has the influence of the larger state been most powerful. To show therefore in small compass the most common characteristics of the administration of the schools in all of the states, the details of the administration of Prussian schools only need be given.

In Prussia the highest power employed in directing school affairs is the Minister of Instruction^ who is a member of the government. He has as representatives and advisers (all together being called the Ministermm) an under secretary and a number of councillors who constitute four distinct councils, one council having in charge church affairs, another medical affairs, a third

1 The exact title of this official is Minister der geistlichen, Unterrichts- und Medizin alangelegenheiten.

matters relating to the universities, art and higher institutions of learning, and a fourth matters relating to normal schools and people's schools.

The Councillors having in charge educational affairs are skilled men, — one for universities ; three, one of whom is a Catholic, for higher institutions ; and three, one of whom is a Catholic, for normal and people's schools. Immediately under the Ministerium are the universities, technological schools, commissions for examining teachers of higher institutions, and other examination commissions, the normal gymnastic Institute, art academies, the great art collections, etc. Towards all other ,schools the state's relations are exercised through the provincial school boards ^ which have in charge the higher schools, and the district governments {Regier- U7tgs-besirke)y thirty-six in number, which have the people's schools and a greater part of the girls' high schools to look after. The district governments also have supervision of all private institutions, at least so far as to see that the provisions of their charters are complied with. The provincial school board has charge of all institutions, public and private, in Berlin.

Of the higher schools some are supported wholly by the general government, some by both general and local governments together, and some wholly by local governments and private persons or societies. Over all these institutions the provincial school boards have

1 There are fourteen provinces in the kingdom.

supervision, either independently or in co-operation with others.

In addition to provincial and district administration, there is a local administration which has mainly to do with the external affairs of the schools, such as attending to repairs of buildings, fixing school fees, and, in certain cases, nominating teachers. For private and municipal schools the local school authorities nominate teachers, but confirmation is always left to the provincial or district authorities.

In the cities and in regularly laid out districts in the

country there are school inspectors who are selected

generally for distinguished service as teachers,

Supervision.

upon whom devolve certain fixed responsibilities and duties. Saxony, for example, — a kingdom with about the same area and population as Massachusetts, — is divided outside of the larger cities into twenty-five districts. In each of these districts there is a superintendent, — or, as he is called, school-inspector, — who has to make periodical visits to the schools of his district. In these visits he is required to direct his attention especially (I quote from the laws ^ governing his duties) (i) to the observance of the law in relation to school attendance ; (2) to the industry and demeanor of the teacher, and to the discipline, order, and cleanliness of the pupils ; (3) to the adherence to the plan of study, to the methods of instruction, and to the progress of

1 Das Volksschulwesen im Konigreich Sachsen. — Leipzig, 1876 A. p. 30.

ORGANIZATION C

the pupils in general, and in each subject; (4) to the apparatus used, and the elaboration of the course of study ; (5) to the scientific studies and additional employment of the teacher ; (6) to the economical management of the school, particularly in respect to the prompt payment of the teacher's salary, and the maintenance of the school regulations ; (7) to the occupations of the inhabitants of the place ; (8) to the efficiency of the local school board. It is his duty to make an examination of the records of the local school board, and he has the right to cause the president to call a meeting of that board. He is obliged to visit the private schools, to see that the conditions of their establishment are complied with, and that they do not go beyond those conditions. He has to fill temporarily vacant places, and may give temporary leave of absence to teachers. He is obliged to call a meeting at least once a year, of all the teachers of his district, for the purpose of giving them directions. Finally, he must make a report yearly to the highest school board, giving the condition of the schools, and a statement of his work, together with statistics embracing every phase of education in his district. These and other regulations governing the official duties of the superintendent are definite and quite minute. In spite of the minuteness of his inquiry into the work of teachers, there seems to be little or no interference with the individuality of teachers, as will be shown later on. The inspector's visits to a given school are sometimes a year or two apart ; but the inspection, when it is made, is most thorough. I was permitted to read one of the inspector's reports made to a district board in Saxony ; and the details respecting the condition of each school and the methods employed by each teacher were very minutely and carefully stated. In Prussia, in addition to duties just enumerated, the district school inspector has to pass judgment upon plans of school buildings and of alterations ; to ascertain whether the local school inspector performs his prescribed duties ; to attend to the supplying of school libraries with good books ; to look after families of deceased teachers, and in general to stand between the government and lower school officers both in issuing government decrees and in reporting to the government what is done or what is omitted. It should be said in passing that not all the districts of Prussia are supervised by professional superintendents, or even by men whose entire time is given to the duties of their office.

In country districts there are local school inspectors, who visit the schools and have certain supervisory duties in the elementary schools. They are generally clergymen, who serve as supervisors without pay. Their duties are mainly advisory, relating to examinations, religious instruction, courses of study, substitute teachers, and matters of local interest. In some particulars their duties are connected with those of the district inspector, who, on account of the size of his district, is not able to reach all the schools easily or frequently.

In addition to the supervision which is made by district and local school inspectors, there is constant oversight by principals of the work done in large schools. The number of recitations required to be heard by assistant teachers ranges from twenty-four to thirty-two a week, while the principal has, as a rule, to hear but twelve a week. The time not thus employed is given to making the required statistics, and to overseeing the work of his assistants.

All schools of every kind share the advantage of rigid state requirements for the qualifications of teachers. The tests are based chiefly upon exam- Qualifications inations which are conducted by commissions °^ Teachers, consisting generally of representatives of the higher and local school boards, principals and teachers of schools, and specialists for drawing, gymnastics, etc. No teacher of any kind — not even a teacher in a private family — is permitted to teach unless he holds a certificate from an examination commission, or is permitted under its rules to teach temporarily.

In Prussia ^ an examination is given to the graduates of the normal schools at the close of their course to test their fitness to teach for a limited time in the elementary schools. Other persons than normal gradu-

1 From Glebe's Verordnungen, p. i-8. The Prussian plan of examinations is not unlike that of the other states.

I ates may take this examination, but the nature of the examination prevents any considerable number from attempting it. As a matter of fact, there are very few teachers of elementary schools at present who are not graduates of the normal school course. The examination consists of three parts — a written, an oral, and a practical test. The written test, in addition to questions in arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, and natural history, consists of the composition of a choral and two essays, one upon some subject connected with religious instruction for which two hours are given, and one upon some other subject selected by the examining board for which four hours are given. Two translations from, and into Latin, French, or English are voluntary.

The practical test consists of a class-exercise with pupils, of which a written analysis is required, and for the preparation of which two days are allowed. The oral examination may be upon all subjects taught in the normal school course. Jewish candidates are not required to pass in religion. Clear and exact answers to all questions are required. If a candidate fails to pass in either religion, language, or arithmetic, or in any three of the other subjects, he does not receive a certificate. The certificate permits the holder to receive a temporary appointment as teacher of any elementary school.

Not earlier than two years and not later than five years after the first examination a second examination is given to candidates who desire to receive a permanent appointment. This examination is given by the same board which gave the first examination, and consists of written, oral, and practical tests as before. Three written essays are required: one upon a subject connected with school management, one relating to religious instruction, and one relating to instruction in one of the other elementary school branches, — all to be written under the inspection of a member of the examining commission. The practical test is a class exercise as before, the subject of which is announced the day before. The oral examination is upon the history of education, principles of education, school management and methods of teaching the various subjects required to be taught. The work of the candidates in the several subjects is marked as before: ^' very good,'' ^^ good,'' ^^ sufficient," or ''not stfficient." Candidates whose class exercise is marked, '' 7iot stfficient" are rejected. Results in other subjects are marked and counted as in the first examination. To those who successfully pass this examination, certificates are given entitling them to teach permanently and to receive a definite appointment.

Those candidates who at the first examination are marked ''good" in religion, language, arithmetic, and the 7r^/ studies (geography, history, and natural history), or instead of the real studies a foreign language, and who are marked "good" in all subjects given in the second examination, are entitled to teach in the lower classes lO SCHOOLS OF GERMANY

of the middle schools and of higher schools for girls.

Other and more severe examinations are given to candidates for the position of teacher in the middle and higher grades of middle schools and higher schools for girls, and also for the principalship of elementary schools.

Candidates^ for the position of teacher in high schools {GymTiasien^ Realgymnasien, Oberrealschiilen^ and Jwheren Burgerschtden) are examined by " scientific examination commissions " consisting of seven members, one for each of the principal subjects in which the candidates are examined.

Candidates are required to have graduated from a gymnasium or Realgymnasiiim^ and to have studied three years in a university. The examination is written and oral. Besides a brief biography written in Latin, or in French or English, candidates have two or three essays to write upon given subjects, being allowed six weeks' time for each essay. In certain cases the dissertation written to secure the doctor's degree in the university is received in lieu of the essays above mentioned. Severe oral and written tests are given in the subjects selected by the candidates as main subjects, while in other branches, notably philosophy, pedagogics, German language and literature, and religion, candidates are obliged to prove their effici-

1 Information here given is taken from Sander's Lexikon der P'ddagogik ; Article: Preussen.

ency. Having received a certificate — conditional or unconditional — indicating his fitness for one or another position, the candidate is obliged to spend a certain period of time in a gymnasium or Realgymnasium under the direction of the principal before he can receive a permanent appointment. Formerly the time spent in practice was oiflte year, being called a trial year {Probejahr). In 1882 the trial period was extended to two years, after which candidates pass another examination, in which they show that their time has been profitably spent in the observation and practice of good methods of teaching. In 1889 it was decreed that seven pedagogical seminaries should be established in every province, to be connected with the Gymnasien. A candidate for the position of teacher in a gymnasium is expected to spend a year in the seminary under the direction of a gymnasium director. During this trial year of teaching he is paid a small amount by the government. There are examinations for teachers of abnormal children, — idiots, blind, deaf and dumb, etc. ; also for teachers of special subjects, such as drawing, sewing, gymnastics, etc. These examinations are quite general in character and very thorough. In gymnastics, for example, the examination is oral and written, and covers various subjects, including anatomy, physiology, a description of apparatus and movements, and, for candidates who have not passed the regular teachers' examination, other subjects of elementary instruction.

It is not feasible, were it advisable, to give in detail here the various ways of making appointments in dif- Appointment Cerent parts of the empire. A few of the of Teachers. jjjQgt noteworthy items only are given. Appointments are made by the government ; i.e., by boards representing the government, but nominations for private and municipal schools are madfe by the local boards. These local boards in sending their nominations may state their preferences, but can send the names only of those who have passed the required examinations. In Prussia teachers are permitted to leave their schools only at the close of a term, and must give three months' notice of their intention to leave, unless excused by the school board from such notice.

Certain appointments of elementary teachers are made for three years, and within that time the teachers so appointed are not permitted to resign. Other appointments are made for a longer or shorter time by the provincial or government boards.

The number of female teachers in Germany has gradually increased within a few years ; yet in 1886 in the Female entire empire but little more than a tenth

Teachers. ^f ^^^ the teachers were females, largely employed in the lower grades of the elementary schools. Custom varies somewhat in the employment of married women as teachers. In some places no married women are appointed, and as soon as a female teacher marries

ORGANIZATION I3

she must give up her position. In other places, as in

Baden, married women may be employed as teachers

whenever their family cares do not interfere with their

work.

Most of the schoolhouses of Germany were built

before the present generation. As a rule, therefore, they

are poor, and the schoolrooms are small and

School Buildpoorly ventilated. Occasionally there is an ings and

r 1 -1 1 ^ • 1 r ^ Fumishiiigs.

arrangement of the wmdows by which fresh air is admitted without falling directly upon the pupils' heads ; but generally, with the exception of a few new buildings, no means of carrying away the impure air is provided. The seats and desks are of the plainest kind, frequently being rude desks several feet long, with plain board seats — a pattern which existed in our country schools forty years ago.

The blackboards are literally black boards, and the amount of surface in a room is very meagre compared with what is provided here. One blackboard, three or four feet wide and five or six feet long, is all that will be found in most schoolrooms. Occasionally two such boards will be found, sometimes with an arrangement for drawing up. Moistened sponges are quite generally used for cleaning the boards ; thus there is avoided the dust so common in our schoolrooms.

As a rule, the walls of the schoolrooms are unadorned with pictures, save one or two portraits. The portrait of Luther everywhere abounds both in the schoolrooms and in the homes of protestant Germany. In many schoolrooms also there is a portrait of the Emperor. The latter is required by law in Prussia.

A general plan of studies is issued by the minister of instruction or corresponding head of educational affairs in each state of Germany ; and this gen- Studies, eral plan is elaborated by masters of schools, subject to the approval of the district school-inspectors. The general plans issued by the government specify the subjects of instruction and the time to be given to each subject. They also give general directions as to methods of teaching.

More will be said in subsequent chapters of the courses of studies for the various schools.

The graded schools of cities and large towns are

classified not unlike similar schools in this country ; i.e.,

there is a separate class with one teacher in

Classification. t i i i

every room. 1 saw no large schoolrooms

with small recitation rooms adjoining, as are sometimes

seen here. In some places there is an approach to the

departmental plan of teaching : a teacher, for example,

who is especially successful in teaching natural science

gives a portion of his time to that subject in several

rooms of the building, still keeping general charge of

his own room. This practice is more common and

is carried farther in the higher than in the lower

schools.

The schools are in session from forty-two to forty-five weeks in the year, separated into four terms of from nine to twelve weeks each. The vacations „

Terms and

are from one to four weeks in length, gener- Session*, ally occurring at Easter, midsummer, Whitsuntide, and Christmas.^

In the schools of cities and larger villages there is a single grade in a room, and the pupils of each grade, except the lowest, are generally reciting every hour of the day. Six hours a day are thus given, — four hours in the morning and two in the afternoon, with an intermission from five to fifteen minutes between recitations. The hours for school sessions are in summer from seven to eleven o'clock a.m. ; in winter, from eight o'clock a.m. to twelve M. ; and in all parts of the year, from two to four o'clock P.M. The sessions of the lower grades are shortened somewhat, the morning session sometimes being but two or three hours in length. In some places the higher schools, and in Berlin all schools, have but one session of five or six hours in the day.^ In Berlin the school day for pupils of the lower grades is but four hours long.

There are in most schools where two sessions are held four recitation periods in the forenoon and two in the

1 The school year generally begins after the Easter vacation. In Bavaria by recent ministerial decree the Realgymnasien school year begins September loand ends July 14.

* In many parts of Germany local inspectors and principals are authorized to dismiss pupils at noon for the day whenever at eleven o'clock A.M. the thermometer registers 22° Reaumur (about 8i>i»'' Fahrenheit.)

afternoon. Between the periods there is a recess of

a few minutes, givinsr an avera2:e of about Recitation > & & &

Periods and fifty minutes to each recitation. This is Recesses.

generally the arrangement in graded schools

of all grades. In the lowest grades there is frequently given some variety of work during a period, and sometimes pupils of such grades recite in sections or groups of a dozen or more.

In ungraded schools the same general plan of long recitation periods prevails, but the period in some subjects is broken by the adaptation of work to pupils of different ages or capacities.

Attached to all schools are playgrounds where children stay during recesses and before school under the care of at least one teacher. Sometimes the children spend an entire recess in marching under the guidance of a teacher. In many schools, I saw older pupils acting as monitors during the recesses and while the classes were filing to and from the playground. They seemed, in some instances, to have authority to command, and even to punish by boxing the children's ears. This, however, may have been a self-assumed prerogative.

The ordinary teacher needs to spend but little time upon statistics of any kind. I saw no signs of marking Statistics ^^^ attainment of pupils by percentages, or and Reports, ^f elaborate monthly reports, or of the dozen other things which vex the life of some American teachers. There are quite extended statistics concerning the parentage, birthplace, religion, etc., of all pupils, but they are made out, kept, and reported by the principals and not by assistant teachers.

Books for recording absence and tardiness of pupils are kept by all teachers. In some schools I noticed the following plan for marking absence and tardiness : if a pupil is not present at the beginning of the session, a dot is placed against his name ; if he does not appear during the session, the dot is prolonged into a vertical line ; and if no good excuse for the absence is given, the line is crossed.

All teachers keep another book in which is placed a record of what is taught each day in every subject ; this record is brief and always, so far as I saw, was made by subjects. Thus at the end of the term or year may be seen a complete record of what is done by each class.

In many schools, and perhaps in all, reports indicating in a general way the standing of pupils in each subject of study are sent to parents. These reports are sent not oftener than twice a term, and are marked by figures or letters which show that the pupil is either very poor^ poor, fair, or excellent in any given subject. Teachers of ungraded schools and principals of graded schools in Prussia are obliged by law to keep a history of the district in which the school is situated.

Examinations may be said to have a different place in the schools of Germany from what they have in our schools. The public examinations which

Examinations and occur at the close of the school year may be Promotions.

attended by the public, but, consisting as they do largely of rhetorical exercises and singing, they show little of the real work of the school.

Class examinations, which in the higher schools occur once or twice a year, are oral and are attended by members of the school board and teachers of the school. The examination of each class is conducted by the teacher in charge, but the principal of the school and other visitors are expected to ask questions. If one of these examinations which I attended is a fair sample, they are most thorough and searching.

Great emphasis is laid upon the 'leaving examinations " which occur at the close of the courses in higher schools. These examinations are generally very difficult and comprehensive. In the gymnasium and RealscJmle they determine the student's fitness for the university and technological school. The graduation examinations in the normal school are oral and written, and must be passed before permission is given to teach.^

There are occasional written tests in the high schools, and they no doubt assist in determining the pupils' ability to go into a higher grade. Apart from these I could discover no '' examinations for promotion, "

1 For particulars concerning these and Qther examinations, see pages 7-1 1.

SO common with us. Promotions are in the hands of the principal, who is guided in his judgment by the teacher's opinion of the pupils' merits. In the common schools, failure to pass into a higher grade seems to be much more infrequent than with us. Seldom is a boy or girl found who has not made the required preparation for confirmation at the end of the eighth year in school, the time allowed for the completion of the course. One is struck with the uniformity of age of pupils in the various grades, rarely a year apart instead of two or three years as with us. Children enter school at six years of age and leave at fourteen, rarely at fifteen.