Essentials of woodworking; a textbook for schools

Preface

An experience, somewhat extended, in teaching academic branches of learning as well as woodworking, has convinced the author that the most effective teaching of woodworking can be accomplished only when its content is made a subject of as diligent study as is that of the other and older branches. Such a study necessitates the possession, by the student, of a text-book.

The selection of a suitable text is made difficult because of the fact that tool processes are usually treated in connection either with models or exercises. It is hardly to be expected that any one set of models or of exercises, tho they may be of very great value, will fill the needs of varying local school conditions. The production of a textbook which shall deal with tool processes in a general way without reference to any particular set of models or exercises is the author's aim. It is believed that such a text will prove suitable wherever the essentials of woodworking shall be taught, whether in grammar, high school or college, and whatever the system of instruction.

A few words as to the manner of using the text seem advisable. It is not expected that the book will be studied chapter by chapter, consecutively, as are the elementary texts in mathmatics or science. Rather, it is to be studied topically. To illustrate : A class is to make a model, project, exercise, or whatever we may choose to call it, which will require a knowledge of certain tools and the manner of using them. At a period previous to their intended use the numbers of the sections of the text relating to these tools and their uses, or the page numbers, should be given the student. Previous to the period in which these tools are tO' be used he should be required to study the sections so marked. The recitation upon the assigned text should take place at the beginning of the period following that of the assignment, and may be conducted in a manner quite similar to that of academic branches.

This should prepare the way and make intelligible the "demonstration" which may be given in connection with the recitation or at its close.

If as thoro a knowledge of the matter studied is insisted upon in the recitation as is insisted upon in the academic classroom, there need be but little excuse for ignorance on the part of the pupil when he begins his work or at any subsequent time.

Acknowledgement is due the Department of Forestry, Washington, D. C, for the use of material contained in the chapter on Woods and for the prints from which many of the half-tones relating to forestry, were produced.

Introduction

Care of Tools and Bench.

It is important that a beginner should become impressed with the importance of keeping his tools in the best condition. Good results can be obtained only when tools are kept sharp and clean, and used only for the purposes for which they are made. Tools properly shari> ened and properly used permit one to work easily as well as accurately. When it becomes necessary for the worker to use undue strength because of the dullness of his tools, ''troubles" begin to accumulate and the ''pleasure of doing" is soon changed to despair.

Orderliness and carefulness, with knowledge and patience are sure to bring good results ; just as a lack of them will bring failure.

The bench top must not be marked with pencil or scratched unnecessarily. Chisel boards are to protect the top from any accidental cuts and should always be used for that purpose. Bench tops that are scraped and shellaced or oiled every other year ought to remain in as good condition as when new except for the few accidental marks too deep to remove, which the thoughtless boy may have inflicted.

Good workers take pride in keeping their benches in o^ood order. Tools that are not in immediate use should be placed in their racks that they may not be injured or cause injury to the worker. At the close of the period the bright parts of tools that have come in contact with perspiring hands should be wiped off with oily waste kept for that purpose. All tools should then be put away in their proper places and the top of the bench brushed clean. The beginner should also understand that, important as are the results he may be able to produce in wood, more serious results are being produced in himself in the habits he is forming. Carefulness, neatness, accuracy, ability to economize in time and material, ability to ''think" and ''to do" because of the thinking, honesty, orderliness — these are some of the more important results that are oftentimes overlooked.

Contents

Introduction.

Care of tools and bench 3

Chapter I. — Laying-out Tools ; Their Uses 9

I. The rule; 2. The try-square; 3. The framing square ; 4. The bevel ; 5. The marking gage ; 6. The pencil gage ; 7. Splitting gage ; 8. The mortise gage ; 9. The Dividers; 10. Pencil and knife.

Chapter II. — Saws . . ' 20

II. Saws; 12. The crosscut saw; 13. The rip-saw; 14. The back-saw; 15. The turning saw; 16. The compass saw; 17. Saw filing.

Chapter III. — Planes 28

18. Planes; 19. Setting the blade ; 20. Adjustment of the iron; 21. The jack-plane; 22. The smooth-plane; 23. The jointer; 24. The block-plane; 25. The wooden plane; 26. Planing first surface true; 27. Face side, face edge; 28. Planing first edge square with face side ; 29. Finishing the second edge ; 30. Finishing the second side ; 31. Planing the first end square ; 32. Finishing the second end; 33. End planing with the shooting board ; 34. Rules for planing to dimensions ; 35 Planing a chamfer.

Chapter IV. — Boring Tools 46

36. Brace or bitstock ; 37. Center bit ; 38. The auger bit; 39. The drill bit; The gimlet bit; 40. Countersink bit; 41. The screwdriver bit; 42. The brad-awl; 43. Positions while boring; 44. Thru boring; 45. Boring to depth.

Chapter V. — Chisels and Chiseling 53

46. Chisels; 47. Horizontal paring across the grain; 48. Vertical paring; 49. Oblique and curved line paring; 50 Paring chamfers; 51. The firmer gouge; 52. Grinding beveled edge tools; 53. Whetting beveled edge tools ; 54. Oilstones ; 55. Sharpening the chisel ; 56. Sharpening plane-irons ; 57. To tell whether a tool is sharp or not.

Chapter VI. — Form Work ; Modeling 65

58. Making a cylinder; 59. The spokeshave; 60. Making curved edges; 61. Modeling.

Chapter VII. — i. Laying Out Duplicate Parts ; 2. Scraping and Sandpapering; 3. Fastening Parts 70

62. Laying out duplicate parts ; 63. Scraping ; 64. Sandpapering ; 65. Hammers ; 66. Nails ; 67. Nailing; 68. Nailset; 69. Withdrawing nails; 70. The screwdriver; 71. Screws; 72. Fastening with screws; 73. Glue; 74. Clamps; 75. Gluing.

PART 11.

Simple Joinery.

Chapter VIII. — Type Forms 84

76. Joinery; 77. General directions for joinery; 78. Dado; 79. Directions for dado; 80. Cross-lap joint;

CONTENTS. 7

81. Directions for cross-lap joint, iirst method; 82. Directions for cross-lap joint, second method; 83. Glue joint; 84. Directions for glue joint; 85. Doweling; 86. Directions for doweling; 87. Keyed tenon-and-mortise ; 88. Directions for key; 89. Directions for tenon; 90. Directions for mortise; 91. Directions for mortise in the tenon; 92. Blind mortise-and-tenon ; 93. Directions for tenon ; 94. Directions for laying out mortise; 95. Directions for cutting mortise, iirst method; 96. Directions for cutting mortise, second method; 97. Miter joint; 98. Directions for miter joint; 99. Dovetail joint; 100. Directions for dovetail joint.

Chapter IX. — Elementary Cabinet Work 105

101. Combination plane; 102. Drawer construction; 103. Directions for rabbeted corner; 104. Directions for dovetail corner; 105. Directions for drawer; 106. Paneling; 107. Cutting grooves; 108. Haunched mortise-and-tenon ; 109. Rabbeting; 110. Fitting a door; 111. Hinging a door; 112. Locks..

Chapter X. — Wood 116

113. Structure; 114. Growth; 115. Respiration and transpiration; 116. Moisture; 117. Shrinkage; 118. Weight; 119. Other properties; 120. Grain.

Chapter XL — Lumbering and Milling 126

121. Lumbering; 122. Milling; 123. Quarter sawing; 124. Waste; 125. Lumber transportation; 126. Seasoning; 127. Lumber terms and measurements

Chapter XII. — Common Woods 138

128. Classification. Coniferous woods. 129. Cedar; 130. Cypress; 131. Pine; 132. Spruce. Broad-leaved woods; 133. Ash; 134. Basswood; 135. Birch; 136. Butternut; 137. Cherry; 138. Chestnut; 139. Elm; 140. Gum; 141. Hickory; 142. Maple; 143. Oak; 144. Sycamore; 145. Tulip wood; 146. Walnut,

Chapter XIII. — Wood Finishing 150

147. Wood finishes; 148. Brushes; 149. General directions for using brush; 150. Fillers; 151. Filling with paste filler; 152. Stains; 153. Waxing; 154. Varnishes; 155. Shellac; 156. Shellac finishes; 157. Oil or copal varnishes; 158. Flowing copal varnish; 159. Typical finishes for coarse-grained woods; 160. Patching; 161. Painting.

Appendix I. — Additional Joints 164

Appendix II. — Wood Finishing Recipes 171

1. Wax; 2. Water stains; 3. Oil stains; 4. Spirit stains.

Appendix III. — Working Drawings 173

1. Instruments; 2. Conventions; 3. Projection and relation of views; 4. Letters and figures; 5. Constructions ; 6. Order of procedure.

CHAPTER I. Laying-Out Tools — Their Uses

1. The Rule. — The foot rule is used as a unit of measurement in woodwork. The rule ordinarily used is called a two-foot rule because of its length. Such rules are hinged so as to fold once or twice and are usually made of

Fig. 1.

boxwood or maple. The divisions along the outer edges,

the edges opposite the center hinge, are inches, halves,

fourths, eighths, and on one side sixteenths also. Fig. i.

The rule should not be laid flat on the surface to be measured but should be stood on edge so that the knife point can be made to touch the divisions on the rule and the wood

at the same time. Fig. 2.

Whenever there are several measurements to be made

along a straight line, the rule should not be raised until

Fig. 2.

ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING.

Ccnleis all are made, for with each placing of the rule errors are likely to occur.

The rule is used to find the middle of an edge or surface by placing it across the piece so that the distances from the edges of the piece to corresponding inch, or fractional marks shall be the same, Fig. 3, the middle of the piece being at a point midway between the marks selected.

2. The Try-square. — The try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel or it may have a head of w^ood called the beam and a blade of steel. The blade is graduated into inches and fractions of an inch. As all trysquares are liable to be

Fig. 3.

injured by rough usage, care should be taken not to let them drop on the bench or floor, nor should they ever be used for prying or pounding. Fig. 4.

The try-square is used for three purposes : First, to act as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across the grain at right angles to an edge or surface; second, to test an edge or end to see whether it is square to an adjoining surface or edge; third, to test a piece of work to see whether it is of the same width or thickness thruout its entire length.

Fig. 5 shows the various positions assumed in lining across a piece. The beam should be held firmly against either the face side or the face edge.

LAYING-OUT TOOLS.

The face side of a piece is the broad surface which is first made true. The face edge is the first edge which is made square to the face side and straight. These two surfaces are usually marked in some way so that they may be distinguished from the other surfaces. Their use is fully explained in Chapter III.

Fig. 5.

If the beam projects beyond the end of the wood, it should be reversed. The knife should be inclined forward and away from the blade of the try-square slightly. A light, firm line should be made the first time across the piece.

In testing edges or ends for squareness, the beam should be held, as in lining, firmly either against the face

ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING.

side or the face edgfe.

Fig. 6.

Care should be taken to test the extreme ends of the piece. Also test at a sufficient number of points to show fully the condition of the

Fig. 6.

edge. Sliding the try-square along the edge is not objectionable if the blade be held lightly on the surface.

Under no circumstances should the try-square be used to scrape the wood.

In testing a piece to see whether it is of the same width or thickness thruout its entire length, place the blade across the surface to be tested, holding the beam lightly against the face side or face edge, slide the try-square along the piece with the eye fixed upon the graduations at the outer edge. Fig. 7.

Fig. 7.

LAYING-OUT TOOLS.

3. The Framing Square. — Large squares of one piece of steel, called framing squares, are used by carpenters for large and rough work. The long arm is called

Fig. 8.

the blade and the short one the tonsfue.

Fig. 8.

In addition to the divisions into inches and fractions of an inch, there is on the blade a board measure table and on

the tongue a brace or rafter measure table.

This square will be found convenient when "cutting up" stock, also for testing corners of large pieces of furniture and for setting the bevel to various angles.

Fig. 9.

4. The Bevel. — The bevel differs from the try-square in having a movable blade. Fig. 9. This blade may be set at any desired angle from o to 180 degrees. The manner of using the bevel is similar to that of the try-square.

ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING.

When adjusting, the blade should be just loose enough to move upon the application of slight pressure.

There are various ways of setting the bevel to the required angle. Should the triangle used in mechanical drawing be available, angles of 30 degrees, 45 degrees and 60 degrees are easily obtained by adjusting the bevel to the sides of the required angle.

To set the bevel to 45 degrees by means of the framing square, hold the beam against one of the arms. Fig. 10, and move the blade so that it shall pass through corresponding points on both blade and tongue. Fig. 1 1 illustrates a method in which no other tools are needed.

A line is squared across ^^s. ^^^'3 3> — - ^ ^ a board having a straight edge. Equal distances are measured from the point at which the line cuts the edge, the blade then being made to pass through these points while the beam is held tightly against the edge. For angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees, square a knife line at right angles to an edge. Fig. 12. Measure from the edge, along this line, or from this line along the edge any given distance. Take twice this distance upon the blade of the bevel and adjust so that a right triangle is formed in which the length of the longest side shall be twice that of the shortest.

LAYING-OUT TOOLS.

5. The Marking Gage.— The gage is used for laying out lines along the grain of the wood. It consists of a beam, Fig. 13, head, thumb screw, and marking point or spur. The spur should be sharpened to a knife point

with a file so that it may make a fine smooth line.

It should project far enough below the beam so that the beam may be rolled forward in such a way as to bring the spur into the board at a slight angle, when ] roperly marking.

It should extend not less than an eighth of an inch and in most cases threesixteenths of an inch.

The graduations on the beam are seldom reliable. It is safer to set the gage wath the rule by measuring the distance from the spur to the gage block. This is done by holding the gage bottom side up in the left hand. With the right place the end of the rule against the head. Fig. 13. After the screw has been tightened, apply the rule again to make sure of the correctness of the setting.

ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING.

To gage the line, take the tool in the right hand, three fingers grasping the beam, first encircling the head for narrow work, and the thumb back, or nearly back, of the spur. Fig. 14. The head should be kept against one or

the other of the face sides. Begin at the end of the piece which is towards you, hold the block firmly against the piece, roll the beam forward until the spur barely touches the

Fig.

illussurface and make a very light line, trates the manner of raising the spur from the wood by raisinof the wrist durinjj the backward stroke. It will be found convenient to hold the piece against the bench stop This steadies the piece and permits the worker to see how deep the spur is cutting and whether the head is against the face properly. Avoid deep lines. They are inaccurate even if straight and always cause trouble in the making unless the grain of the wood is perfectly straight.

6. The Pencil Gage. — There are occasions when a pencil-gage marks with sufficient accuracy and is more suitable because its point does not cut the wood, such as in gaging for a bevel. A hole bored thru the beam near one end, just large enough to receive a pencil snugly, will suffice. Fig. 16.

Fig. 17 illustrates a method frequently used by carpenters.

The fingers act as a gage head.

LAYING-OUT TOOLS.

A. slitting gage is one in which

7. Slitting Gage.

the spur is sharp and strong, and will cut thru soft lumber as thick as one-quarter of an inch. The boards are cut from each side and considerable pressure is re-

^^litTinq G^-g*

AnMe

NorTise Gd-qequired. Sometimes a handle like that of the plane is fastened to the beam near the knife or spur. Fig. i8.

8. The Mortise Gauge.— Fig. i8 also shows a mortise gage used in advanced work. It has twu spurs, one of them adjusted by means of the screw at the end of the beam at any desired distance from the stationary one, so that the two sides of a mortise or tenon can be marked at once.

9. The Dividers. — Dividers, Fig. 19, are used (i) in describing circles, (2) in dividing a given space into a given number of parts, and (3) in marking one member which is to be fitted to another irregular member. Fig.

ESSEXTIALS OF WOODWORKING.

Tnvmbnut

20 shows the manner of setting the dividers. The thumb-screw should be released so that the legs may be moved

without much effort. When the approximate setting has been secured, use the thumbnut for adjusting to more accurate measurement. In describing circles, the dividers should be held as in Fig. 21 and swung to the right or left as is convenient. They should be leaned forward slightly and an effort made to secure a sharp, light line. For most work the two legs may be sharpened to points. Sometimes one is sharpened like a knife point.

10. Pencil and Knife.— Pencil lines may be used in getting out stock from rough material and in laying out work on rough surfaces where a knife line would not be visible. Pencil lines should be carefully made, however. The pencil may be used also in marking bevels.

LAYING-OUT TOOLS.

curves and in other places where the knife or gage mark would be injurious. Otherwise, the knife and gage should be used. Pencil lines are easiest removed from wood by means of the eraser.

In laying out rough stock, if the first edge is sufficiently straight, it is thumbwidth.

usual to gage for This is done by holding the pencil at the end of the rule and using the thumb of the left hand as the gage head, drawing the whole towards you with the rule acting as gage-beam.

A straight-edge, a board with a straight edge, is often used in marking out. Mark off the length of the piece of wood required. Mark off the breadth at the end of tjhe board, also mark it near what is to be the other end of the piece. Place the straight-edge on these two marks and draw the line. Fig. 23. The try-square should be used to mark across the grain.

CHAPTER 11.

Saws.

11. Saws. — Saws which are used in cutting across the grain are called crosscut ; those which are used in cutting parallel to the grain are called ripsaws. Fig. 24. Upon the blade of a saw, near the handle, will be found a num-

/Yee/

ThinTT ber. This represents the number of points to the inch. Points should not be confused with teeth, for there is always one more point per inch than there are teeth.

To prevent the sides of a cut or kerf from binding the saw, the teeth are bent alternately from side to side, that the opening may be wider than the blade is thick. The saw teeth are then said to have ''set." To do good work, a saw should have no more set than is necessary to allow a free movement. Fig. 25. Damp, spongy lumber will require considerable set, while well seasoned lumber necessitates but little.

The rake, or ])itch of the teeth of a saw is the degree

SAWS.

^^fcl^^i^Z

HL;

15^ of slant which the cutting edges possess with reference to an imaginary hne passing thru the points of the teeth. Fig. 25. The amount of pitch given will depend

upon the use to which the saw is to be put, whether for ripping or cross cutting, and somewhat upon the hardness or softness of the wood to be cut.

Figf. 26 shows the saw in ^2 proper position. It should be held in the right hand with the left hand grasping the board, the thumb of the left hand acting as a guide in the beginning.

The thumb should be held firmly on the board and

the blade of the saw should be pressed lightly against it.

The cutting edge of the saw

should be held at an angle of

about forty-five degrees to the

board and should be started on

a backward stroke. The first

few strokes should be short ones,

increasing gradually in length.

If the tool is sharp, but little

pressure will ever be recpiired

and, in starting, the tool must be

held up so that its weight shall

come upon the wood gradually.

Fig. 26.

Saws can be guided better if the index finger of the right hand is allowed to extend along the side of the handle. Test occasionally, sighting down the saw blade to see that the sides of the saw are at right angles to the surface of the board. A try-square may be used by the beginner, as shown in Fig. 26.

If the saw does not follow the direction of the line, the blade should be slightly twisted, as the sawing proceeds, in the direction it ought to take. This must be carefully done so as not to cause the blade to bind and

kink. In sawins; a 'board which has been fastened in the vise, the most convenient position is obtained by sawing at right angles to the surface. Unless the saw has considerable set, difficulty will be experienced in changing the direction of the cutting should this be necessary. This may be overcome by lowering the handle so that the cutting edge shall make the same angle with the board as when the board rests on trestles.

When making a long cut, should the kerf bind, a wedge may be inserted as shown in Fig. 26.

All saws will w^ork easier and will be found less likely to rust if their sides are rubbed occasionally with an oily rag or a piece of tallow.

12. The Crosscut Saw.— Fig. 25 shows the teeth of a crosscut saw. This saw is filed so that the cutting

SAWS.

Ai

15^ edges are on the sides of the teeth. Every tooth is sharpened to a point, one on the right side, the next on the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points with a V-shaped groove between.

The pitch given the teeth of a crosscut saw will vary with the hardness or softness of the wood which is to be cut. For all-around use the amount of slant is about one-third of the whole tooth. Fig. 2y.

13. The Rip-saw.— The teeth of the rip-saw are chisel

shaped. Fig. 28, and are

/ made by filing straight across the blade. The front or cutting edges are filed so that they are squar ^ or at right angles

to an imaginary line passing through the points of the

teeth.

14. The Back-saw. — The '>ack-saw, or tenon-saw as it is often called, has a thin blade strengthened by a heavy steel back piece. It is used upon work requiring delicate, accurate cutting, Fig. 29. Fig. 30 shows the shape of the teeth, which differ

slightly from those of the cross-cut. These teeth are suitable for both cross-cutting and fine ripping. But little set is given the teeth of the hack-saw.

In using this saw, Fig. 31, hold the work firmly against

ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING.

the stop of the benchhook with the left hand, guiding the saw with the forefinger or thumb placed against the blade

just above the teeth. Begin on the backward stroke, holding the handle end of the saw highest.

Begin at the farthest corner, using short, easy strokes. Gradually lower the handle to a horizontal position, meanwhile increasin'^ the number of teeth used, but continuing the slow, regular strokes.

In accurate cutting, Fig. 32, where no paring or block-planing is to be done, the saw teeth should cut just by the line, with the kerf in the waste, but with no wood between the line and the kerf. To allow for paring or block-planing, saw about one-sixteeiith of an inch in the waste. Fig. 33. When ripping, place the piece in the vise and begin sawing as indicated in Fig. 34.

Place the saw so that just the whole of its thickness is in what is to become waste wood. Begin sawing as was done in crosscutting. Gradually lower the handle, while sawing, until most is being cut from the side nearest you. Fig 35. Reverse the wood several times, working down one side then the other until the

Fig. 2)i.

SAWS.

cross lines are reached. Fig. 36 illustrates the result of good and bad sawing. .

(coo 3 s

15. The Turning-saw. — The turning or bow-saw is used for cutting along curved lines. Fig. 37 illustrates the manner of holding this saw. The sides of the blade must be held at right angles to the surface of the wood. Either or both handles may be turned, thus turning the blade with reference to the frame. Avoid turning the blade, however, as much as possible and see that the blade is not twisted by turning one handle more than the other. This saw may be used for cutting enclosed curves by boring a hole, releasing one end of the blade and inserting it thru this hole then replacing it in the saw frame.

ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING.

As the cut of the turning saw is not very smooth, it is advisable to leave about one-sixteenth of an inch between the kerf and the line, to be removed later with the spokeshave.

16. The Compass Saw. — The compass saw, Fig. 38,

is better suited for inside curve sawing. Its use requires a steady hand, else the thin blade will buckle and break.

17. Saw Filing. — Learning to sharpen a saw is a difficult thing — so difficult that it is not considered within the province of a book on elementary woodworking to treat of it. One who uses saws, ought, however, to know the steps which are taken to put a saw in order.

The teeth are first set. Fig. 39 shows a common form of saw-set in position. Beginning at one end of the saw,

every other ^f>i^7^^'

tooth is bent ^^^- ^^■

outward by means of this instrument. The saw is then reversed and the remaining teeth are similarly treated.

As these saw-sets are adjustable, the teeth may be bent much or little as the work to be done demands.

Second, the teeth are jointed. A flat file is run lengthwise over them the full length of the saw so that none of the teeth may project more than others. Fig. 40 shows a flat file in position for jointing. This block keeps the surface of the file at right angles to the blade of the saw.

SAWS.

Third, the saws are filed, a three-cornered file being used for this purpose. The kind of saw determines the angle or angles at which the file is held with reference to the saw blade. Fig. 41 illustrates the position when filing the crosscut and Fig. 42 the rip-saw.

Fourth, the teeth are side jointed by laying the saw flat upon the bench and rubbing an oil-stone over each side lightly, once. Fig. 43. This is to even the sides of the teeth that the kerf may be smoothly cut.

CHAPTER III. Planes

18. Planes. — A standard plane of the present time is shown in Fig. 44. The bottom of this plane is- of iron. Fig. 45 shows a plane with the same adjustments in which

the bottom is of wood.

Planes are made in different sizes. As certain lengths are more suitable for certain kinds of work they have been given distinguishing names such as jack-plane, smooth-plane, fore-plane, jointer. Fig, 44 shows the jack-plane.

The two irons of the plane, the plane-iron or plane-bit, and the cap-iron are fastened together by means of a stout screw. Fig. 46.