Wood-working for amateur craftsmen

Front matter

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

WOOD-WORKING

FOR AMATEUR CRAFTSMEN

Chapter I Making Out A Stock Bill

THE first thing a beginner must learn to do when he takes a drawing from which he is to make a piece of woodwork, is to prepare a stock bill of materials that can be given to the lumberman to fill. Whether the worker gets what he wants or not will depend greatly upon the specifications he gives the dealer, whether they are intelligible or not, and whether they allow one and only one interpretation.

Three practices are common in preparing lumber for use: To sell it to the workman in the rough, just as it comes from the sawmill ; to machine-plane the pieces to thicknesses and widths such as the finished pieces demand, so that only the lengths require the attention of the worker — aside from the making of the joints ; and to mill-plane the stock on two surfaces to stock thicknesses, but allowing the lengths and widths to remain as in rough stock.

The first is cheapest in first cost; the second is the most expensive because of the frequent changes in setting the planing machine to the different sizes. The third is most common, except where there are to be a great number of pieces of a given size, because it utilizes hand work and machine work to the best advantage.

NO.OF

reeT

LENGTH

DESCRIPTION

PRICE

.48

YELLOW PINE

Ex X-A-A WHITE CEDAR 5HINGLES

: : 3

1 '

*2 WHITE PINE FLOORING to

Form of Stock Bill

Lumber Terms — Length always extends parallel to the grain of the wood — the way the wood splits easiest. Other terms are as indicated in Fig. 1.

The unit of measurement is the board foot. This is 1 by 12 by 12 in. Prices are usually based upon the 1000 ft. If a board is less than 1 in. thick, it is customary to figure it at surface measure. The price per foot is reduced correspondingly, however, so that no advantage is taken of the purchaser.

ARRISES

Corner

Board Surfaces Named

Lumber is graded at the yards according to lumbermen's standards. Clear lumber is free from knots, sap, wind, shakes and other imperfections. Shingles are sold by the thousand and are packed in bunches ; laths, in bundles. Mouldings are sold by the running or lineal measure, the price being based on the 1000 ft.

MAKING OUT A STOCK BILL 9

The abbreviations for lumber that is to be sized, surfaced or machine-planed on two or four sides are S-2-S and S-4-S, respectively.

For especially seasoned stock, the letters K D (kiln dried) are added to the description.

n ^.,.lMl.jMl,jMl,JulhlMlhl.lll.l.h1.1.l.lll.l.lll.l.l.1.l.l,l l l.l l | l I.T.I,l l lLl.lLl.l,[A

Tongtie

Beam

Steel Square, Try-Square and Rule

Making a Straightedge Line

Chapter II Laying Out Rough Stock

*TP HE tools needed for this are the rule, try-square ■*■ or steel square, a straightedge and a pencil. Figure 2 shows the try-square and steel or framing square, and gives the names of the parts. The rule used may be the single-piece rule or the folding 2-ft

Fig. 5

Squaring Across a Board rule, such as carpenters use (Fig. 3). A straightedge is anything which has one of its edges straight.

Directions : Measure off and mark the length of the piece required; measure off near the end the width wanted ; at what is to become the other end of the piece, mark off the width as before. With the straightedge, connect these points and draw a line through them (Fig. 4). With the try-square or steel square draw a line to limit the length (Fig. 5).

A second way to lay out the piece, where the first edge is fairly straight, is to thumb-gauge for width.

"Thumb" Gauging

This is done as shown in Fig. 6. The pencil is held against the end of the rule and the whole is pulled toward the worker. The thumbnail of the left hand held on the rule at the desired point acts as a gauge head.

Chapter III Hand Saws

HAND saws are of two kinds — rip and crosscut. The first is for sawing along the grain, the direction in which wood splits easiest, the other for sawing across the grain. The necessity for having a saw for each direction of cutting with reference to, the grain is clearly shown in Fig. 7 The ripsaw is really nothing more than a lot of little narrow chisels so arranged that they cut, one after the other, in rapid succession, the cutting edge, like that of the chisel, being on the

The Way Ripsaw Teeth Cut

front of the teeth. To cut across the grain with a ripsaw would be to split the wood as in A, Fig. 7. Cutting with the grain is shown in B. The teeth of the crosscut saw are so sharpened, that the cutting edges are on the sides of the teeth instead of in front. Figure 8 shows the shape of both rip and crosscut saw teeth.

Both of these saws are sharpened with exactly the same tools, the differences in the teeth being due to the difference in angle at which the file is held in the process.

Sharpening a saw is considered a difficult thing to learn, so difficult that it is not necessary to go into a lengthy description for beginners. It may be worth while, however, to state the steps that are taken in

. End View . .(Exaggerated)

Side View

Fig. 3

Rip-saw

Cutting Edge

Setting Saws putting a saw in order. The beginner ought to know how the tools are sharpened, even if he must attain more experience before attempting to sharpen them. First, the teeth are jointed. This is done by running

HAND SAWS a flat file along the length of the saw so as to cut down any teeth that project farther than others (Fig. 9). Second, the teeth are filed, a three-cornered file being

Fig. 12

Jointing the Sides of the Teeth used, the kind of saw determining the angle or angles at which it is held with reference to the side of the saw, The ripsaw is filed straight across (Fig. 10).

The crosscut is filed as in Fig. 11. After the filing, the teeth are side jointed. This is done by running an oilstone over the sides of the saw and teeth, as in Fig. 12. This will make the sides of the teeth cut a smooth kerf. If the saw, before filing, had a tendency to stick in the wood, it should have its teeth set before the top jointing. Figure 13 shows a modern saw-set. These

Fig. 13 — Saw Set

sets are adjustable so that the teeth may be bent much or little, as the condition of the wood necessitates. No more set than is necessary is a good rule. Moving the handles together shoves the plunger forward. This bends the tooth outward from the side of the saw. Every other tooth is set; the saw is then reversed and the remaining teeth are set from the second side.

Chapter IV Sawing With Hand Saws

IN using the hand saws, the most advantageous position is obtained by placing the board which is to be sawed upon a pair of "horses" or trestles.

Whether ripping — cutting parallel to the grain — or crosscutting, the manner of starting the cut or kerf and guiding the saw throughout the operation is the same.

Figure 14 shows clearly the position of the hands when starting the kerf.

The index finger of the right hand extends along the side of the handle to assist in guiding the saw.

The thumb of the left hand rests upon the board at the place where the cut is to be made. AVith the right hand the saw blade is pressed lightly against this thumb and thus assists in setting the saw at the desired point.

Begin with short, light, easy strokes, holding up on the saw so that it shall take small "bites" at first.

Fig. 14 — Guiding the Saw with Left Thumb

Fig. 15 — Correct Angle of Saw

held at an angle of about 50 or 60 deg. with the board. Stand so as to give the arm free and easy movement, keeping the eye, hand and saw in one and the same plane (Fig. 16).

If the saw should fail to follow the line, a slight and continued twist with the hand that holds the saw handle, as the sawing proceeds, will soon cause the cutting edge to work its way back to the line. This twisting must be carefully done or the blade will bind and kink.

When nearing the fin-

Gradually increase the length of stroke until the full arm stroke is obtained. Avoid short, jerky strokes and undue pressure. Time is lost thereby, the saw cannot be properly guided, and the work is made unnecessarily laborious. Figs. 15 and 16 show the proper position to assume. The saw will cut best when

Saw, Wrist and Elbow in One Plane

SAWING WITH HAND SAWS ish of a cut, lessen the length of the stroke and hold

up on the saw so that little weight rests upon the

wood ; at che same time,

if crosscutting, reach

over the saw and take

hold of the overhanging

piece (Fig. 17).

Where it is desired to cut out a small piece from a long board, always ripsaw first, then crosscut to meet this kerf, leaving on the board all but just what is wanted for present use.

There are two reasons for this : first, economy ; second, there is always danger of splitting off the piece when making the second cut, if the crosscutting is done first.

Fig. 17 — Holding Overhanging Piece

Chapter V Planes : How To Set And Adjust The Irons

AMONG the various planes used by wood-workers are the following: block plane, smooth plane, jack plane, jointer and a special plane known as a combination plane. Not all of these planes are absolutely necessary for simple work such as a beginner would do, but they are desirable. The smooth plane, jack plane and jointer differ only in their length, width of cutter or plane iron, and in the manner of shaping the cutting edge of the plane iron.

The jack plane, Fig. 18, is used for planing off rough surfaces or where it is desired to take off a large quantity of wood quickly. Since it is not expected to leave the surface smooth, this being done by means of another plane, the plane iron of the jack plane is ground rounding as shown in Fig. 18, B, this form of iron being better adapted for "roughing off."

The smooth plane, Fig. 19, is shorter than the jack plane. Since it is used merely, as its name implies, for smoothing off surfaces that have previously been straightened, or surfaces where straightening is not essential, the short length is an advantage rather than a disadvantage. Its plane iron is ground straight across with the corners very slightly rounded (Fig. 19, B).

For planing long edges straight, the jointer, Fig. 20, is used. Because of its great length it makes edge planing much easier than when the shorter planes are used. On account of its length, the high places must be cut off before the plane iron can touch the low places. Its iron is sharpened like that of the smooth plane — straight across.

The block plane, Fig. 21, is used for planing the ends of pieces of wood; for this reason no cap iron is necessary to break the shaving, there being none, only sawdust. It also differs from the other planes in that the bevel of the plane iron is turned up instead of down The block plane's chief advantage over the other planes for end planing lies in its being small enough to be operated with one hand, leaving the other free to hold the board.

The combination plane, Fig. 22, is used in making grooves, rebates, etc. By an exchange of cutters it may be made to take the place of a great variety of special planes.

Figure 23 shows a section of a modern plane and gives the names of the more important parts. From this it will be seen that the principal parts consist of the cap, the cap iron which breaks and bends the shaving (Fig. 24) so that the wood may not be torn up, the plane iron for cutting the wood and the frog to which these parts are fastened.

Figure 25 shows the relative positions of plane iron and cap iron. The cutting edge of the plane iron should extend about iV in. below the edge of the cap iron for ordinary work. For fine work, the distance between the edges should be less. The cap iron and plane iron must be firmly fastened together, the cap being used to turn the stout screw, unless a screwdriver is at hand ; otherwise, a few strokes will have pushed the iron back into the mouth of the plane.

After these parts are securely fastened together, put them on the frog, plane iron down and cap iron up, making sure the plane iron rests flat on the frog with the Y-adjustment in the slot in the cap iron made for it. Next, place the cap in position and push down the cam. Should this cam work loosely and the plane iron and cap iron not be held firmly, adjust the cap screw. Ordinarily this screw when once adjusted needs no

Fig. 26 — Adjusting the Plane Iron attention. Should the cam work too hard, make sure the plane iron is flat on the frog before releasing the cap screw.

To adjust the blade or plane iron, hold it as shown in Fig. 26, turning the plane toward the light. Sight

HOW TO SET AND ADJUST PLANE IRONS 25

along the bottom, turning the adjusting nut until the blade will project very slightly, not much more than the thickness of drawing paper. The most common error beginners make in learning to use the plane is setting the plane iron too far out of the mouth of the plane. Move the lateral adjusting lever to one side or the other until the plane iron projects the same amount on each side.

Chapter VI Squaring Up Mill^planed Stock

PRACTICALLY every lumber yard carries in stock lumber that has been mill-planed on two surfaces to stock thicknesses. Wood-workers can specify the thickness wanted for the work they have in hand and thus avoid much of the drudgery necessitated by planing up stock entirely in the rough as it comes from the sawmill.

The first broad surface and the first edge planed have a peculiar use and definite names. The first surface is called face side or often working face. The first edge is called face edge or frequently joint edge. These are marked to distinguish them from the others, as shown in Fig. 27. They are the only ones marked. From these two faces, and these only, all testing is to be done, the beam of the try-square and the head of the gauge being held against one or the other.

In selecting these faces, the better broad surface and the better edge are taken, if the object is to consist of but one piece. If it is to consist of several parts, such as a table or a chair, the poorer surfaces are to be selected for faces. Where several parts are to be joined, the faces are turned "in" because, being the first prepared, they are more accurate than the others. Any inaccuracies in the first surfaces will appear in the others, since they are worked from the first surfaces. Some inaccuracies may be present in the second surfaces which are not present in the first set. For this reason the face sides when joined together are more

se likely to make close-fitting joints than the others. Frequently there is little choice of surfaces. Generally, however, slight streaks of sapwood, smoothness of surface, etc., will be the determining factors.

Fig. 27 — Face Marks

Fig. 28 — Surfacing a Board

Planing First Surface

Should the piece not be of equal width and thickness, select the broad surface which is desired for face side. With the smooth plane remove the mill-marks from it. Mill-marks are the little ridges and hollows which extend across every piece of mill-planed lumber. In mill-planing, a series of knives, two and sometimes four, are caused to revolve very rapidly above or below the board, sometimes both above and below, as it passes through the planer, shown in Fig. 28. If the

knives are properly set, revolve very rapidly, and the board is not made to travel over the planer bed too rapidly,- these marks are hardly noticeable. They must be removed with the hand plane, however, from any lumber that is to be used for interior finish or cabinet work. If they are not removed, the filler or stain will tend to "bring out" and emphasize every hollow and thus give the wood an ugly, streaked appearance. Since it is difficult to tell where the smooth plane has or has not cut in removing these marks, it is a good plan to make a series of light pencil lines across the board at frequent space intervals before beginning to plane. When these have been removed the mill-marks will have been removed, too.

In planing, press firmly on the knob in starting and upon the handle in stopping the stroke (Fig. 29), or the ends of the board will be lowered too much. If the board is a long one, it will be necessary to start

Fig. 29— Starting the Plane and Finishing the Stroke and stop some of the strokes in its middle. That no marks may show where this takes place, the shavings must be "feathered." This is done by lowering the toe of the plane first in starting and by raising the heel

Fig. 30 — Feathering- a Shaving

of the plane gradually as the completion of the stroke is neared. This is shown in Fig. 30.

A board will very often become warped or dished after having been planed level at the mill. The nature of the work in which it is to be used will determine whether or not this first surface is to be leveled or merely smoothed. If dished much, and the work require a level surface, a new piece or a thicker piece will be needed. In many cases the dish will "nail out" so that the first surface needs only smoothing. This is illustrated in Fig. 31, where a bottom board is being

Fig. 31 — Nailing Out " Dished " Board

Fig. 32 — Sighting for Straightness of Edge nailed to the side of a box. When this surface has been sufficiently smoothed, mark it for a face side.

Planing First Edge

Select and prepare one of the edges for a face edge. Place the piece against the bench stop or in the vise.

The jointer is usually used for edge planing after the jack plane has been used to remove the roughness. After a few strokes, hold the board toward the light, close one eye and look along the edge (Fig. 32), to see

Fig-. 33 — Using a Wood Straightedge

Fig. 34— Try-Square on First Edge

whether it is straight or not. Practice will soon enable one to know when the edge is straight. At first it may be well to use a straightedge test in addition to the sight test. This is done by placing something having a straight edge as shown in Fig. 33, holding the board and straightedge between the eye and the light so that any unevenness may show plainly.

The second test is to place the try-square as in Fig.

34. Hold the beam firmly against the face side and

make the test at a sufficient number of places along the edge to show its true condition. Should light show under the blade, note where it is, place the piece in the vise again and move the plane over to the side opposite that at which the light appeared, Fig. 35. Take off no more shavings in planing this edge than are absolutely necessary to get it straight and square. The final stroke should be taken the full length of the board and the shaving should be very thin.

Mark this edge as in Fig. 27. It is to be known as the

face edge.

Fig. 35 — Taking Shaving at High Arris

CHAPTER VII (Continued)

Gauging for Width

HAVING planed and marked the face side and face edge, the next step is to mark the desired width. Figure 36 shows the tool used for this purpose and the manner of holding it while setting it. It is called

Fig. 36— Holding and Setting Marking Gauge

a marking gauge. Gauge sticks are marked off like a ruler into inches and fractions. These markings are so unreliable, however, that it is better not to depend upon them. Figure 37 shows the position of the gauge in action. The top of the spur is tipped forward so as to make the cutting edge enter the wood at a slight

angle while the tool is being pushed forward. The

head of the gauge must be held against the face edge.

Planing Second Edge

The second edge is planed in a manner similar to that of the first. The gauge line limits the amount of wood that may be removed. Care must be taken, therefore, to test with the try-square as was done on the first edge while approaching the line, so that any

Fig. 37— Gauging: for "Width irregularities may be corrected by the time the line is reached.

The test for straightness such as was given the first edge is not necessary here, if the gauge line has been planed properly. The first edge being straight and the second one gauged therefrom, the second edge will be straight too if the gauging has been carefully done. If there is more than one-fourth of an inch of

Fig. 38— End Planing

\ II

SHU

Fig. 39 — End Testing waste outside the gauge line, it should be ripped off, cutting parallel to the line and about -ft in. in the waste.

Planing Second Surface

Since stock that is S-2-S has the correct thickness, it is necessary in preparing this surface merely to remove the mill-marks, the smoothing plane being used as described in planing up the first board surface.

Planing First End

End planing differs from edge and surface planing in that there are no shavings, only sawdust, because the cutting takes place across the grain. Care must be taken in end planing not to sliver and break the arrises. This can be avoided by not planing entirely across the end. Plane about two-thirds of the way, then reverse and plane from the other direction (Fig. 38).

While the block plane is especially designed for doing end planing, any of the other planes may be used if a vise is at hand in which the piece of wood may be placed so as to allow both hands free for holding the plane.

The Tests — The first test for accuracy in end planing is made by holding the beam of the try-square firmly against the face edge and lowering the blade until it rests upon the end of the piece of wood. By holding the piece up between the light and the eye, any unevenness will be visible (Fig. 39). The second test is similar to the first except that the beam of the try-square is held against the face side instead of the face edge. Continue planing until both tests show no light between the try-square blade and the end of the wood.

Measuring the Length and Lining From the end just squared up measure and mark the length desired, Fig. 40. With try-square and knife,

Fig. 40 — Measuring: Length

Fig. 41 — Lining Across Face and Edge mark lines (Fig. 41) at this point across face side and face edge. If there is more than % in. of waste, saw it off, sawing about 7 \ in. outside and parallel to the line.

Planing Second End

The second end is to be planed to the lines just made. The two tests given the first end should be applied to the second end while approaching the lines, that the end may be square when the lines are reached.

This completes the squaring up of stock mill-planed to correct thickness.

Chapter VIII Squaring Up Rough Stock

THE process of squaring up rough stock — stock which has not passed through the mill planer — is not so very unlike that for squaring up mill-planed stock. The main differences, however, are very important.

Leveling or Truing the First Broad Surface

Level up one of the broad surfaces for a face side, taking off as few shavings as possible. A level surface

Fig. 42— Winding and a True Surface

is one of which all points lie in the same plane. To level a surface, therefore, means to plane off the high places. Figure 42 shows a surface "in wind" or not level or true; also, a true surface.

There are several ways of testing a surface to find whether it is true or not. An experienced mechanic would probably find the eye-sighting test sufficient This consists in closing one eye and sighting with the other along the length of the piece for straightness,

Fig. 43. Another test is to sight across the piece to see whether the front arris and back arris line up, i. e., whether they lie in the same plane, Fig. 44.

A beginner will find it advisable to use the following test in addition, until his eye has become trained in detecting inaccuracies. This test is used by mechanics

Fig. 43 — Testing for Straightness when great accuracy is desired. It consists in testing for wind by means of winding sticks and in testing for straightness of length and width by means of a straightedge. Testing for a wind, Fig. 45, is made by placing two straight sticks, having parallel edges, across the piece near the* ends and sighting (with one eye) across their top arrises. If the surface is in wind,

SQUARING UP ROUGH STOCK the arrises will appear as in A, Fig. 46. If not in wind, the arrises of the sticks will appear parallel as in B, Fig. 46. The straightedge test for length is

Fig. 44 — Testing for Twist

Fig. 45 — Sighting for Winding of Surface similar to that for the edge, Fig. 33. In Fig. 47 is shown the straightedge test across the grain.

A substitute for the winding-stick test, on pieces of some width — three or more inches — consists in placing the straightedge along the two diagonals. The straightedge test for length and width must be given as usual, in addition to the diagonal test. These tests will show where and how much is to be planed and will need to be made frequently as the planing proceeds. If the piece is in wind, two diagonally opposite corners will appear high. Plane diagonally across the piece until these corners are roughly leveled. It may be that the middle is on a level with these corners and the other two corners are low with reference to the center of the board. In this case, the diagonal planing will take the middle down as well as the two high corners. Finish by planing parallel to the grain, so as to leave a smooth surface. Put on the face mark.

Planing the First Edge

Straighten and square one of the edges for a face edge. This is done in the same way as for stock S-2-S, described in the preceding chapter.

Gauging for Width and Planing Second Edge

The directions for gauging to width are the same as those given in a preceding chapter, also planing for the second edge.

Gauging to Thickness

Since rough stock is variable in thickness, it will be necessary to set the marking gauge to the thickness wanted and mark sharp lines, one each on the two edges. Keep the head of the gauge against the face side in so doing.

Planing and Testing Second Surface

Since the face side was leveled and the thickness gauged from this, the second surface ought to be level

Fig. 46 — Showing a Winding and a True Surface

Fig. 47 — Testing Across the Grain and true, if the planing is made to stop at the gauge lines on the two edges and if the middle of the board is neither high nor low with reference to these lines. To see whether the middle is high or low, place the straightedge across, as in Fig. 47, and test at a sufficient number of places to show the true condition. This test must be made frequently while approaching the lines, that the surface may be level when the lines are reached — at least not low in the middle, for there would be no remedy for that without decreasing the thickness below what is desired.

Securing Length The directions for planing first end, measuring length and lining and planing second end will be found in preceding chapters under the same heads.

Chapter IX Whetting Plane Irons And Chisels

PLANE irons and chisels are sharpened in precisely the same manner, so that a description of sharpening only one — the plane iron — will be given. Release the plane iron and cap from the throat of the plane by lifting the cam on the cap. Separate the plane

Fig. 48 — Taking the Irons Apart iron and cap iron — do not remove the cap screw, but slide the irons lengthwise until the screw head will pass through the opening made for it, as shown in Fig. 48. Place a little oil on the stone and, holding the plane iron as shown in Fig. 49, proceed to whet the cutting edge. The iron must be held neither too high nor too low. If held too high, the edge will be blunted and ruined, and a new edge must be ground on the grindstone. If held too low, the whetting takes place on the heel of the bevel and does no good, since it does not allow the stone to touch the edge of the iron. To tell when the tool is at the correct angle, draw the oil to one spot in the center of the stone. Place the iron with the bevel in the oil and the rear end down so the iron is flat, or nearly so, on the stone (Fig. 50). Gradually raise the rear of the iron until the oil can be seen