The age of Elizabeth

Front matter

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Preface

My object in this little book has been to adhere as closely as possible to the intention of the series, and to embrace as much as I could of the contemporary history of Europe. For this purpose severe compression was required, and though I have endeavored to preserve the perspective of events, I cannot hope that I have always succeeded.

I have grouped European history round the history of England, because I considered that in that way it would be made most interesting to the English reader. I have regarded the political history as of the chiefest importance, and only in the case of England have I found space for social or literary history.

My guide throughout the whole of this period has been Ranke, who has made the history of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries peculiarly his own. His " Englische Geschichte " 1 contains a clear and

1 Translated, Clarendon Press, 6 vols., 1875.

vi Preface.

vigorous sketch of the reign of Elizabeth in its connection with external politics. His " Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation ,n is a masterly account of the Reformation in Germany and of its political effects upon that country. His "Romische Papste " 2 contains an account of the influence of the Reformation movement on Catholicism, the progress of the Catholic Reformation and its reaction upon Protestantism. His " Geschichte Frankreichs " 3 unfolds the influence of the Reformation on the fortunes of the French monarchy. Finally a little book, originally published as the first volume of a series of which the " Romische Papste ' ' formed the second part, under the name of " Fiirsten und Volker der Siid-Europa " 4 contains an admirable account of the formation of the Spanish monarchy under Charles V. and Philip II.

These works of Ranke will remain as the chief sources of our knowledge of the history of these times. They are founded upon a careful study of contemporary documents, especially upon the despatches of the Venetian ambassadors. There are no works of

1 Partly translated by Mrs. Austin; but the translation is now unfortunately out of print, and can rarely be met with.

2 Translated by Mrs. Austin. 3 vols. Fourth edition. Murray, 1866.

3 A very small part of this has been translated by M. A. Garvey (Bentley, 1852) ; but this also is out of print, and is only a fragment.

4 Translated by Walter Kelly under the title "The Ottoman and Spanish Empires" (Whittakers, 1843); also out of P rint «

Preface. vii

equal value to which the student of this period can be referred for knowledge of the history as a whole.

For English affairs, Hay ward's "Life of Edward VI.," Goodwin's " Life of Queen Mary," and Camden's "History of Elizabeth" are standard authorities. Mr. Froude's "History of England " is admirable for the reigns of Edward VI. and Mary, and his researches have thrown much light upon the politics and character of Elizabeth. Mr. Motley's "Rise of the Dutch Republic" and "History of the United Netherlands ' ' give a detailed account of the revolt of the Netherlands, and bring to notice many characteristics of Elizabeth's government.

For the internal history of England, Hallam's " Constitutional History" is indispensable. For ecclesiastical history, Strype's "Annals of the Reformation" and "Life of Parker" are important.

For the social history, Nichols' "Progresses of Elizabeth," Stow's "Survey of London," and Harrison's "Description of England " at the beginning of Holinshed's Chronicle are of the greatest importance. Nathan Drake's "Shakespeare and his Times" is a mine of interesting quotations from contemporary authors. Of Elizabeth's court life and personal character, Sir John Harrington's " Nugae Antiquae " and Naunton's " Fragmenta Regalia " give interesting accounts: Miss Aikin's "Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth ' ' collects a great deal of characteristic gossip.

For the history of trade, Macpherson's "Annals of viii Preface.

Commerce ' ' can be referred to. Mr. Fox Bourne's "English Seamen under the Tudors " gives a clear account of English discoveries during this period.

In literary history I have not aimed at doing more than connecting the literary development of England with the great stimulus to national activity which the events of Elizabeth's reign supplied. The young student would gain more by reading one or two of the works referred to than by reading literary histories or criticisms -on books which he has not read.

The ground which I have traversed in the social history of this period has been covered since I began to write by Mr. Green's "History of the English People, ' ' which has devoted considerable space to the social and literary history of Elizabeth's reign. To that work, in the first instance, I refer all who need more detailed information on these points.

Introduction

PAGE The Reformation, its causes and meaning . . I Questions raised by it . . . . . 3 Mixture of politics and religion . ... 4 Important points in the history of the sixteenth century 4 Religious condition of Europe in the middle of the sixteenth century 5

Chapter I. Religious Settlement In Germany

Germany and the Reformation . . 7

1519-1544. Projects of Charles V. . . .8

1544. Charles V. attacks the Protestants . 9

His difficulties . . . -9

1552. Reaction against Charles V. . . 10

1555. Diet of Augsburg aims at arranging religious

difficulties . . . 13 x Contents.

PAGE

Weakness of its arrangement . . 13

Hopes of Charles V. . • 14

Chapter II. Reformation In England Under Edward VI. 1547-53

Position of Charles V. towards England . 14

1531-1547. Reformation under Henry VIII. . 15

State of parties in England . . 1 5

Jan. 1547. Accession of Edward VI. . . 17

1547-49. The Reformation under the Protector Somerset 17

1547. England and Scotland . . .18

1548-9. Troubles in England . . . 19

1549. England and France . . . .21 Fall of Somerset .... 23

1550. Warwick and the Reformation . . 23 Northumberland's plans ... 26

1553. Death of Edward VI. . . .28

Failure of Northumberland . . 28

Chapter III. Catholic Reaction In England.— 1 55 3-5 5

Queen Mary and Charles V. . . .29

1553. Mary's religious changes ... 31 Mary's marriage schemes . . -32

1554. Wyatt's Rebellion ... 34 Mary marries Philip . . . . 36 Re-establishment of papal supremacy . 37 Return of Cardinal Pole and persecution . ^S Mary's home government . . 40

Chapter IV. France, Spain, England, And The Papacy. — 1555~58

1556. Abdication of Charles V. . . . 41

1557. Successes of Philip II. . . . 42 Pope Paul IV. and England . . .42

Contents. xi

PAGE

1558. Mary's failure and death . . 44

Accession of Elizabeth . . -45

Her political difficulties ... 47

Chapter V. Religious Settlement In England

Elizabeth's religious views , . 47

1559. Re-establishment of Protestantism . 48

Opposition of the bishops . ; 49

Elizabeth's ecclesiastical system e „ 50

Chapter I. The Reformation Movement In France And Scotland

1515-47. Reformation in France under Francis I. . 53

1536-58. Reformation in Geneva and France. . . 54

1559. Death of Henry II. and power of the Guises . 56 State of Scotland and its relations with France 57 John Knox and the Reformation . . 59 Rising against the Regent . . .60

1560. Treaty of Berwick between Elizabeth and the

Conspiracy of Amboise and recall of the

French from Scotland . . 62

Reformation carried through in Scotland . 63

Troubles in France . . .64

Xll

Chapter II. Mary Queen Of Scots

PAGE

Mary in France. . . . -6$

^561. Her return to Scotland . . . 65

Elizabeth's relations towards Mary . . 67

Mary's policy . •. , . 69

1562-3. Beginning of the religious wars in France . 69

Elizabeth helps the Huguenots . • 71

1565. Mary's marriage with Darnley . . 73 Catholic plans in Scotland . . 73

1566. Darnley's quarrel with Mary . , -75

1567. Murder of Darnley ... 78 Mary's marriage with Bothwell . . 79

Mary's enforced abdication . . .81

Book III. Spain And The Netherlands

CHAPTER I.

THE SPANISH MONARCHY.

Power of Charles V.

His government of his dominions.

Changes made by Philip II.

Character and policy of Philip II.

CHAPTER II.

THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS.

The Netherlands and their government Their prosperity 1558-66. Opposition to Philip II. .

83 .86

Contents. xiii

PAGE

Philip's ecclesiastical measures . '93

Growing discontent in the Netherlands . 95

Commercial effects on England . . 96

1566. Image-breaking in Antwerp . . 97

1567. Alva sent to the Netherlands . . .99

1568. Resistance of the Prince of Orange . 100

Chapter III

RESULTS OF ALVA'S MEASURES ON FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SCOTLAND. — 1567-70.

1567. Rising of the Huguenots . . . 102

1569. Second Religious war in France . . 102

1570. Peace of St. Germain . . . 103

1568. Mary of Scotland escapes from prison and

takes refuge in England . . .104

Conduct of Elizabeth . . . 106

1569. Rebellion of the Northern Earls . .107 Cruelty in its suppression . . 108

Chapter IV. Struggles Of Catholicism And Protestantism. — 1570-72

1570. Excommunication of Elizabeth . . 109 Murder of the Regent Murray in Scotland no England's answer to the Pope . . no

1571. Ridolfi's plot ..... no Catholic plans in France . . . 112 Charles IX. and Coligny . . 113 Alva's cruelty in the Netherlands . 115

1572. Foundation of the United Netherlands . 116 French help to the Netherlands . . 1 1 7

Chapter V

ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, 1 572.

Plot against Coligny . . . .118

Paris and the Huguenots . . 119 xiv Contents.

PAGE

Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day . 1.20 Effect of the massacre in France and the

Netherlands . . . 121

1572-3. Siege of Goes and Haarlem . . .123

1573. Alva leaves the Netherlands . . 124 General result of the massacre . .125

1574. Death of Charles IX. . . . 126 Summary . . . . .126

Chapter I. Elizabeth And Home Affairs

Elizabeth as a politician . . 128

Her economy and deceit . . .129

Her love of peace . . . 129

Her religious views . . .130

Condition of ecclesiastical affairs . 133

English commerce . . . 135

CHAPTER II. Elizabeth's court and minister^

Lord Burleigh .... 137

Sir Nicolas Bacon . . . 139

Elizabeth's favorites . . . 140

Earl of Leicester . . . .141

Elizabeth's court and magnificence . 143

Royal progresses . • . .144

Contents. xy

BOOK V. CONFLICT OF CATHOLICISM AND FRO* TESTANTISM.—iS 76-86

CHAPTER I.

THE STRUGGLE IN THE NETHERLANDS. — 1576-83.

PAGE

1576. The Spanish Fury . . . -149 Coming of Don John of Austria . 150

1577. Failure of his schemes . . . 151

1578. Coming of the Prince of Parma . 153

1580. Philip's conquest of Portugal . .154 Ban against the Prince of Orange . 154

1581. Duke of Anjou woos Elizabeth . . 156

1582. Anjou made sovereign of the Netherlands 157

1583. Anjou's treachery . . . 158

CHAPTER II.

THE JESUITS AND THE CATHOLIC REACTION.

Rise and objects of the Jesuits . . 159

1576—9. England and the Papacy . . 161

1582. Catholic attempt in Scotland . . 162

1579-84. Seminary priests and Jesuits in England 163

1584. Assassination of the Prince of Orange . 165

Throgmorton's conspiracy in England 166

Association to protect Elizabeth . 166

*vi Contents.

Book VI. The League And The Armada

CHAPTER I.

SPAIN AND THE LEAGUE.

PAGE

Philip II. and France .

Formation of the League

Henry III. and the League

Siege of Antwerp .....

1585-6

. Leicester in the Netherlands

Drake in the Spanish Main

Death of Sir Philip Sidney ....

CHAPTER II.

THE SPANISH ARMADA.

Babington's conspiracy ....

Mary implicated, condemned, and executed

Results of Mary's death . . . .

Progress of the League ....

War of the three Henrys ....

Triumph of Guise in Paris

,- Exploits of Drake .....

*■ The Invincible Armada ....

Cause of its failure .....

Importance of the crisis .

Chapter III. Reaction Against Spain

1588. Assassination of Guise .... 187

1589. Assassination of Henry III. . . . 188 1589-/J2. England's naval war against Spain . . 189

Colonizing expeditions .... 192

Contents.

1590. Success of Henry IV. in France 1 59 1-2. Reaction in favor of Henry IV. 1593. Conversion of Henry IV. .

XV11

PAGE

Chapter I. English Life In Elizabeth's Reign

Growth, of national character Results of increased prosperity Architecture .....

Furniture Dress

Amusements ■ The theatre .The poor-laws Occupations

Chapter II. Elizabethan Literature

Causes of literary activity

Increase of learning

Historical inquiry

Prose writers .

Euphuism .

Sir Philip Sidney

Puttenham and Bacon

Love-poetry

Spenser

The Drama

Greene

a

200 200 202 204

206 207

209 209 210

Contents.

Marlowe Shakespeare Later Dramatists

Chapter III. Last Years Of Elizabeth

Religious settlement in France

. 227

Expedition against Cadiz

Parties at Elizabeth's court

Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex

The Island Voyage . . .

. 230

Death of Philip II.

Essex in Ireland .

• 233

Rising of Essex

Elizabeth and Parliament

• 235

Death of Elizabeth - ,

GENEALOGICAL TABLES.

PAGE

1. Illustrating Mary's Reign 33

2. u Mary of Scotland's Claim to the

English Throne ... 74

3. Showing Parentage of Charles V. . . .84

4. " Succession to the Throne of France . 169

MAPS.

^1. Europe in the age of Elizabeth . . to face title

2. Dominions of Philip II 85

\ 3. The Netherlands 115

1 4. English and Spanish Discoveries in the New

5. The Mouth of the Tagus . . . . 19c

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THE

AGE OF ELIZABETH.

INTRODUCTION.

The period of the Reformatio!* marks a great change in the general condition of Europe. It was a change which had been slowly coming, but which The R e f or „ then first made itself decidedly and clearly ma tion. known. New knowledge had arisen amongst the peoples of Europe, and new ideas had come from different sides. The old Latin writers were discovered, and read with eagerness ; the fall of Constantinople sent many Greeks and much of the old Greek literature into Europe. The discovery of the New World extended men's ideas of their surroundings, and opened up a wide field for their speculations. National feeling had grown stronger throughout Europe, as the nations had become united under strong rulers.

The result of all this was that men's interests became more secular, that the old ecclesiastical system did not so entirely cover men's lives as it had done in

Its causes.

the Middle Ages. The change may be seen by noticing how gradually the Crusading spirit passed into the spirit of colonization. Both were founded on the love of adventure ; but this when guided by ecclesiastical feeling led to the Crusades, when guided by national feeling led to colonization. As men found that they had more interests outside the ecclesiastical system, they began more to criticise its organization and working. They felt that man was not made for Church system, but Church system for man. There were demands on all sides for a reformation of the existing state of things.

It was impossible to advance in other matters until religion had first been dealt with. Every one who wanted to make any improvement found that he must begin from religion in some shape or another. If he were a scholar, like Erasmus, who wanted to make men wiser, he soon found that the existing condition of religion stood in his way. If he were a politician, like Charles V., he soon found that religious questions were the chief ones which he had to consider in conducting affairs.

Some men were content with the old state of things, either from interested motives, or from real love for that

Its meaning. form of worshi P in which they had been born and bred. Others wished to keep the old system but make a few alterations in it : they believed the government of the Church to be the right one, and to be, moreover, quite necessary, though they thought that it had been carelessly carried on, and needed improvement. Others declared that they could find no authority in Scripture for the existing system of the Church, and wished to change it altogether. Gradually men had to range themselves on one side or the other. Either they thought that in and through the Church only did man have communion with God ; or they thought that God would receive any man who faithfully turned to Him. This was the broad distinction between the two parties we shall call Catholics and Protestants.

Hence it was that religion naturally became the battle-field of the old and new state of things. A religious change was, moreover, most deep-reaching in its consequences. It could not be made without leading to changes in politics and society also. For a change in belief meant a schism from the existing Christian community. This community was ruled over by the Pope, who kept together the different local authorities, and secured the unity of Western Christendom in ecclesiastical matters. A change of belief meant a revolt from his authority.

This was very difficult to carry out in any case. For the people who lived under one civil government were not likely all at the same time to agree to Q Uest i ons make this change. They differed in conse- raised by it. quence about almost every point : for the old ecclesiastical system went down to the very foundation of daily life and affected almost everything that men did. In every State, therefore, there were divisions, and that too about serious matters. It was not merely a question of religious beliefs or forms of worship. The Church had large lands, — were these to go to the old religion or to the new religion, or were they to be taken for secular purposes ? Were priests to be looked upon as ordinary men, or were they the sole channels through whom men could obtain salvation ? Were they to marry, or were they not ? These were questions that had to be settled in some way or another. Those who held to the old beliefs could not endure, without a struggle, to see all that they reverenced set aside. Not only must they keep to the old beliefs themselves, they must see also that the old system was handed down to those that came after them ; they must see that it was not destroyed. So, too, those who had accepted the new beliefs felt that they must try to spread their own convictions, and must try to root out superstition. Nothing but discord could be the result of these opposite convictions.

The Reformation, then, introduced division into every State, division which was more or less bitter according as the two parties were more or less equally balanced.

But this was not all. Besides affecting the internal condition of States, the Reformation greatly affected their relations towards one another. According to the old state of things Christendom was one ; but now it had ceased to be so. According to the old ideas, the Emperor was the temporal head of Christendom, and now it was to be expected that he would try and bring back unity, if it were at all possible. Besides all the other causes for quarrelling which existed in Europe between different States, difference of religion was now added.

The consequence of this was that politics and religion became most strangely mixed together. Not only were Mixture of there two parties in each State in open or

politics and .

religion. concealed warfare with one another, but

also all the relations between States were regulated very

greatly by religious considerations. Protestantism began

simply enough in an attempt to worship God more in

accordance with the dictates of reason and conscience.

This attempt, however harmless it might seem, really

meant a great change in the government of the State

which allowed it to be made. It meant also a great

change in all the political relations of Europe.

It was hardly likely that these changes could be made

peaceably ; the interests involved were too great. Only

after a period of internal struggle did each nation decide

which side it was going to take. Only after a period of great

conflict did Europe form itself into a new political system.

The interest of the first half of the siximportant points in the teenth century lies in tracing the causes that

sixteenth cen^ brought about the religious movement, and

tury - in seeing how the new principles were at first worked out. The interest of the last half of the sixteenth century lies in seeing the political effects which were produced by the religious movement, when it had once taken root. These political results, as we have seen, were of two kinds— they affected the nations separately, and they affected Europe as a whole. We have, then, to keep before us these two main points : —

i. The internal conflicts of the nations of Europe before each decided which side in religion it should take as a nation.

2. The changes in the political relations of Europe generally which the Reformation brought about.

It is, of course, impossible to keep these two points separate from one another ; but it will be easier to understand what was going on, and to see the reasons for the relative importance of events, if these two main points be kept in view.

In the middle of the sixteenth century the revolt against the authority of the Pope had spread over the greater part of northern Europe. Norway, Religious con-

ii-i j 4--U dition of

Sweden, and Denmark had accepted tne Europe in the Protestant teaching. England had thrown jg^ the off obedience to the Pope, though Henry century. VIII. was not in favor of any great change in doctrine. Germany was divided into Protestant and Catholic States, the Protestants prevailing in the north, and the Catholics in the south. The Swiss Cantons were divided into Catholic and Protestant, but the Swiss Protestants were not agreed with the Protestants of Germany. There were also Protestants in France, Scotland, and the Netherlands, though, as yet, they had not made any very important advance.

We shall have to trace the fortunes of the Reformation in the following countries :

(i.) In Germany, where a temporary toleration was devised.

(2.) In England, where the revolt from Rome was confirmed, and Protestant opinions were seen to be necessary to the political liberty of the country.

(3.) In Scotland, where the people shook off Catholicism almost at once, and changed their old political attitude to agree with their new religious condition.

(4.) In the Netherlands, where Protestantism fostered a desire for freedom, and supported the people in a long war against Spain.

(5.) In France, where a long period of civil war was caused by religious differences, but, in the end, Catholicism proved itself to be more deeply rooted than Protestantism.

Besides these occurrences in the separate countries we have to see how the struggle between Protestantism and Catholicism in Europe generally tended to centre round the two powers of England and Spain. The result of this struggle was that England began to take the foremost position in Europe, while Spain, though still wearing the appearance of outward strength, grew internally weaker and weaker.

Chapter I. Religious Settlement In Germany

Germany consisted of a number of small States, each under the rule of their hereditary Prince, and of a number of Free Cities, who were under no control Germany except that of the Emperor, which was very ^^^011 slight. The German king, when he received coronation from the Pope, became Emperor, and was looked upon as the head of Christendom. Under his presidency the Princes of the Empire and Representatives of the Cities met together at a Diet to settle matters of common interest for Germany.

When many of the States and Cities of Germany followed Luther's teaching, and shook off the old ecclesiastical system, they were of course opposed by those that remained Catholic. To protect themselves they formed, in 1529, a league known as the league of Smalkald, from the place where it was concluded. The Catholics formed a league against them, and so Germany was divided into two opposite camps.

Charles V. had been Emperor since 15 19, and he would have interfered to put down Protestantism in Ger-

8 Religious Settlement in Germany, a. d. 1544

Projects of many at its first growth, if he had been Charles v. a bi e> He was, however, ruler of so many other countries besides Germany, that he could not attend to Germany alone. As King of Spain he had to war against the Moorish corsairs, who injured the Spanish trade. As the inheritor of the possessions of the Dukes of Burgundy, he had to war with the King of France. As Emperor he had to make good his position in Italy. As head of the House of Austria, as well as head of Christendom, he had to drive out the Ottoman Turks, who pressed up the Danube valley, and threatened to extend their conquests over Europe.

All these things employed Charles V., and he needed all the help that he could get from Germany to enable him to carry out these great undertakings. In Germany he was king ; but he was checked by the independent power of the Princes and the Free Cities, and could raise money and troops only for such purposes as they approved of. Many of them were in favor of the Reformation, and would not help him in any undertaking directed against Protestantism. He thought it wise, therefore, to leave Protestantism alone at first, and to draw from the gratitude of the Protestant Princes the help that he needed for his other political designs. He opposed Protestantism, for he was Emperor and head of the Catholic world. But he was not, therefore, a devoted adherent of the Papacy, and was convinced that some religious changes were necessary. These changes he hoped to be able to introduce when he had leisure ; meanwhile he let matters take their course in Germany, so far as not to interfere forcibly.

At last, in 1 544, Charles V. had put down the pirates, had succeeded in making himself master of the greater part of Italy, had seen the Ottomans fall back from their most

-1548. Charles V. and Protestantism. 9

threatening position, and had made peace with France. Now he could turn his attention to Germany. Char]es v His plan was to compel the Pope to summon attacks the a General Council, at which the points in dispute between Catholics and Protestants should be settled. But the Protestants refused to acknowledge such a council, and Charles, with the help of the Pope, declared war against the Smalkaldic League in 1546.

Many Protestants helped him ; for not all of them belonged to the league, and some hoped to get toleration without resistance to the authority of the State. The chief leaders of the Smalkaldic army were John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, and Philip, Landgrave of Hesse. Their army was stronger than the Emperor's, but was broken up by the retreat of the Elector. His Electorate had been attacked in his absence by his nephew Maurice, who though a Protestant was fighting on the Emperor's side. When once the Smalkaldic forces were broken, the Emperor reduced the Protestant cities one by one. Next year he defeated the Elector, and took him prisoner; the Landgrave of Hesse submitted to him, and was also kept in prison. It seemed as though Protestantism were entirely ruined.

But, meanwhile, the Pope had become alarmed at this success : he had also quarrelled with the Emperor about the possession of some towns in Italy. He D;fficulties was afraid that Charles V. might settle re- of

Cll3Xl6S y •

ligious matters in a way unfavorable to the Papacy. So he broke up the Council, which had begun to sit at Trent, as he thought that place was too much under the Emperor's power.

Thus Charles V. had compelled the Protestants to obey the Council, but there was no Council to obey. Hereupon he took a step like Henry VIII., and published a io Religious Settlement i?i Germany. A. D. 1552.

decree called the " Interim " ( 1 548), which enacted the old ecclesiastical system with a few changes, and toleration on a few points. This was to be the religion of Germany till the Council could go on.

The "Interim" however, was liked by neither party.

To the Protestants it was as bad as Romanism ; to the

Catholics it seemed to be an arbitrary in-

Opposltion .

to terference in religious matters. Moreover,

the national feeling of the Germans was hurt by the way in which the Emperor enforced obedience to it and kept a foreign army in Germany. The German princes also were aggrieved by the imprisonment of the Elector and the Landgrave — it was an infringement of the rights of the princes as a class, which no prince could see with satisfaction.