The first two Stuarts and the Puritan revolution, 1603-1660

Front matter

imm aass__IlAJAo

Book

PRESENTED B^

Preface

The present volume is a companion to the one on the "Thirty Years' War," and it has therefore been unnecessary to break the course of the narrative by constant references to events passing on the Continent, which will be easily brought before the reader who consults the chronological contents at the beginning of the two books.

In England, happier than France or Germany, the problem of religious liberty was worked out in close connection with the problem of parliamentary government. England did not, even temporarily, cease to be a nation, as Germany did ; nor did it, like France, surrender its power to control events into the hands of a single man. The interest of its history in the seventeenth century lies in the efforts made to secure a double object — the control of the nation over its own destinies, and the liberty of the public expression of thought, without which parliamentary government is only a refined form of tyranny.

The present volume oply professes to recount a part vi Preface.

of this struggle. The epoch comes to its proper end in the volume which is to follow it in the series. Even of this first part, too, I can only profess to tell a portion from the results of personal investigation. After the year 1634 I have to depend upon the researches of others, and I have very little doubt that in many cases the opinions expressed would be modified by fuller knowledge, and that even the facts would turn out not to be altogether in accordance with my statements.

Those who wish to consult histories on a larger scale, will find by far the best general history of the period in Ranke's '' History of England principally in the Seventeenth Century," which has recently been translated. In even greater detail are Mr. Spedding's '' Letters and Life of Lord Bacon," Mr. Forster's '' Life of Sir John Eliot," his essays on " The Grand Remonstrance," and the ^'Arrest of the Five Members," Professor Masson's ''Life of Milton," Mr. Sanford's ** Studies of the Great Rebellion," and Mr. Carlyle's " Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell." Those who care to see what I may have to say on the earlier part of the period will find in three books — ''A History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Disgrace of Chief Justice Coke;" "Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage ;" and ''A History of England under the Duke of Buckingham and Charles L" — a connected history from 1603 to 1628, which will, I hope, be carried on further, before any unreasonably long time elapses.

Preface. vii

The maps have been constructed from Clarendon and other familiar sources, and, though they may be incorrect in some points, I hope they will give a clearer idea of the course of the war than is to be gathered from any written narrative. The first will show how far the statement is true that the wealthiest portion of England attached itself to the Parliament, and brings out distinctly the enormous comparative wealth of London. The calculations on which it is founded are derived from a statement in Rushworth, corrected in the instance of the County of Durham, from the original entry in the Privy Council Register. The second map may be said to express the natural strength of the King's party; for, though Oxford was not held by him at the actual commencement of the war, it took his side too vigorously to be counted as a mere enforced accession of strength. The third map shows the King's fortunes at their highest point, just before the Scottish army invaded England, and the fourth gives the position just before the New Model army set out to combat the King.

The dates, unlike those in the volume on "The Thirty Years' War," are given according to the old style.

Chapter I

THE PURITANS AND THE HOUSE OF COMMONS, Section I. — Reformers and Puritans.

PAG»

The English Reformation the work of two classes of men, who

may be called Reformers and Puritans . . i

The former were favored by Elizabeth . . . .2

Especially as Puritanism tended to Presbyterianism . . 3

General desire for compromise at the close of Elizabeth's

Tolerant character of the literature of the time — Hooker,

Bacon, Shakespeare . . . . .5

Why was there, after all, a Puritan Revolution ? . .6

Section H, — The Tudor Monarchy.

Causes of revolutions ...... 7

Modern constitutional arrangements aim at preventing revolutions . . . . . . .8

Circumstances which had modified the mediaeval constitution

in favor of the Royal power . . . > 8

Instruments of the Royal power — the Court of Star Chamber,

the Court of High Commission . . .10

Elizabeth the centre of the national hfe . . .12

Her dependence on popular support . , . . la

Contents.

Section III. — The Hampton Court Conference and the pro^ Union with Scotland. PAGK

1603 Accession of James I. . . . . -13

1604 The Hampton Court Conference . . • 13 The House of Commons for concession to the Puritans . . ... . .15

The canons of 1604 . . . . .16

161 1 Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury, relaxes their strictness in execution . . . . .16

1607 The Commons receive coolly the King's proposal for a

union with Scotland . . . . .17

The Judges declare all Scotchmen born since the King's accession to the Enghsh throne to be naturalized in England . . . . • I7

Section IV. — The New Impositions and the Great Contract. 1606 James' revenue does not meet his expenditure . 17

The Judgment on Bate's case . . . .18

1608 The New Impositions . . . . '19 1610 The Great Contract . . , . . 19

Breach between the King and his first Parliament . 19 1614 The Addled Parhament . . . . .21

Section I. — Gunpowder Plot

1603 Condition of the Roman Catholics . , .21 James promises to reheve them, but does not keep his

1604 Formation of the Gunpowder Plot . . .22

1605 The plot betrayed . . . . .23 " Seizure and-execution of the conspirators . .23

Contents. XI

Section \\.— James I. and Spain.

PAGE

l6o^ Spaniards unpopular in England . . .24

161 1 James proposes to marry his son to a Spanish Infanta . 24

1617 Raleigh's voyage to Guiana . . , .25

1613 The Earl of Somerset becomes James' favorite . 26

1615 He is convicted of murder, and succeeded by George

Villiers in the King's favor . . . .26

1616 View taken by James of his authority . . .28

1617 H;s contempt of popularity leads him to overlook the

dangers of a Spanish marriage . , .30

Section IT I. — The Spaniards in the Palatinate.

1618 Outbreak of a revolution in Bohemia . . • 30

1619 James' son-in-law Frederick is chosen King of Bohemia 31

1620 In spite of the arrival of English volunteers, the Palati-

nate is invaded by the Spaniards, and Frederick is ejected from Bohemia . . . . • 32

1621 Meeting of the third Parliament of the reign . . 32 The Commons attack the monopolies . . -33 And proceed to accuse Lord Chancellor Bacon of corruption . . , . . . .34

His sentence . . . . . .36

Revival, though in an incomplete form, of the practice of impeachment . . . . '36

Section IN .— The Loss of the Palati.iate.

1621 The Commons declare their resolution to support the

King in defending the Palatinate . . .37

Digby, sent to Vienna to negotiate a peace, fails to stop the progress of hostilities, and the King calls upon Parliament to supply him with money to carry on the war. The Commons, however, wish him to break with Spain . . . . . .38

They also ask that he shall marry his son to a Protestant princess. James takes umbrage at this, and dissolves Parliament . , . . •39

1622 Through want of money James is unable to support his

son-in-law, and the Palatinate is lost . , .40

XII Contents.

Section V. — The Journey to Madrid.

PAGE

1623 Prince Charles, together with Buckingham, goes to Madrid to conclude his marriage with the Infanta Maria, and to urge the Spaniards to procure the restitution of the Palatinate. . . , .41

The Spaniards throw difficulties in his way . . 42

The marriage treaty is, however, signed; but when Charles finds that he will not be allowed to bring his bride home at once, and that the Spaniards will not go to war to recover the Palatinate for his brother-in-law, he returns to England. . . •44

Chapter III. The Ascendency Of Buckingham

Section I. — The last Parliament of James I.

1624 James summons Parliament, and agrees to break with

But the declaration of war is postponed, in order to give

time for negotiation with France and the German

Protestants , . . . . -47

Lord-Treasurer Middlesex is impeached . . 48

A marriage treaty is agreed to between Prince Charles

and the French Princess Henrietta Maria . . 48

1625 Mansfield's expedition sent to recover the Palatinate

ends in failure . . , . . '49

Death of James I. . . , . .49

Section II. — The first Parliament of Charles I

Charles, in order to carry on the war for the recovery of the Palatinate, summons Parliament, which fails

to support him through distrust of Buckingham . 50

He adjourns Parliament to Oxford, and then dissolves it 51

Sends a fleet to Cadiz, which fails to do anything . 52

Buckingham's diplomatic mission to Holland , . 53

Contents. xiil

Section III. — The Impeachment of Buckingham, and the Expedition to Rhe. PAGE

Revolt of Rochelle against Louis XIIL, who borrows English ships to overpower it . . . .54

1626 Charles' second Parhament meets, and impeaches Buck-

Charles dissolves it, and demands a free gift, and then

a forced loan . . . . . • 5^

War breaks out between England and France . . 57

1627 Buckingham leads an army to Rhe, and fails . . 58

Section IV.— The Petition of Right and the Assassination of 1628 Charles summons a third Parliament . . -59

The Petition of Right . . . . .60

After the Parliament is prorogued Buckingham takes the

command of an expedition for the reUef of Rochelle 62 But is assassinated at Portsmouth , * .63

Chapter IV

THE PERSONAL GOVERNMENT OF CHARLES I. Section I. — Taxation and Religion.

Dispute about tonnage and poundage referred to Parliament . . . . . . .64

Religious difficulties . . . . .65

The King's declaration on the Articles . . .67

Section II. — The Breach between the King and the Commons. 1629 The Commons postpone the subject of tonnage and

poundage . . • • • .68

They take firm ground against rehgious innovations . 69 Summon the custom-house officers to answer for seizing a member's goods

Tumult in the House Parliament dissolved Punishment of Chambers of Eliot .

and imprisonment and death

XIV Contents.

Section III. — Beginnings of Unparliamentary Government.

PAGE

1629 Constitutional question raised . , . .74 Charles' ministers — Weston, Laud, and Wentworth . 76

Section IV. — Ecclesiastical Parties.

1630 Star Chamber sentences . . , . .80 Laud enforces conformity to the Prayer Book . .81

1632 Contrast between George Herbert and Richard Sibbes . 82

1633 - The feoffees for impropriations . . . .84 ' The estrangement between the two parties not yet complete . . . . . . .85

Section V. — New England. 1608 Emigration of a Separatist congregation to Holland 85

The colony of Virginia ' . . .86

1620 The voyage of the " Mayflower " * . 86

1633 Religious character of the New England settlers , 87

Section I. — General Enforcement of Conformity

1633 Laud becomes Archbishop of Canterbury . . 88 Gives offence by the issue of the Declaration of Sports,

and by removing the Communion tables to the east end of the churches . . . . .88

1634 Prynne punished by the Star Chamber for the pubUca-

tion of " Histriomastix " . . . .90

The Inns of Court Masque, and Milton's " Comus " . 91

1634-6 The metropolitical visitations . . . .93 Section II. — Ship-money.

1634 Forest courts held . . . • .94 The first ship-money writ issued to the port towns . 95

1635 The second ship-money writ issued to the whole of

1637 The judges declare it to be legal, but Hampden resists

the payment . . . • • • 9^

1638 Judgment given against him . . . .98

Contents. xv

Section III. — Prynne, Bastwick, and Burton. PAGE

1637 Change of feeling sinee 1634 . . . .98 Sentences of Prynne, Bastwick, and Burton . . 98 General sympathy with the sufferers . . * 99

Section IV. — Wentworth in Ireland. 1603 State of Ireland at the accession of James I. . . loi 1610 The plantation of Ulster ..... 102

1633 Arrival of Wentworth to be Lord-Deputy . . 103

1634 He holds a Parliament . • . . . 103 His activity ...... 104

1635 He proposes to colonize Connaught . . . 105

Section I. — The Downfall of Episcopacy in Scotland. Episcopacy in Scotland .... 106

1637 Introduction of the new Prayer Book, followed by a riot 107

1638 The Covenant is taken, and the General Assembly

meets at Glasgow ..... 108 It throws off the authority of the King, and abolishes episcopacy ..... 109

Section II. — The Bishops Wars and the Short Parliament. 1639 Probability that the resistance in Scotland would be

followed by resistance in England . . .111

The first war With Scotland followed by an agreement 113

1640 The Short Parliament summoned and dissolved . 112 Position taken by Wentworth at Court . .113 The second war with Scotland ends in the King's

defeat and necessitates the calling of a Parliament . 114

XVI Contents.

Section \\l,— The Meeting of the Long Parliament and the Execution of Strafford.

FAGB

1640 The Long Parliament meets . , , . nS Impeachment of Strafford .... 115

1641 The impeachment is turned into an attainder . • n? His execution ...... 117

Section IY. — Demands of the Commons. 1641 The struggle for supremacy between the King and the House of Commons leads to a diminution of the powers of the Crown . . . . ,118

The Scots return home . . . , .119

Church questions remain to be solved . . .120

The Moderates led by Falkland and Hyde . . 121

Their weakness . . • . , .122

Section V. — The Grand Remonstrance and the Rupture with the

King. 1641 Whilst the King is in Scotland news arrives of an Irish

insurrection . . . . . .124

Excitement in England . . . . .125

The Grand Remonstrance drawn up and voted . 126

1643 Impeachment of members of the House by the King . 127

The King attempts to seize them . . .128

The Commons take refuge in the City, and demand

the control of the militia .... 129

Chapter VII. The Downfall Of Royalty

Section I. — The Beginning of the Civil War. 1642 The Commons conservative in feeling . Various elements of the King's army . The King sets up his standard at Nottingham Indecisive battle fought at Edgehill The King turns back from Brentford .

131 132

133 134

Contents, xvii

FAGB

Rise of Cromwell ..... 135

1643 The King gains ground, but fails to take Gloucester . 136 Death of Falkland at the first battle of Newbury . 136

Section II. — Presbyterians and Independents.

Meeting of the Westminster Assembly. The Scots invited to join their forces to those of the English Parliament . . . . . . 136

The Covenant taken, and Presbyterianism adopted in England ...... 137

Death of Pym . . . . . .138

1644 Execution of Laud . * . . . 139 Rising strife between Presbyterians and Independents 139 Death of Chillingworth .... 140 Spread of ideas favorable to liberty of conscience and

Section III. — Marston Moor and Nasehy. 1643 Cromwell's success ..... I43

The Scotch cross the border, and, in conjunction with Cromwell and Fairfax, defeat the Royalists at Marston Moor ...... 144

Essex's infantry surrender to the King in Cornwall . 145 The second battle of Newbury leads to a quarrel between Cromwell and the Earl of Manchester . 145

1645 The Self-denying Ordinance .... 146 Argument in favorof liberty in Milton's " Areopagitica" 146 Formation of the New Model .... 148 Montrose in Scotland . . . . . 148 Defeat of the King at Naseby, and of Montrose at

Philiphaugh . . . . . .149

Section IV. — The Army and the Parliament. ^646 The King takes refuge with the Scots . . .150

In spite of the feeling of the army in favor of toleration, Parliament makes proposals to the King which offer no guarantees for liberty of opinion , . . 151

1647 Charles, being surrendered by the Scots to the Parliament, is lodged at Holmby House . . . 152 B

XVIII Contents.

PAGB

He is carried off to the army, which overpowers the opposition to Parliament, excluding eleven members by force ...... 153

The army makes proposals to the King . • iSS

Charles flies to the Isle of Wight, and is lodged at Carisbrooke Castle . . . . '155

Section V. — The Second Civil War and the Execution of the King. 1647 Dissatisfaction of the Scots at the predominance of the

1648 The news that a Scottish invasion is pending exasper-

ates the English army . . . . 15S

The Scots are defeated by Cromwell at Preston . 157

The army secures the person of the King, bringing him to Hurst Castle ; they also overpower the House of

Commons by Pride's Purge .... 158

1649 Trial and execution of the King . . . 160

CHAPTER Vni. _J>

THE COMMONWEALTH.

Section I. — Cromwell's Last Victories. Nature of the procedings against the King . . 161

Establishment of a Commonwealth . . . 162 Cromwell subdues Ireland .... 162

1650 Montrose lands in Scotland, is taken and executed . 163 Charles II. proclaimed in Scotland . . .164 Cromwell defeats the Scots at Dunbar . 165

1651 He again defeats them at Worcester . . . 165 Charles II. escapes to France . . • .166

Section II. — The Dissolution of the Long Parliament. The negative work of the Revolution accomplished . 166 Ideas of the leaders of the Commonwealth . . 167

1652 Their scheme for a new Parliament objected to by

Contents. xix

PAGE

The Navigation Act is followed by a war with the Dutch i68 Corruption in Parliament . . . .169

1653 The Long Parliament dissolved by Cromwell . . 170

Section III. — The Assembly of Nominees, 1653 Meeting of the Assembly of Nominees . . 171

It resigns its powers into Cromwell's hands , . 172

174 175

176 178

Section I. — Oliver s First Parliament. Constitutional difficulties of the situation . . 173

Oliver Cromwell declared Protector by the Instrument

of Government

1654 Character of Oliver's Government Meeting of ParUament, which begins by questioning

the Protector's authority , .

1655 Oliver dissolves the Parliament .

Section II. — The Major- Generals

1655 Limits of the toleration granted by Oliver After a Royalist rising, major-generals are appointed

to place England under military control Suppression of Episcopalian worship . Oliver allies himself with France against Spain Milton's sonnet on the " Massacre of the Vaudois ' War with Spain . , . .

Section III. — Oliver s Second Parliament

1656 Oliver summons his second Parliament Begins by excluding members whom he distrusts

1657 The Petition and Advice Oliver refuses the title of King .

1658 Dissolution of the second Parliament

Section IV. — Death of Oliver, 1658 Oliver's system could not last . Military and naval successes Kis death

180 181 181 182 183

183 185 186 186 187

188 189 190

XX Contents.

Section 1,— Anarchy

1658 The Puritan revolution drawing to a close . . 191 Richard Cromwell assumes the Protectorate and summons a new Parliament .... 192

1659 The Parhament is dissolved, and the Protector ejected

by the army ...... 193

The Rump, or survivors of the Long Parliament, restored by the army ..... 193

The army quarrels with the Rump and drives it out, afterwards again restoring it , . . . 194

Section II. — The Restoration

1660 Monk crosses the border with the army from Scotland,

and is joined by Fairfax at York . . . 195 He reaches London, and declares for a free Parliament 196 The Long Parliament comes to an end, a new Parliament meets, and restores Charles II. . . 197

Section III. -^ The Ecclesiastical Settlement of the Restoration

1660 Principles of the Restoration .... 198 1660-5 Acts passed against the Nonconformists, who begin to

be called Dissenters . , . . -199

l66r The Corporation Act ..... 200

The doctrine of non-resistance adopted by Parliament 200

1667-71 Milton's "Paradise Lost" "Paradise Regained" 201

And " Samson Agonistes " .... 204

Section IV. — The Revival of Parliamentary Opposition

1661 The Parliamentary view of the Constitution . . 205 1664 Charles' financial difficulties, and war with the Dutch 206 1667 Fall of Lord Chancellor Clarendon . . . 207

Section V. — Revival of the Idea of Toleration

1667 The policy of Toleration adopted by the King . 208 He wishes to include Roman Catholics . . 2o3

1668 The Triple Alliance ..... 209

Contents. xxi

PAGE 2IO 2IO 2IO

1670 The Treaty of Dover ....

1672 The Declaration of Indulgence

1673 The declaration withdrawn The Test Act followed by a Bill for the relief of Dis

senters, which fails to pass the Lords . .211

Progress of Toleration . . . . .211

Section Yl. — The Revolution ^/i688. 1688 PoUtical results of tne Revolution . . . 212

Future prospects . , . . .214

MAPS

^ I. England and Wales — showing the incidence of Ship-money

in 1636 ..... To face title pagt

\ 2. England and Wales — showing the districts held by the King

and the Parliament on January i, 1643 . To face page 134

nJ 3. England and Wales — showing the districts held by the King

and the Parliament on January i, 1644 . To face page 144

^ 4. England and Wales — showing the districts held by the King

and the Parliament on May i, 1645 . . To face page 149

THE FIRST TWO STUARTS

PURITAN REVOLUTION.

Section I. — Reformers and Puritans

The English Reformation was brought about, as every other great change is brought about, by the co-operation of two classes of men : the men

§1.1 wo par-

who are, on the whole, content with the ties to the principles by which they have hitherto eormaion. guided their lives, though they think that some changes ought to be made in matters of detail ; and those who start upon an entirely new principle, and who strive to realize an ideal society which commends itself to their own minds. They answer, in short, to the Whigs and Radicals of modern political life, whilst the Conservatives are represented by a third class averse from all change whatever.

The first class — the Reformers, as we may call them

who, on the whole, controlled the movement,

g 2. The Rewere content with gradual and slow change, formers.

2 Puritans and House of Conijnons. 155 8-1603.

They were ready to examine every practice and doctrine by the test of Scripture and the custom of the early Church, but they were willing to retain all that could not be so shown to be worthy of rejection. In this way they held that the white vestment of the minister, the kneeling attitude of the congregation at the administration of the Communion, the observation of days set apart for fast and festival, were commendable observances reaching the heart through the medium of the senses, and encouraging a habit of devotion by the use of bodily action.

Alongside of these men were others who cared nothing for ancient tradition or outward observances, and

3 3. The who regarded those which had been re- Puritans, tained as rags and relics of Popery. During their exile in the reign of Mary, the Puritans, as they afterwards came to be called, learned from the disciples of Calvin, the great French teacher of Geneva, a special system of doctrine and discipline ; a system in which the heart and soul were sustained by the intellectual appreciation of theological truths, rather than by the outward actions of the body.

The Puritans were not likely to find a friend in Elizabeth, when, after her sister's death, she mounted the throne to take up the conflict which her faleaning against ther had waged before her. She herself the Puritans. j^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ scandahzcd her

bishops by retaining the crucifix in her private chapeL But she had another reason for bearing hardly on the Puritans. Her strength lay in her headship of the national cause. She detested the Pope, not so much because he taught the doctrine of transubstantiation and worshipped images, as because he claimed to meddle with the rules and laws to be observed by Englishmen.

1553-1603. Reformers and Puritans. 3

She was anxious to win over as many as possible of those whose belief was still the same as that of their fathers, and she therefore was glad to retain such ceremonies as might be welcome to this numerous class of her subjects.

If Elizabeth had reasons of her own for maintaining the ceremonial forms of the Church, she had also reasons of her own for maintaining its Episcopal organization. The existence of bishops has been , ^,.

^5. Elizadefended by ecclesiastical writers on various beth's support grounds ; but it was not by ecclesiastical ° piscopacy. reasoning that Elizabeth was convinced. She cared very little whether bishops were or were not the successors of the Apostles. She cared very much that they were appointed by herself. They were instruments for keeping the clergy in order. Not that they were mere servile tools. Many of them were high-minded, devoted men, serving the queen all the better because they believed that they were serving God at the same time.

To the thoroughgoing Puritan such a system was doubly obnoxious. With Calvin's aid he looked into his Bible, and he found nothing there of the „ , ^ .

° g 6. Puritan

rule of the queen over the beliefs and wor- opposition to ship of Christians. Presbyterianism, so at P^^copacy. least the most energetic Puritans held, was the divinely appointed model of church government for all time. The clergy, assisted by lay elders chosen out of the congregation, were to be supreme over all ecclesiastical matters.

Proud of her ancient crown, proud of her advocacy of the rights of the laity against Presbyter and Pope alike, Elizabeth sternly resisted the Puritan flood. Year after year the tide, in spite of \^- .9''°^^^ °*

■' ' ^ Puritanism

all her efforts, seemed to mount. As long as the struggle with Rome was hot, as long as plots for the assassination of the queen were matters of daily talk, and the presence of a Spanish fleet in English harbors, and of Spanish veterans upon English soil, was regarded as within the limits of possibility, so long large numbers of men who were in earnest in the quarrel attached themselves to that form of Protestantism v/hich was most opposed to the system which they combated.

During the last years of Elizabeth's reign the waves

of external conflict lulled themselves to sleep. When

once the Armada had been shattered by

3 8. Pacific ten- „ , . , , i , i • i /•

dencies in Eng- English cannon-shot and by the wmds of ^^^^' heaven, a calmer, milder spirit prevailed

amongst the conquerors. To combat Spain and the Pope ceased to be the first thought of Englishmen. The thought of internal reforms, of wise guidance of the nation which had been saved, came into the foremost place. Each party had learned something from the other. If the bishops continued to oppose Calvin's system of church government, they gave their warm adherence to his theology. Large numbers of Puritans abandoned their Presbyterian theories, and were ready to submit to the Episcopal constitution, if only they could be allowed to omit certain ceremonies which they regarded as superstitious, of which the use of the surplice was the most important.

These prognostics of peace with which Elizabeth's reign closed were not confined to England. An observer of the course of continental politics might dencie^s^on th^' have been excused for thinking that the Continent. ^^^^ ^^ religious wars were drawing to an

end. In 1598 Spain, by the peace of Vervins, had withdrawn from its attempt to meddle in the affairs of France and had acknowledged the legitimacy of the tolerant

155S-1603. Refo7'nters and Puritans. 5

monarchy of Henry IV. . The Dutch Netherlanders were still holding out in their noble struggle against Spanish oppression, and it seemed likely that here too Spain would retire exhausted from the contest. In Germany the existing settlement which assigned certain territories to one rehgion or the other had not been seriously contested. On the whole the prospects of the approach of peace after the long religious wars were brighter than they had been for many a weary year.

In England, a broad and tolerant disposition made itself conspicuous in the highest literature of the day. No theological controversialist ever had so , ^ , wise a horror of strife as Hooker, the author ranee of lUeraof the Ecclesiastical Polity, or was so ready to teach that truth and wisdom must be sought in a reverent study of spiritual and moral laws, rather than in any form of words which might be upheld as a standard of party. He strikes up the swords of the combatants as the herald of peace. " This unhappy controversy," are the very first words which he utters, " about the received ceremonies and discipline of the Church of England, which hath so long time withdrawn so many of her ministers from their principal work, and employed their studies in contentious oppositions ; hath by the unnatural growth and dangerous fruits thereof, made known to the world, that it never received blessing from the Father of peace."

The voice of Hooker was echoed by the voice of ^acon, statesman, philosopher, essay writer, all in one. Looking with eyes of pity on the lot of men, strivmg, if so it might be, to make them happier and wiser by act or speech of his, he had his word of warning to utter on this point too : " Therefore," he writes, " it is good we return unto the ancient bands of unity in the Church of God, which was, one faith, one baptism, and not, one hierarchy, one discipline, and that we observe the league of Christians, as it is penned by our Saviour Christ ; which is in substance of doctrine this. All that is not with us is against us ; but in things indifferent, and but of circumstance this, He that is not against us is with us ... as it is excellently alluded by that father that noted that Christ's garment was without seam, and yet the Church's garment was of divers colors, and thereupon set down for a rule. Let there be variety in the vesture but not a rent." Hooker's object is different from Bacon' s object. Hooker counselled the Puritan to give way to the arrangements of the Church. Bacon counselled that the arrangements of the Church should be modified to suit the wishes of the Puritan. But the spirit of moderation was the same in both.