Epochs of English history

Part I. Epochs of English History

EDITED BY THE

REV. M. CREIGHTON, M.A,

LATE FELLOW AND TUTOR OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD.

I.— Early England up to the Norman Conquest. By Frederick York -Powell, M.A. With four maps.

II. — England as a Continental Power, from the Conquest to Magna Charta, 1066-1316. By Louise Creighton. With a colored map of the Dominion of the Angevin Kings.

Ill— The Rise of the People, and Growth of Parliament, from the Great Charter to the Accession of Henry VII., 1315-1485. By James Bowley, M.A., Professor of Modern Hist, and Lit. Univ. Coll., Bristol. With four Maps.

IV. — The Tudors ard the Reformation, 1485-1603. By the Rev.

Mandell Creighton, M.A., late Fellow and Tutor of Merton College, Oxford, Editor of the series. With three maps.

PRICE 50 CENTS.

LIST OF MAPS.

Roman Britain

The First Home of the English England after the English Conquest

England under the Great English Kings .

T

LIBRARY

PAGB

• 13

• • 1?

. • es

]f*EDIGKEES

•AGE

vii

BOOK l.

THE BRITONS AND ROMANS (B.C. 55-A.D. 449).

CHAPTER

I. The Britons ......... i

II. The Roman Conquest ....... 5

III The Roman Rule in Britain . . .. to

Book II. The English Conquest (449-600)

I. The English 16

II. The English Conquest . . . . . . 22

Book III. Christianity: Kent And Northumberland (597-685)

II. Northumberland 30

BOOK IV?

WESSEX AND THE MARCHLANIL (685—802).

1. The Rise of Wessex . 2 ^ 8 3 U 5 B 39

II. The Church .... : ... 42

III. Wessex and *Ut* MarcfeJand . .... 44

VI

BOOK v. THE ENGLISH AND THE DANES (802-90IJ

CHAPTER PAGE

II. Ethelwolf and his Elder Sons (837-871) ... 52

III. Alfred the Truth-teller (871-901) 55

Book VI. The Great Old-english Kings (9oi-979)

II. Ethelstan the Steadfast (925-940) 69

III. Edmund the Deed-doer (940-946) .... 72

IV. Edred the Chosen (946-955) 73

VI. Edgar the Peace-winner (959-975) • . . . . 75

VII. Edward the Martyr (975-979) . ■ . -78

VIII. Changes in England under the Great Kings . . . 80

Book VII. The Danish Conquest (979-1042)

I. Ethelred the Unready (979-1016) .... 82

II. Edmund Ironside (10x6) . . . . . 90

IV. Harold Harefoot and Hardi-Canute (1035-1042) . . 9*

Book VIII. The Two Last Old-english Kings (1042-1066)

I. Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) .... 99

II. Harold Godwin's son (1066) 106

III. Changes in England . . • . . .114

,, Places 123

KINGS OF ENGLAND.

Egbert

(sprung from Cerdic) 802 I 838

Ethelwolf Ethelstan

4- | 858 K. of Kent

r 1 1 i

Ethelbald Ethelbert Ethelred Alfred the Great

Edward, Elder Ethelfled, Lady of the Marchland + I 925 4- 922

I I I

Ethelstan Edmjmd Edred

+ 940 + 946 + 955

Edwy Edgar

+ 959 + 975

! I

Edward the Martyr Ethelred the Unready

+ 979 (mar. Emma of Normandy)

+ 1016

1 _ I I i

Edmund Ironside Alfred Edward the Confessor other sons, and

4 1016 4- 1036 4- 1066 three daughters mar. to

1 (Emma’s son) (Emma’s sou) Edric, Utred. Wolf kettl*

Edmund 4- before 1056

Edward 4- 1057

Edgar Etheling Margaret

(mar. Malcolm Bighead King of Scotland).

THE DAF^SH KINGS,

Harold Bluetooth King of I Denmark

Sweyn Forkbenrd (King of Denmark and England) + 1214

Gunhild (mar. Pallig)

Sweyn

(King of Denmark)

I

Canute the Mighty

(King of Denmark, England, and Norway) + 1035

I

I

Harold Hare/oot + 1040

Hardi-Canute Gunhild

(son of Emma) (mar. Emp. Henry III.) + 1042 (dtr. of Emma)

THE HOUSE OF GODWIN.

Godwin

(mar. Canute’s sister's daughter) + 1053

I I I I

Edith Sweyn Harold Tostig Gurth (m. Edward +c. i'o53 (m- Edith (m Judith t- 1066 Confessor) Elfgar’sdtr.) Baldwin’s dtr.)

+ 1066 + 1066

Leofwin + 1066

THE HOUSE OF LEOFRIC.

Leofric

I

Elfgar

L

Edith Edwin Morcaj

(nsatr. 1. Griffith, King of Wales a. Harold Godwinson).

THE HOUSE OF NORMANDY

Rolf Ganger {son of Earl Ronwald)

William Longsword + |943

Richard, Fearless + 995

Richard, Good + 1026

Emma

(mar. 1. Ethelred the Unready 2. Canute the Mighty

Richard + 1028

I I

+ 1035 (mar. Herlwin) (m. Baldwin Fairbeard

I of Flanders)

William the Conqzieror (mar. Matilda

dr. of Baldwin of Flanders).

Odo

( Bishop of Bayeux)

Robert

(Earl of Mortain)

THE HOUSE OF FLANDERS.

Baldwin I.

(mar. Judith, dghtr. of Charles Bald widow of i. F.thelwolf 2. Eihelbald )

+ 879

I. Baldwin Ii

(mar. dghtr. of A If red the Great)

A rnulf, Bad

+ 965

Baldwin III.

(ruled with his father)

+ 962

A rnulf, Young + 988

I

Baldwin IV., Fair heard

(mar. Ogive, dghtr. of Richard Good of Normandy)

+ 1036

Baldwin V., Kind

+ 1067

Baldwin VI. Good Matilda Judith

(mar. William the Conqueror) (mar. 1. Tostig

a. Wolf of Bavaria,

EARLY ENGLAND.

Introduction

Thu uthief things which we have to notice in this part of the history of England are :

1. What England was like and who dwelt in it before our forefathers came here and called it England.

2. How our forefathers built up the kingdom of England, driving out the folk that dwelt here before them.

3. How this kingdom grew so weak that it was conquered by foreign kings.

Chapter I. The Britons

x. W e do not know much of the first dwellers in England, as no history tells us about them ; but from the re mains of themselves, their tools and weapons, The first which are sometimes dug up, we have been dwellers in able to find out something. They were rather *jng,andsmall people, like the Esquimaux, and used flint and £. H. B

BK. I.

Early England.

bone weapons. They were great hunters, and some of them were cannibals. They lived in caves and on the banks of the seas and rivers ; and it is in caves and the great heaps of shells, which lie near where their huts stood, that we find the bones and remains that tell us about them.

In their days England was much colder than it it now, and much wilder. A great many wild beasts lived here, such as hyaenas, lions, rhinoceroses, and elephants which have long since disappeared.

We do not know when these people came to England, but it must have been a very long while ago.

2. The first people we hear about in history as dwelling in England, which they called Britain, were very different ^ _ . folk. The land in their time, though not so cold and wild as before, was still very unlike the England of to-day. The greater part of it was covered with thick woods or broad heaths ; and where the rivers now run fast there were often great fens and lakes. There were still many wild beasts, bears, wolves, and beavers, great elks and wild cattle, though most of’those we spoke of before had died out. It was hotter in summer and colder in winter than it is now.

The people were not English at all, but of the same race as the Irish and Welsh of to-day, who are descended from them. They were a rude people, but were not savages, like the first folk. They lived in wattled huts half-sunk in the ground, without windows or chimneys. These huts were set together in villages, which had often a wooden paling and earthen wall round them, and were placed in the midst of woods, or on islands in the rivers or marshes, or on hills, so'as to be safer against foemen. Their wealth was in cattle, and they tilled the ground near their villages, and grew barley. They were great hunters ; but they did not fish in the sea. In the south and west of Britain they worked to find tin and lead.

CH. I.

The Britons.

and sold the metal to the Phoenicians, wno were the great merchants of that day and the first civilised folk who knew of Britain. The Britons also used to traffic with their kinsfolk in Gaul. They had horses, which they only used for war, when they drove them in chariots ; and they had dogs like large deerhounds, which they used for hunting. The Britons were very clever at all kinds of basket-work, and knew how to make pottery for household use, and large earthenware vessels in which they buried their dead. They did not know how to work iron or copper, but used flint and bone and horn for their weapons and tools. When they could, they bought bronze swords and axes from Gaul. They used also to make jet ornaments.

They were tall, big people, and many of them had blue eyes and light hair. They left their hair long, and the men wore large moustachios, but shaved their beards. The men wore shirts and hose and long cloaks of plaid, and the women kirtles of the same stuff. But when the men went to war they used to throw off their cloaks and rush into battle half-naked, painted blue with the juice of a herb called woad, just as is the habit of some savages now. They fought with long swords and spears and darts. Their shields were of wood covered with hide and strengthened with metal.

3. They were brave in battle, but were never long of one mind, and so their bravery availed them little. They did not live together as a nation, under one Their gorule, as we see the peoples of Europe do now; vemment. but they were divided into tribes. Each tribe had its own chief and followed its -own customs. These tribes were always at war with each other, and this was one great cause of the misfortunes that fell upon them.

The chiefs and kings of these tribes could not do as they liked. When any great thing was to be done the free men of the tribe were all called together to consider it,

BK. L

Early England.

and what they wished was done ; but the chiefs led them to war, and had much power over them in peace-time.

There was one tribe very unlike the other dwellers in Britain in many ways. They were not so fickle, but very steadfast folk ; and they wore dark-coloured raiment, and were dark-haired and dark-eyed. They lived in what is now South Wales, and were called Silures.

4. We do not know how or when all these tribes came to Britain ; though there are some stories in old Irish and Their Welsh books about their coming. Nor do we

coming into know whether the savages who first dwelt in n am' the land had all died out when they came ; but it is very likely they had. We only know for certain that the Silures came from the south of Europe, and the Irish, or Gaels, from the east ; and after them the Britons came, who drove the Irish forward to the west and north. 01 the Britons, the Belgians came last, only about 100 years before the birth of Christ.

The religion of the Britons was very strange. There was a class of men whom they called Druids, who were . . both prophets, priests, and teachers. They 1§1 ' had great power among the Britons, but the Irish do not seem to have given them so much authority. They taught men to worship the gods, and that the soul of a man never died,, but that after death it passed through other bodies, and that the wicked were punished and the good rewarded by what happened to them in the different bodies which their souls passed through. They also offered sacrifices, men and beasts, to their gods. If a man disobeyed them, he was not allowed to assist at the offerings, but was cast out of his tribe and from the abodes of men. The Druids had no temples, but worshipped their gods in dark oak groves or on high hills.

The Druids also in their schools taught bands of scholars all that they knew about the stars, the healing b.c. ss-

The Britons.

powers of herbs, and the old songs and stories of the tribes. The chiefs and people asked the Druids’ advice on all things, and gave them gifts and a great part of the spoil which they won in war. The Druids were held as holy men, and no man dare hurt or rob one.

In many places in England, there are, still standing, large stones set up in circles or rows. Who set them up we do not know, but that they have been there a very long time is certain. There is a story told of one stone circle, which is perhaps the most famous of all, Stonehenge, that it was set up by the Britons, about 460 A.D., over some of their chiefs who were treacherously slain. But Stonehenge is one of the latest of these stone rings, so that very likely, if this tale be true, the Britons merely copied the work of a much earlier age, and perhaps even of an earlier race.

Chapter II. The Roman Conquest

i. Now, the mightiest folk in the world, about the time we begin to hear much about the Britons, were the Romans, who had conquered all the nations Caesar's first round the Mediterranean. Their greatest man coming, fifty-five years before the birth of Christ was B‘c‘ S5‘ Caius J ulius Caesar, who had been fighting in Gaul, and had beaten all the Gaulish tribes from the Gulf of Marseilles to the Channel. He determined to come over to Britain because the Belgians of South Britain had sent help to their kinsmen the Belgians in Gaul, with whom he was fighting. So Caesar set sail for Britain with a small army. When the Britons, who were watching for him, saw his fleet draw near the shore they came down and kept the Romans from landing, till a brave standardbearer leapt from the galley into the water among the Britons. When the Roman soldiers saw him in the midst

6 Eatl%Jingland. b.c. 54.

of tli err foes they followed him td'saye the standard, and at last rrtade good their landing and drove the Britons up into the country. Then Caesar marched/through most of the land of the people of Kent, fought several b attfes and forced the tribps neap him to give hostages and make ' peace. , But he was mutable to profit by his success. He was at raid qf the\bad weather in the Channel, for it was ^getting late" in the kear. Su h^went back to Gaul.

2. "But when Cfiesiir Was gbfie th<Britons did not do as they had promised..hiii>-; so/he came agaimnexCsuTrrmer into Britain i^^^\a^axThan Before. But the Caesar's trib|s q tV^^-So ufh - ea^nTi ad united under a coming bra4e pr}hce,Np amea\C as waJlawn\(whom the b.c, 54. Romans' 'caJled NCassivelaunus), and resisted the invaders wry tiddly. But the good 'order of the _ Romah^fvercfme at last.' After several battles

Cassivplaunus’| stronghold, Verularh,. (StS , Albaps)) was taken and-' burnt. The , Britons therefore were again forced to makepeace. l3ut the Romans, when thej found what a poor Jountry Britain was, and that tK^fie waTs no rich plunder /and muchjaatrd fighting, were not inclined to stay long®-. Caesar, too, had succeeded in frightening the Briton^ from interfering further with his plans in Gaul. He/could not afford to stay himself,- as he wanted to keep watch over his new conquests in Gaul, and did not wishfto be too far from Rome. So the Romans went back aJain, and when Caesar was next in Rome he hung up a dbrslet of British pearls in the temple of his goddess, Venus, as a memorial of his victories.

Lfter Csesar left, the Britons were left to themselves forfabout ninety years. They still kept up their trade witjn Gaul, which was now a Roman province, and they nop coined much money, copying the Greek and Roman mlney which they saw used in trade ; for before they had mf>stly used metal rings and cattle instead of money.

a.p. 43-61. The Roman Conquest. 7

Once during this time the Roman Emperor Gaius, surnamed Caligula, gathered together a large army with which to eQnquer Britain. He marched as f£r as tlfe coast of Gaul, facing Britain, but he ne^er cross^d-the'Channel, and the only -spoils he brought JaK&K-Vy Rome were pebbles and shells from the seashore. j

3. In the rei^n pf Claudius, the fourth Roman Emperor, a Roman ge^reBal was sent with an army The conof Romans'and Gauls. He landed in the

south, and afi^'- muc^ Jiard^gmf^ Ve^ctis a.d. 43. (the Isle of A^ight^ was taken, iffid 'fbeyvhole of South Britain submjtfej^to Claudius, who/came^yei. to receive the new cdyquest. Camulodun (Colchestei^iwas taken and settled yvith Roman soldiers, and became aGRortran towfir^TToufh -Britain was taken under the Roinanrule, and was rnade a provmcy ofthe Roman empire, as .Gttd had been. These Roman" provinces were governedyby officers sent out by the Emperor. \

4. But in the north and midst oT''Bjdtain, Caradawg^ Caractacus,'^tUEiiield. outy whom the Romans called against the Romans. After fighting bravely CaractaciH he was at last overcome and driven to seek A-D- 4?- shelter with his mother-in-law, who betrayed him to the Romans, to gain their favour, and he was taken captive to Rome, with his wife and children. When he saw the splendid buildings and all the glory of the great city hesairTto the Emperor, ‘ How is it that you who dwell in such grand palaces envy us poor Britons our thatched cots ? ’ And the Emperor, who was pleased with his boldness and bravery, treated him kindly at the prayer of the Empress. Nevertheless, the Silures, though they had lost their great leader, would not yield, and the Roman general is said to have died of grief and rage at not being able to subdue them.

5. Some years after, while Nero was Emperor,

Vi

Suetonius Paullinus was appointed Governor in Britain. Suetonius 1° A-D- res°lved to go over to Mona

Paullinus ' (Anglesey), which was a sacred island of the d?cea.°a Druids, and subdue it. For they had received a d- 59-6*. there many of the Britons who had fled from the Roman conquerors. The Druids resisted him stoutly. The very women withstood the landing of his troops, and at one time nearly drove them back, frightened at the strange sight and the dreadful noises and the witchcraft of the Druids. There were great fires lit along the shore and many women with torches rushing to and fro shrieking, while the Druids called on their gods with loud cries to help their warriors and overthrow their foes. At last, however, the Romans landed and took the island, cut down the groves, and slew the Druids, casting them into the fires which they had kindled to burn their captives in. This is noteworthy, because the Romans hardly ever tried to destroy or change the faith of any folk whom they conquered. They did so in the Druids’ case because they saw that if the Druids were allowed to teach their faith and rouse the Britons against them they could never govern the country quietly.

While Suetonius was away, the Iceni and their queen, Bodug, whom the Romans called Boadicea, rose against the Romans, who were left nearly defenceless. Boadicea was the widow of a king of the Icenians, who had been a friend of the Romans, and had given them some of his possessions. But when he died the Romans seized the inheritance of his daughters, and when Boadicea protested she was seized and scourged, and her daughters were treated in the cruellest way. All the Britons who had suffered any wrong at the hands of the Romans joined her, and she soon had a great host under her. She burnt London and Camulodun (Colchester) and other Roman settlements, and slew all living souls therein, both Romans and a. d. 61-85. The Roman Co?iquest. 9

Britons who had taken up Roman ways. One Roman general tried to resist her, but he was routed and driven into his camp. Then arose a great panic in all the Roman settlements. All who could fled south before the Britons, and many even crossed to Gaul. But at length news of all that was happening was brought to Suetonius, and he marched back with a large , army to fight Boadicea, and came up with her and set his forces in order against her. And Boadicea went through her army, when it was in battle array, in a war-chariot, with her daughters. She wore a helmet on her long fair hair and a gold collar on her neck, and bore war-weapons in her hand, and she prayed her people to fight bravely and avenge her wrongs and their own. But when the battle was joined the Romans, after a hard fight, won the day. For a long time the Britons would not flee, and the Romans slew them nearly all on the field ; but Boadicea took poison, fearing capture worse than death. With this defeat the revolt ceased, and the province, though fearfully wasted, was at peace. Now when Nero heard of the great revolt and the causes of it he recalled Suetonius and sent out another governor in his room.

6. When Vespasian was Emperor of Rome he sent a very good governor to Britain, Julius Agricola, who had served under Suetonius, fifteen years before. AgTicola He was the father-in-law of Tacitus, the great gacu?al" historian, who wrote his life, from which we A D- 78-85. learn a great deal about Britain at this time. Agricola won all South Britain for the Romans. And when he found that the Caledonians (as the wild tribes of the North were called) were always harrying the lands of those Britons who had submitted to the Romans he built a line of forts against them across the island, between the Firth and the Cljde, and garnished it with soldiers. In the last year of his government he marched north, and fought a battle

10 Early England. a.d. 12 i,

with the Caledonians, which he won, though their king, Galgacus, led them very bravely. Soon after this Agricola was recalled to Rome. Seven years he ruled in Britain, and he was not only famous as a general but for his good government. He tried to get the Britons to take up Roman ways and customs, and took great trouble in teaching the sons of the chiefs the Roman language and wisdom. By showing the Britons that good as well as evil was to be got from their Roman rulers he brought them to live peacefully under them. He did not even try to conquer the Caledonians, for their country was very wild and poor, but only wished to make them leave the Roman subjects in peace. Agricola sent his fleet round Britain to survey the coasts and. see what the country to the far north was like. From their voyage we have the first accounts of the geography of North Britain.

Chapter III. The Roman Rule In Britain

1. When Hadrianus became Emperor of Rome (a.d. 121) he went round his empire, and put all the Hadrianus borders in a state of defence. When he came dnus^wS'ls. t0 Britain he built a wall from the Tyne to a.d. 121-140. Solway Firth, and made it the boundary of the province. But some years later, when Antoninus was Emperor, the governor of Britain built a wall where Agricola’s line of forts were, and got back the land between the walls. Pieces of these two walls remain to this day.

2. Nevertheless the Caledonians, or Piets, as they were now called, were always making raids southward, Severus. until the Roman governors took to buying

a.d. 210. them off. This only made them come the oftener. At last the Empermr himself had to be sent

The Roman Rule in Britain.

II for. His name was Severus ; he was an old man, but very wise and ..brave. He was too ill to ride, and was borne in a litter at the head of his army. He marched right through North Britain to the Pentland Firth; and though he lost a great part of his army through the bad weather and rough ground and the continual fighting, yet he made the Caledonians beg for peace and took away a great part of their land. When he had had the earthen wall of Hadrianus strengthened with a wall of stone he was carried back to Eboracum (York), the capital of Britain, and there he died.

3. About seventy years after this new foes began to trouble the Romans. These were the Scots, a tribe from the north of Ireland, which they called Scotia. The Scots, These Scots now ravaged the west and north £ the of Britain. a-d- *9°-

The east also of Britain was laid waste by the attacks of the English, whom the Britons called Saxons. This is the first time we hear of Englishmen coming to Britain, though many Germans had been in Britain as soldiers in the Roman armies. '

j\. The next great man we hear of in Britain was Constantine, who afterwards became Emperor. His mother was a British princess. He was the first Em- _

_ . Constantine

peror who made the Christian faith the faith and Chris-

of the Roman Empire. He became a Christian tianity' himself, and after him all the Emperors save one were Christians. We hear of British Christians before. When there was a persecution in A.D. 303 it is said that many were put to death in Britain for the faith, for the Emperor believed the Christians to be traitors, and persecuted them. Alban, who was slain at Verulam, is said to have been the first martyr who died in Britain. In after days the great monastery of S. Albans arose at Verulam, where he was slain. Now, this bringing in of

THK TRIBES OF BRITAIN.

The Romans called all the tribes that dwelt in Britain Britons ; but they were not all of one race.

The Silures were not akin to the other folks, but rather perhaps to the Basks who dwell in Spain and the South of France to this day.

The other tribes were all Keltic. Of these the Gaelic tribes were akin to the Irish and Highlanders of our times. These were the

Caledonians (afterwards called Piets)

Brigantes

Ordovices.

The Welsh or Kymric tribes are the same folk as the Welsh people of to-day. These were the Coritanians Trinobantes Tcenians Cantians Damnomam Belgians marks the Roman roads, the divisions of the tribes x 4 Early England.

Christianity is one of the most important things that the Roman rule did for Britain. Christianity also gave the Roman Empire new strength for a while. Through the conversion of the German tribes, a very different fate befell the Roman Empire and the people under it than would have overtaken them had the Germans been still heathen.

5. After the days of Constantine, in spite of all that the Romans could do, things got worse. At last the Piets The leaving and Scots ravaged the whole of Britain as Romans ^ar as London. They were driven out by a.d. 409. Theodosius, who got back the country between the walls and called it Valentia, in honour of Valentinian, who was then Emperor. And so he gave the land peace for a while.

Soon after this the heart of the Roman Empire was invaded by the German tribes, who at length overthrew it altogether in the West of Europe. And the Emperors could not do much to keep the far-off provinces safe, for they wanted all their troops nearer home. As legion after legion went away the Britons were at last left to themselves. Once or twice a legion was sent back for a while to help them against their heathen foes, but at length no more help could be got. Though the Britons, especially those who lived in the towns and had learned Roman ways, had been weakened by not having had to fight for themselves, yet they levied soldiers after the Roman fashion, and defended themselves very stubbornly for some time. Especially they tried to keep the walls. But what had been their bane before was so again, for the chief men, now again kings, quarrelled among themselves. Many did evil deeds, and some even called in the Piets and Scots against their brethren. At last, it is said, Gwerthigern (or Vortigern), who was the greatest king in Britain, resolved to copy the plan the Romans had used.

The Roman Rule in Britain.

They had kept off the Germans a long time by playing off one lot of barbarians against another. So he called two English chiefs, brothers — Hengist and Horsa by name — to help him against the Piets and Scots.

6. The Romans had been four hundred years in Britain when they left, and had made great changes in the land. They were great builders and engineers. Besides the camps and walls they had built many walled towns, with houses of brick and stone, and large temples and churches, and theatres and public baths, what The villas or country-houses of the great men the

too were often splendidly decorated. It was wrought, through their walls that the towns came off better in the conquest by the English than the rest of the country.

The Romans made good roads across the country, running straight from town to town, and it was on these roads that all the traffic of England was carried on and soldiers marched in the wars, till the cutting of canals and the invention of railways. Moreover, if the map of England of to-day is compared with the map of Roman Britain we see that the railways often follow the line of the Roman roads. The Romans also taught the Britons many other arts. They also worked mines of iron and lead and tin, and made fine pottery. So much corn was grown in Britain that it was called the i Granary of the North.’ Much trade also was carried on at London. Horses and big British dogs were sent from Britain all over the Roman Empire.