The thirty years' war, 1618-1648

Front matter

Tufts College Library

GIFT OF ALUMNI

Epo chs of History

Preface

If the present work should appear to be written for more advanced students than those for whom most if not all the other books of the series are designed, the nature of the subject must be pleaded in excuse. The mere fact that it relates exclusively to Continental history makes it unlikely that junior pupils would approach it in any shape, and it is probably impossible to make the very complicated relations between the German states and other European nations interesting to those who are for the first time, or almost the first time, attempting to acquire historical knowledge. Every history, to be a history, must have a unity of its own, and here we have no unity of national life such as that which is reflected in the institutions of England and France, not even the unity of a great race of sovereigns handing down the traditions of government from one generation to another. The unity of the subject which I have chosen must be sought in the growth of the principle of religious toleration as it is adopted or repelled by the institutions under which Germany and France, the two principal nations with which we are concerned, are living. Thus the history

v

VI

Preface .

of the period may be compared to a gigantic dissolving view. As we enter upon it our minds are filled with German men and things. But Germany fails to find the solution of the problem before it. Gradually France comes with increasing distinctness before us. It succeeds where Germany had failed, and occupies us more and more till it fills the whole field of action. *

But though, as I have said, the present work is not intended for young children, neither is it intended for those who require the results of original research. The data for a final judgment on the story are scattered in so many repositories that the Germans themselves have now discovered that a complete investigation into one or other of the sections into which the war naturally falls, is sufficient work for any man. There must surely, however, be many, as well in the upper classes of schools as in more advanced life, who would be glad to know at second hand what is the result of recent inquiry in Germany into the causes of the failure of the last attempt, before our own day, to constitute a united German nation. The writer who undertakes such a task encounters, with his eyes open, all the hazards to which a second-hand narrative is liable. His impressions are less sharp, and are exposed to greater risk of error than those of one who goes direct to the fountain head. He must be content to be the retailer rather than the manufacturer of history, knowing that each kind of work has its use.

Not that the present book is a mere collection of other men’ swords. If I have often adopted without much change the narrative or opinions of German

Preface.

vn writers, I have never said any thing which I have not made my own, by passing it through my own mind. To reproduce with mere paste and scissors passages from the writings of men so opposed to one another as Ranke, Gindely, Ritter, Opel, Hurter, Droysen, Gfrorer, Klopp, Forster, Villermont, Uetterodt, Koch, and others, would be to bewilder, not to instruct. And in forming my own opinions I have had the advantage not merely of being in the habit of writing from original documents, but of having studied at least some of the letters and State papers of the time. I have thus, for example, been able, from my knowledge of the despatches of Sir Robert Anstruther, to neglect Droysen’ s elaborate argument that Christian IV. took part in the war through jealousy of Gustavus Adolphus ; and to speak, in opposition to Onno Klopp, of the persistence of the Dukes of Mecklenoui^ in tne support which they gave to the King of Denmark.

More valuable than the little additional knowledge thus obtained is the insight into the feelings and thoughts of the Catholic princes gained by a very slight acquaintance with their own correspondence. To start by trying to understand what a man appears to himself, and only when that has been done, to try him by the. standard of the judgment of others, is in my opinion the first canon of historical portraiture; and it is one which till very recent times has been more neglected by writers on the Thirty Years’ War than by students of any other portion of history.

My teachers in Germany from whom I have borrowed so freely, and according to the rules of the se-

Vlll

Preface .

ries, without acknowledgment in foot-notes, will, 1 hope, accept this little book, not as an attempt to do that which they are so much better qualified to execute, but as an expression of the sympathy which an Englishman cannot but feel for the misfortunes as well as the achievements of his kindred on the Continent, and as an effort to tell something of the bygone fortunes of their race to those amongst his own countrymen to whom, from youth or from circumstances of education, German literature is a sealed book.

I have only to add that the dates are according to the New Style. Ten days must be deducted to bring them in accordance with those used at the time iu England.

Events in English History not noticed in the text , or only referred to are printed in Italics.

Section I. — Political Institutions of Germany (1440-1517). PAGB-*

National institutions of Germany defective . . . 1

(a) As regarded the Emperor 1

( b ) As regarded the great vassals .... 3

Attempts made to introduce order by giving a regular

form to the Diet 5

These, though only partially successful, are not altogether useless 6

Constitution of the Diet 6

Section II. — Protestantism in Germany (1517-1570)

Protestantism acceptable to the majority of the nation, but rejected by the Emperor and the Diet . 8

The result is a civil war, resulting in a compromise, called the Peace of Augsburg (1555). Its terms being ambiguous on some important points, give rise to

controversy 10

But as Protestantism is on the increase, the ambiguous points are, at first, construed by the Protestants in their own favour 11

IX

X

Contents .

PAGH

The main points at issue relate to the right of Protestants to hold bishoprics, and to the right of Protestant ' princes to secularize church lands . . . .12

Section III. — Reaction against Protestantism (1570-1596). Theological controversies are carried on with bitterness

amongst the Protestants 13

The Catholics, accordingly, begin to gain ground . 14

And having the Emperor and Diet on their side, are dble to use force as well as persuasion . „ *14

Want of any popular representation prevents any fair settlement of the dispute 15

Section IV. — Three Parties and Three Leaders (1596-1612)

Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists are respectively guided by Maximilian Duke of Bavaria, John George Elector of Saxony, and Christian of Anhalt . . 15

Character and policy of Maximilian dangerous to the Protestants ........ 15

The Protestants of the south more alive to the danger than the Protestants of the north . . . . 17

Spread of Calvinism, especially in the south, accounted for by the greater danger from Catholic

States 17

Character and policy of Christian of Anhalt . . .18

1603 Accession of James I. of England 1605 Gunpowder Plot

1607 Donauworth occupied by Maximilian . . . *19

1608 Formation of the Protestant Union and the Catholic

1609 The quarrel for the succession of Cleves does not result

1612 John George fruitlessly attempts to mediate between the

Catholics and the Calvinists . . . . .22

1613 Marriage of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, to Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England

Contents .

XI

Section I. — The House of Austria and its Subjects (1600-1618). FAGB

Political and religious dissensions between the rulers

and their subjects 24

1609 The Emperor Rudolph, as King of Bohemia, grants the

Royal Charter to Bohemia . . . . .25

1611 He is succeeded by Matthias in spite of the intrigues of

Christian of Anhalt 26

Matthias evades the charter ...... 27

1617 Ferdinand accepted by the Bohemian Diet as King by

hereditary right ........ 28

1618 The Protestant churches on ecclesiastical lands de-

clared illegal by the government of Matthias; one at Braunau shut up, one at Klostergrab pulled down . 29

Section II. — The Revolution at Prague (March^May 1618)

Mar. 5. Meeting of the Protestant Estates of Bohemia . . 29

May 23. Attack headed by Thurn upon the Regents at Prague. Martinitz and Slawata thrown out of window. Beginning of the Thirty Years’ War . . 30

Appointment of Thirty Directors as a Revolutionary Government in Bohemia . . . . . *31

Section III. — The War in Bohemia {3Iay 1618-February 1619)

Aug. 13. Bohemia invaded by the Emperor’s general, Bucquoi.

The Bohemians look abroad for help. Mansfeld brings troops to them. He besieges Pilsen, whilst Thurn makes head against Bucquoi . . . .33

Nov. 21. Pilsen surrenders 34

Christian of Anhalt urges Frederick V., Elector Palatine, to intervene on behalf of the Bohemians, and asks the Duke of Savoy to help them . . .34

T619 The Duke of Savoy talks of dividing the Austrian do- Feb. minions with Frederick

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Contents .

Section IV. — Ferdinand on his Defence (Marche November PAGE

Mar. 20. Death of Matthias 36

June 5. Vienna besieged by Thurn. Ferdinand threatened

by a deputation from the Estates of Lower Austria 36 He is delivered by a regiment of horse, and Thurn

raises the siege 37

Aug. 28. Ferdinand II. elected Emperor . . . *38

Aug. 26. Frederick, Elector Palatine, elected King of Bohemia, Ferdinand having been previously deposed . 38

Nov. 4. Frederick crowned at Prague . . . . *39

Section I. — The Attach upon Frederick {November 1619- January 1621). 1619 Maximilian of Bavaria prepares for war . . .39

Vienna fruitlessly attacked by Bethlen Gabor . . 40

Frederick finds no support in the Union . . .41

1620 The North German Princes agree to neutrality at

Mar. Miihlhausen 42

June 3. Spinola, the Spanish General, prepares to attack the Palatinate, and the Union, being frightened, signs the treaty of Ulm, by which it agrees to observe neutrality towards the League . . . .42

June 23. Maximilian, with Tilly in command of his army, enters Austria and compels the Austrian Estates to submit, whilst Spinola reduces the Western Palatinate . 42

Maximilian joins Bucquoi, and enters Bohemia . 43 Sep. 28. Frederick, having failed to organize resistance, joins

the Bohemian army 44

Nov. 8. Defeat of Frederick at the Battle of the White Hill,

1619 and submission of Bohemia to the Emperor . . 45

Jan. 22. Frederick put to the Ban of the Empire . . .46

Contents .

Xlll

Section II. — The War in the Upper Palatinate ( January - October 1621). PAGE

1621 Frederick does not abandon hope of regaining Bo-

Jan. hernia 47

Ap. 12. The Treaty of Mentz dissolves the Union . . .47

Bad character of Mansfeld’s Army . . . .48

May. Mansfeld takes the offensive 49

Aug. Recommencement of the War in the Lower Palatinate 50 Oct. Mansfeld unable to hold out in the Upper Palatinate 50 Oct. 10. Signs an engagement to disband his forces, but escapes

with them to Alsace 50

Section III. — Frederick's Allies ( October 1621-May 1622). 1621 James I. of England proposes to take Mansfeld into

his pay, but he cannot agree with the House of Commons, and is therefore in want of money . 50

1622 He then tries to obtain a settlement of the German

disputes with the aid of Spain . . . .51

May. A conference for the pacification of Germany held at

Frederick prepares for War, with the help of Mansfeld, the Margrave of Baden, and Christian of Brunswick, the latter being a Protestant Administrator of the Bishopric of Halberstadt . . .53

He ravages the diocese of Paderborn . . .55

Section IV. — The Fight for the Lower Palatinate (April

Ap. 12. Frederick joins Mansfeld. Tilly defeats the Mar-

May 6. grave of Baden at Wimpfen 57

June. Frederick, hopeful of success, refuses to consent to a

treaty, and seizes the Landgrave of Darmstadt . 58

But is driven by Tilly to retreat . . . *59

June 30. Defeat of Christian of Brunswick at Hochst . . 59

July. Mansfeld abandons the Palatinate, and Frederick, after taking refuge at- Sedan, retires to the Hague

XIV

Contents .

Section I. — Mansf eld's March into the Netherlands ( July - November 1622). 1622 Tilly proceeds to reduce the fortified places in the

Lower Palatinate .......

1623 The Electorate transferred from Frederick to Maxi- Feb. 13. milian .........

1622 Change of feeling in North Germany Aug. Mansfeld and Christian establish themselves in Lorraine, and then try to cut their way through the Spanish Netherlands to join the Duke .

Aug. 28. Battle of Fleurus. Christian loses his arm Nov. Mansfeld establishes himself in East Friesland .

PAGE

61 61

Section II. — Christian of Brunswick in Lower Saxony ( November 1622- August 1623)

1622 The Lower Saxon Circle urged by Tilly to join him against Mansfeld, and by Christian of Brunswick to join him against Tilly ...... 64

1623, Feb. Warlike preparations of the Circle . , .65

Aug. 6. Christian expelled from the Circle, and defeated by

Tilly at Stadtlohn 66

Section III. — Danger of the Lower Saxon Circle ( August - December 1623). 1623 The North German Protestant Bishoprics in danger . 66

Aug. Alarm in the Lower Saxon Circle . . . .68

Dec. But nothing is done, and its troops are disbanded . 68

Section IV. — England and France ( October 1623 -August 1624). Oct. Foreign Powers ready to interfere . . . .69

Return of the Prince of Wales from Madrid . . 70

1624 Divergence between the English House of Commons

Feb.-May. and James I. upon the mode of recovering the Palatinate 70

Position of the Huguenots in France . , .72

Contents .

xv

Section V. — Rise of Richelieu (. August 1624 -September 1625). PAGB

Aug. Lewis XIII. makes Richelieu his chief minister. He is divided between a desire to combat Spain and a desire to reduce the Huguenots to submission . 72

Richelieu’s position less strong than it afterwards became. He has to make great allowances for the King’s humour ....... 74

Dec. French attack upon the Spanish garrisons in the

Valtelline 75

1625 Failure of Mansfeld’s expedition intended by James Jan.-June to recover the Palatinate . . . . .76

Jan. Richelieu’s plans for engaging more deeply in the war frustrated by the rising of the Huguenots of

Rochelle 77

Sept. The Huguenot fleet is defeated, but Rochelle holds

out 77

Section I. — Christian IV. and Gustavus Adolphus (1624)

Character and position of Christian IV., King of Denmark ........

Genius of Gustavus Adolphus .....

Sketch of the earlier part of his reign

His interest in German affairs

80 83

Section II —English Diplomacy {August i6z/\.-July 1625). 1624 The Kings of Denmark and Sweden asked by James

Aug. I. to join him in recovering the Palatinate . . 84

1625 The English Government, thinking the demands of

Jan. Gustavus exorbitant, forms an alliance with Christian IV.

June. Meeting of the first Parliament of Charles I.

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Contents

PAGE

June. Gustavus directs his forces against Poland . . 86

Mar. 27. Death of James I. Accession of Charles I. .86

Section III. — Wallenstein' s Armament (July 1625- February 1626). The Emperor needs more forces . . . .87

Wallenstein offers to raise an army for him. Account of Wallenstein’s early life . ... 89

The system by which the army is to be supported is to be one of forced contributions . . . .90

Oppressive burdens laid thereby on the country . 91

Wallenstein enters the dioceses of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, and lies quietly there during the winter 92

1626, Feb. Failure of negotiations for peace . . . .93

Section I V.— Defeat of Mansfeld and Christian IV. {February- August 1626)

1626 Numerical superiority on the side of the King of Feb. Denmark, but the Imperialists are superior in other

Failure of the supplies promised to Christian by

Charles 1 95

Feb. Meeting of the second Parliament of Charles I. — Impeachment of Buckingham

Ap. 25. Mansfeld defeated by Wallenstein at the Bridge of

Dessau . 96

June. Dissolution of the second Parliament of Charles I.

Aug. 27. Christian IV. defeated by Tilly at Lutter . . . 97

Wallenstein pursues Mansfeld into Hungary . . 97

Contents .

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Chapter VI. Stralsund And Rochelle

Section I. — Fresh Successes of Wallenstein (August 1626- October 1627).

PAGE

1626 Divergence between the League and Wallenstein . . 98

Nov. Wallenstein advocates religious equality and the predominance of the army 98

1627 He persuades Ferdinand to increase his army, and is Jan. created Duke of Friedland, in spite of the growing

dissatisfaction with his proceedings . . . igo

May-Aug. The King of Denmark hopes to resist Tilly, but Wallenstein returns from Hungary, and gains possession of Silesia 101

Sept. 20. Defeat of the Margrave of Baden at Heiligen-hafen 102 Oct. Christian IV. flies to the Island of Fiinen, leaving

Jutland to Wallenstein 102

Section II. — Resistance to Wallenstein in the Empire ( October 162 ^-February 1628)

1627 Meeting of the Electors at Miihlhausen. They com- Oct. plain of Wallenstein ...... 103

1628 The commercial towns of North Germany jealous of

Wallenstein 105

Feb. The Emperor declares the Dukes of Mecklenburg to have forfeited their lands and titles, and pledges the territory to Wallenstein . . . . . .106

Wallenstein tries in vain to gain over the Hanse Towns ......... 106

He attempts to establish himself on the coast of the Baltic by getting possession of the towns . . 108

Section III. — The Siege of Stralsund (August-February 1628). Feb. As Stralsund refuses to admit a garrison, it is attacked by Wallenstein’s orders .... 108 May. It is succoured by Denmark and Sweden . . . 109

Aug. 3. The siege is raised no

B

XX

Contents.

Chapter VIII. The Victories Of Gustavus Adolphus

Section I. — Alliance between the Swedes and the Saxon » (June-September 1631).

PAGE

June 21. Gustavus compels the Elector of Brandenburg to an

alliance 138

July. Gustavus at the Camp of Werben .... 138

Aug. Tilly summons the Elector of Saxony to submit . 139 Sept. He attacks Saxony, upon which the Elector forms an

alliance with Gustavus ...... 139

Gustavus joins the Saxons 140

Section II. — Battle of Breitenfeld {September 1631).

Sept. 17. Victory of Gustavus over Tilly at Breitenfeld . . 141

Wallenstein’s intrigues with Gustavus . . . 142

Wallenstein and Gustavus unlikely to agree . . 143

Political and military designs of Gustavus . . 144

He looks for a basis of operations on the Rhine . 146

Section III. — March of Gustavus into South Germany ( October 1631 -May 1632)

Oct. March of Gustavus to Mentz 148

1632 In spite of the objections of the French, he attacks

Bavaria 149

Ap. 14. Tilly defeated and mortally wounded at the passage

of the Lech 149

May 17. Gustavus enters Munich 150

Section IV. — Wallenstein s Restoration to command (September 1631 -June 1632)

Sept. Wallenstein breaks off all intercourse with Gustavus 15 1 Nov. Attempts to reconcile the Elector of Saxony with the

Emperor 152

Dec. Is reinstated temporarily in the command of the Imperial Army ... 153

Contents .

xxi

PAGE

1632 Character of that Army 153

April. Wallenstein permanently appointed Commander . 155 May. Offers peace to the Saxons, and drives them out of

June. Gustavus does not approve of the terms of peace offered by Wallenstein ...... 156

Section V. — Struggle between Gustavus and Wallenstein (June- October 1632)

June. Gustavus and Wallenstein opposed to one another at

Nuremberg 157

Efforts of Gustavus to maintain discipline . .159

Sept. 4. Fails to storm Wallenstein’s lines . . . .160

Sept. 18. Gustavus leaves Nuremberg 160

Oct. Wallenstein marches into Saxony .... 160

Section VI. — The Battle of Lutzen (October-November 1632). Oct. Gustavus follows Wallenstein into Saxony . . 161

Nov. 16. Battle of Lutzen 162

Death of Gustavus . . . . . . .163

Victory of the Swedes 164

Irreparable loss by the death of Gustavus to the Protestants 164

Chapter IX

THE DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN AND THE TREATY OF PRAGUE. Section I. — French Influence in Germany (November 1632- April 1633).

1633 Differences between Bernhard and Oxenstjerna . 16 6 Ap. 23. The League of Heilbronn signed .... 167 Firm establishment of Richelieu’s authority in

France 168

Richelieu’s interposition in German affairs . .169

XXII

Contents .

Section II. — ’Wallenstein' s Attempt to dictate Peace (. April-December 1633).

PAGB

1633 Wallenstein’s peace negotiations with the Swedes

and Saxons 17°

Oct. He drives the Saxons out of Silesia .... 172

Nov. Ratisbon taken by Bernhard 173

Spanish opposition to a peace which would leave Spain exposed to French attacks . . . .173

Dec. Wallenstein thinks of making peace, whether the Emperor consents or not 175

Section III. — Resistance to Wallenstein & Plans (« January-February 1634).

1634 Onate, the Spanish Ambassador, persuades the Em- Jan. peror that Wallenstein is a traitor .... 175 Ferdinand determines to displace Wallenstein . . 176

Feb. 19. Wallenstein engages the Colonels to support him . 177

Section IV. — Assassination of Wallenstein ( February 1634).

Feb. 18. Wallenstein declared a traitor 179

Feb. 21. The garrison of Prague declares against him . . 179

Feb. 24. Wallenstein at Eger 179

Feb. 25. He is assassinated . . . . , . .181

Comparison between Gustavus and Wallenstein . 18 1

Section V. — Imperialist Victories and the Treaty of Prague {February 1634 -May 1635).

1634 The King of Hungary reorganizes the imperial

Feb. army 181

Sept. 6. In conjunction with the Cardinal- Infant, he defeats

Bernhard at Nordlingen 183

Consequent necessity of an increased French intervention . 184

1635 Peace of Prague 184

May 30. It is not universally accepted 185

Miserable condition of Germany. Notes of an English traveller 187

Contents .

xxiii

Section I. — Open Intervention of France ( May 1635). PAGE

1635 Protestantism not out of danger .... 189 May. Close alliance of some of the Princes with France . 190 Importance of the possession of Alsace and Lorraine 191 May 19. France declares war against Spain .... 192

Section II. — Spanish Successes (May 1635 -December 1637). 1635 Failure of the French attack on the Spanish Nether

lands 192

1636 Spanish invasion of France 193

Oct. 4. Baner’s victory at Wittstock ..... 194

1637 Death of Ferdinand II. Accession of Ferdinand

Imperialist success in Germany . . , . 195

Section III. — The Struggle for Alsace (January 1638 -July 1638 Bernhard’s victories in the Breisgau and Alsace . 195

July 8. Death of Bernhard 196

Section IV. — French Successes (July 1629-Dec . 1642). French maritime successes 197

1639 Spanish fleet taking refuge in the Downs . . . 198

It is destroyed by the Dutch 198

1640 Insurrection of Catalonia 199

Nov. Independence of Portugal 200

1641 Defeat of the Imperialists at Wolfenbuttel . . 201

1642 Defeat of the Imperialists at Kempten . . . 201

Aug. Charles I. sets up his standard. Beginning of the English Civil War

Dec. 4. Death of Richelieu 201

XXIV

Contents.

Section V. — Aims and Character of Richelieu { December 1642- Richelieu’s domestic policy

PAGE

. . 201

Contrast between France and England

. . 202

Richelieu’s foreign policy ....

1643 Moderation of his aims ....

. . 204

May 14. Death of Lewis XIII

. 205

Section VI. — More French Victories {May 1643-August 1645). 1643 Rule of Cardinal Mazarin

. 205

May 19. Enghien defeats the Spaniards at Rocroy .

. , 206

The French kept in check in Germany

. . 207

1644 Enghien and Turenne. Battle of Freiburg July. Battle of Marsion Moor

. . 208

1645, Aug. 3. Second Battle of Nordlingen

. . 203

Mar. 6. Swedish victory at Jankow

. . 209

SECTION I. — Turenne s Strategy { June 1645 -October 1648). 1645 Negotiations for peace begun 209

June. Rattle of Naseby

Aims of the Emperor and the Duke of Bavaria . .210

1646 Turenne outmanoeuvres the Imperialists . . .212

1647, May-Sept. Truce between the French and the Bavarians 213

1648, May 17. Defeat of the Bavarians at Zusmarshausen . 213

Section II. — The Treaty of Westphalia {Oct. 1648). 1648 Terms of the peace 213

Oct. 24. How far was toleration effected by it . . .214

General desire for peace 217

Contents.

XXV

Section III. — Condition of Germany . PAGE

Debasing effects of the war

.

. . 217

Decrease of the population

•

. 218

Moral and intellectual decadence

•

. 218

Disintegration of Germany

•

. . 220

Protestantism saved, and with it the future culture of

Germany

Section IV. — Continuance of the War between France and Recognition of the independence of

the

Dutch

Republic

.

. . 221

* 649

Execution of Charles I.

The Fronde

Continuance of the war with Spain .

. 223

Alliance between France and Cromwell

. . 223

Treaty of Pyrenees ....

. . 224

French greatness based on Tolerance

. 225

Intolerance of Lewis XIV. and downfall

of the

French monarchy »

.

. . 226

THE

THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.

Section I. — Political Institutions of Germany

It was the misfortune of Germany in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that, with most of the conditions requisite for the formation of national unity, „ „r she had no really national institutions, national insti-

rr^i i iij tutions in

1 here was an emperor, who looked some- Germany, thing like an English king, and a Diet, or General Assembly, which looked something like an English Parliament, but the resemblance was far greater in appearance than in reality.

The Emperor was chosen by three ecclesiastical electors, the Archbishops of Mentz, Treves and Cologne, and four lay electors, the Elector Palatine, the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, peror^6 Em~ and the King of Bohemia. In theory he was the successor of the Roman Emperors Julius and Constantine, the ruler of the world, or of so much of it at least as he could bring under his sway. More particularly, he was the successor of Charles the Great and Otto the Great, the lay head of Western Christendom. The Emperor Sigismund, on his death-bed, had directed that his body should lie in state for some days, that men might see ‘that the lord of all the world was dead.’ ‘We have chosen your grace,’ said the electors to Frederick III., ‘ as head, protector, and governor of all Christendom.’ Yet it would be hard to find a single fragment of reality corresponding to the magnificence of the claim.

As far, however, as the period now under review is concerned, though the name of Emperor was retained, it is unnecessary to trouble ourselves with the man kingship* rights, real or imaginary, connected with the imperial dignity. Charles the Great, before the imperial crown was conferred on him, ruled as king, by national assent or by conquest, over a great part of Western Europe. When his dominions were divided amongst his successors, the rule of those successors in Germany or elsewhere had no necessary connexion with the imperial crown. Henry the Fowler, one of the greatest of the Kings of the Germans, was never an emperor at all, and though, after the reign of his son Otto the Great, the German kings claimed from the Pope the imperial crown as their right, they never failed also to receive a special German crown at Aachen ( Aix-la-Cha - pelle ) or at Frankfort as the symbol of their headship over German lands and German men.

When, therefore, the writers of the 16th or 17th centuries speak of the rights of the Emperor in Germany, they , _ really mean to speak of the rights of the Em*

§ 4. Its con- J . . r

nexion with peror in his capacity of German king, just as, the Empire. wjien they speak of the Empire, they mean

what we call Germany, together with certain surrounding districts, such as Switzerland, the Netherlands, Lorraine, and Eastern Burgundy or Franche Comte, which

1440-15 1 7* Political Institutions of Germany.

are not now, if Alsace and the newly-conquered part of Lorraine be excepted, included under that name. In the same way the mere fragments of feudal supremacy, and the payment of feudal dues which the emperors claimed in Italy, belonged to them, not as emperors, but simply as Italian kings, and as wearers of the iron crown of Lombardy, which, as the legends told, was formed of nails taken from the Saviour’s cross.

Not that it would be wise, even if it were possible, to do otherwise than to follow the practice of contemporaries. The strange form, Emperor of ^ Germany, by which, at a later period, men confusion unfamiliar with Germany history strove to unavoidablereconcile the old claims with something like the actual fact, had not been yet invented. And, after all, the confusions of history, the use of words and titles when their meaning is changed, are so many tokens to remind us of the unity of successive generations, and of the impossibility of any one of them building anew without regarding the foundations of their fathers. All that is needed is to remember that the emperor of later times is a personage whose rights and functions can be profitably compared with those of Henry VIII. of England or Lewis XIV. of France, not with Julius or Constantine whose successor he professed himself to be.

4 Take away the rights of the Emperor,’ said a law book of the fifteenth century, in language which would have startled an old Roman legislator, ‘ and

§ 6. The

who can say, “This house is mine, this vil- great lage belongs to me?”’ But the princes vassals> and bishops, the counts and cities, who were glad enough to plead on their own behalf that their lands were held directly from the head of the Empire, took care to allow him scarcely any real authority. This kingly dignity which passed under the name of the Empire was indeed very weak. It had never outgrown the needs of the Middle Ages, and was still essentially a feudal kingship. From circumstances which it would take too much space to notice here, it had failed in placing itself at the head of a national organization, and in becoming the guardian of the rights of the tillers of the soil and the burghers of the towns, who found no place in the ranks of the feudal chivalry.

The immediate vassals of the Empire, in fact, were almost independent sovereigns, like the Dukes of Normandy in the France of the tenth century,

5 rpi * '

independence. or Dukes of Burgundy in the France of the fifteenth century. They quarrelled and made war with one another like the Kings of England and France. Their own vassals, their own peasants, their own towns could only reach the Emperor through them, if anybody thought it worth while to reach him at all.

The prospect of reviving the German kingship which was veiled under the august title of Emperor seemed far distant at the beginning of the fifteenth cenof8order.°SpeCt tury. But whilst the Empire, in its old sense, with its claims to universal dominion, was a dream, this German kingship needed but wisdom in the occupant of the throne to seize the national feeling, which was certain sooner or later to call out for a national ruler, in order to clothe itself in all the authority which was needed for the maintenance of the unity and the safety of the German people. That, when the time came, the man to grasp the opportunity was not there, was the chief amongst the causes of that unhappy tragedy of disunion which culminated in the Thirty Years’ War.

In the middle of the fifteenth century an effort was made to introduce a system of regular assemblies, un-