New and complete history of the world; the story of the whole human race and its various nations, from the earliest dawn of civilization to the present day

Front matter

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Preface

The criticism which Professor Bury, the latest and by far the best annotator of Gibbon, makes of the author of the "Decline and Fall of th-e Roman Empire," to the effect that he had no idea of zvriting history for history's sake, is applicable to the vast majority of historians. They have been advocates rather than judges. They have made special pleas to the great jury of the reading public instead of stating the facts and the bearing of the evidence from the bench. Therefore they do not deserve the praise bestowed on that Romanised Greek, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, wJw is still admired for the judiciousness of his remarks and criticism as well as for the ease of his sty lei and the fidelity of his chronology. "He nez^er mentioned anything but what was authenticated, and totally disregarded the fabulous traditions which tilt and disgrace the pages of both his predecessors and folloivers." A century later Tacitus claimed to hafue adopted the same course, but yet was not free from prejudice against the imperial form of government. "My purpose," he says at the beginning of his "Annals," "is to relate * * ^.without either bitterness or partiality, from any motives to which I am far removed." "The principal office of history," he tells us elsezvhere, "I fake to be this, to prevent virtuous actions from being forgotten, and that evil zcords and deeds shoidd fear an infamous reputation with posterity." History should be what Cicero defines it, "the zvitness of tlie times, the torch of truth, the life of memory, the teacher of life, the messenger from the past."

On these lines I have aimed to compile this record of the world's progress, from the dim da?wn in the Tigris-Euphrates and Nile valleys to the full noonday of tzventieth century development. So as to get the amplest information possible between the covers of a single volume, unauthenticated stories Ofid disquisitions on mooted points have been discarded so as to leave more roam for sketches of the evolution of institutions and the' progress of civilisation. It is more interesting and much more useful to know how the various peoples lived and zvere governed than to know the gruesome details of hozv armies were arrayed against each other and fought. The results of zuars are more important than the wars themselves. Therefore, the greater part of the space of this volume is dez^oted to institutions, their origin and development, and the

Preface

causes of their decay and extinction, or growth and survival For this reason the causes of the fall of the Assyrian, Babylonian, Hebrew, Egyptian, Greek and Ronton empires are dwelt upon and emphasized. The maritime supremacy of Tyre and Carthage did more for human progress than the conquests of Cyrus and Alexander. Rome took a long step backwards when it accepted Ccesarism in preference to the reforms proposed by the Gracchi and their successors. Roman militarism naturally led to the Oriental despotism introduced and established by Diocletian and Constantine, and therefore it wasi that the Roman empire fell a prey to the northern barbarians even more easily, if more slowly, than Persian power had crumbled under the blozvs of Alexander's phalanxes. Then began, under the guidance of Christianity, the formation of a neiv Europe which culminated in Charlemagne's empire. But in this empire the seeds of feudalism had been sown, and from them grew the semi-anarchy of the later Middle Ages. It found its full development in Italy and Germany, while elsewhere reaction against it brought absolute fnonarchy in France, Spain and England. While England at comparatively little cost got rid of this condition in the seventeenth century, at the same period it reached its highest development on the continent. Therefore the reaction, when it had matured, zuas more violent there and brought on a counter movement which culminated in Napoleon's tyranny. Meanzvhile real liberty, both civil and religious, hod been born on the west side of the Atlantic, and thief New World was preparing to teach the old — even England ziras to take lessons from its recreant daughter. The nineteenth century, then, has been the greatest in civil and political progress as well as in the inventions that have revolutionized industrial life, and the tzmntieth is its child.

This history describes all these zncissitudes — why the ancient monarchies collapsed, hozv the Roman republic became an empire, why that empire fell, how the northern barbarians became ciznlized, hozu feudalism arose and what it was, hozv it generated absolutism, hozv that absolutism generated the religious revolution of the sixteenth century and the political cataclysm of the close of the eighteenth, and hozv the work of acquiring freedom has had to be done all over again in the nineteenth. Tlte book closes zmth a rezdew of conditions late in the summer of ipo6.

Chapter I. The Threshold Of History

The Things that Make History — Asiatic and European Civilizations — The Dawn of History — Prehistoric Man — The Races of Mankind and Their Languages — The Black and the Yellow Races — The White Races (Aryans and Semites) — The First Homes of Civilization — The Primitive Books Page 17

CHAPTER H.

THE OLDEST HAMITIC AND SEMITIC EMPIRES.

The Southwestern Dispersion — The Old Chaldean Empire — Cities and Kingdoms of Chaldea — Customs of Ancient Chaldea — The Chaldean Religion — The Chaldean Sciences — Chaldean Writing — Egypt and the Nile — The Nile's Inundations — The Country's Products — Geography and Chronology of Egypt — Beginnings of Egyptian History — The First Three Dynasties — The Fourth Dynasty and the Pyramids — End of the Old Empire (Fifth to Tenth Dynasties) — Achievements of the Twelfth Dynasty — Domination of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings — Religion of the Ancient Egyptians — Government and Arts of Egypt — Egyptian Writing Page 25

Chapter III. From Abraham To Moses

Abraham and the Land of Promise — Divisions of the Holy Land — The Lands Bordering on Judea — Climate, Products and Inhabitants — Life under Abraham's Rule — Egypt in the Time of the Hebrews — The Countries of Asia at This Time — Phoenician Commerce and Colonies — Egyptian Conquest Under the Eighteenth Dynasty — The Nineteentlv or Ramessian Dynasty — End of the Nineteenth Dynasty — Persecution and Exodus of Israel — The Laws of Moses — Phoenicia under Egyptian Domination — Splendor of Thebes Page 43

Chapter IV. The Later Ancient Asiatic Empires

The Jews in the Land of Promise — The Reigns of David and Solomon — The Rise of Assyria -Phoenicia and the Colonies of Tyre — Egypt Under the Twentieth and Twenty-first Dynasties — The Twenty-second Dynasty — Egypt in the Ninth and Eighth Centuries B. C. — Revival of Assyria — The Second Assyrian Empire — Assyria Under Sargon — The Reign of Sennacherib — Assarhaddon and Assurbanipal (Conquest of Egypt) — Asia and Eg>pt at Assurbanipal's Death — Phoenicia and the Founding of Carthage — The Medes and the Persians — Their Religion (Mazdeism) — The Early Median Kings — Fall of Nineveh and Battle of Mageddo — The New Chaldean Empire and the Jews — Babylon's Brief Ascendancy — Rise of the Medo-Persian Empire — The Persians in Lydia — Description of Babylon — The Fall of Babylon — Cyrus and the Jews — The Persian Conquest of Egypt — Darius Hystaspis — Character of Medo-Persian Rule Page 58

vii viii CONTENTS.

Chapter V. Ancient Independent Greece

The Land and the People — The Heroic Age and the Trojan War — The Dorian Invasion — Early Political Organization — Private Life of the Greeks — The Religion of the Greeks — Sparta and Lycurgus — Athens (Draco and Solon) — The Pisistratidae, Clisthenes and Themistocles — First Medo- Persian War (Battle of Marathon) — Second Medo- Persian War (Salamis and Plataea) — End of the Medo- Persian Wars — The Athenians and Pericles — Athens as an Intellectual Center — The Peloponnesian War (First Period) — Second Period of the Peloponnesian War Page 82

Chapter VI. The Macedonian Era

Sparta's Predominance — Philip of Macedon Begins the Conquest of Greece — Philip and Demosthenes — ^Alexander's Early Triumphs — Destruction of the Persian Empire — Close of Alexander's Career — The Age of Alexander — Dismemberment of Alexander's Empire — Syria and Egypt — Macedonia and Greece — Greece Becomes a Roman Province — Greece's Services to Civilization — Shortcomings of the Religious and Political Spirit of the Greeks Page gi

Chapter VII. Rome's Rise To Greatness

Italy and Its Inhabitants — Legends and History of the Beginnings of Rome — ^The Republic (Consuls, Tribunes, Decemvirate) — The Laws of the Twelve Tables — All Offices Opened to the Plebeians — The Gauls in Rome — The Earlier Samnite Wars — Second and Third Italian Anti-Roman Coalitions — The War with Pyrrhus — First Punic War and Conquest of Sicily — Second Punic War (First Period) — End of the Second Punic War — Third Punic War and Destruction of Carthage — Roman Conquests in the East — Conquest of Spain (Viriathus and Numantia) Page no

Chapter VIII. Critical Period Of Roman History

Conquests Bring Moral and Constitutional Changes — The Gracchi and Their Vain Efforts for Reform — Marius and the Conquest of Numidia — Invasion of the Cimbri and the Teutones — Renewal of Internal Troubles (Saturninus and Sylla) — Revolt of the Allied Italians — Proscriptions in Rome (Sulpicius and Cinna) — Sylla's Proscriptions and Dictatorship — Close of Sylla's Career (Ruin of the Popular Party) — Sylla's War Against Mithridates — Lucullus and Pompey against Mithridates — Revival of the Popular Party in Rome — The Gladiators^Pompey and the People — The Pirates' War — Cicero and Catiline's Conspiracy Page 125

Chapter IX. The Cesarean Revolution

Caesar Becomes Leader of the Popular Party — Caesar's Consulship — Caesar's Gallic War- General Uprising of the Gauls — Crassus Defeated and Slain by the Parthians — Civil War between Caesar and Pompey — Alexandrian War — Caesar Dictator — Caesar's Last Plans and Death — Second Triumvirate — The Battle of Philippi — Antony in the Orient — The Treaty of Misena — The Administration of Octavius — Antony's Expedition against the Parthians — Actium — Antony's Death — Egypt a Roman Province — The Imperial Power Constituted — Character of the Government and Reign of Augustus — Military and Financial Organization— Able Administration of Augustus. . .Page 130

CONTENTS. ix

Chapter X. The Augustan Empire

External Policy — Defeat of Varus — Beginnings of the Reign of Tiberius — Tiberius the Tyrant — Caligula and Claudius — Nero, the Last of the Julians — Civil War (Galba, Otho and Vitellius) — The Reign of Vespasian — Titus and Domitian — The Antonines (Nerva and Trajan) — The Third of the Antonines — The Reign of Antoninus Pius — The Philosopher Emperor — Inglorious End of a Glorious Dynasty — Military Anarchy (from Pertinax to Septimius Severus) — From Caracalla to Alexander Severus — Six Emperors in Nine Years — Philip, Decius and the Thirty Tyrants — Claudius, Aurelian and Tacitus — The Last of the Army's Puppets. Page 155

CHAPTER XL

IMPERIAL ROMAN ABSOLUTISM AND CHRISTIANITY.

Diocletian and the Tetrachy — New Emperors and Fresh Civil Wars — The Beginnings of Christianity — Struggles and Triumph of the Church — The Imperial Administration Reorganized — Court Splendor and Its Support — The Heavy Burden of Taxation — The Army and the Church — Constantine and His Sons — Julian, Called the Apostate — Jovian, Valentinian and Valens — Theodosius the Great — End of the Empire" in the West — The Change Page 173

Chapter XII. The Western Empire Divided

The Middle Ages Defined — Manners and Religion of the Northern Barbarians — The Coming of the Huns to Europe — The Visigothic Invasions — Alaric — The Visigothic, Suevian and Vandal Kingdoms — The Hunnic Invasion under Attila — Barbarian Kingdoms of Gaul, Spain, Africa and Britain — The Ostrogoths in Italy (Theodoric) — Justinian and the Revival of the Eastern Empire — Beginnings of the Franks — Reign and Conquests of Clovis — The Age of Fredegunda and Brunhilda — Sluggard Kings and Mavors of the Palace Page 187

CHAPTER XIIL

THE MOHAMMEDAN AND CAROLINGIAN ERAS.

Arabia and Mohammed — Character of the Koran — The Khalifate, Arab Conquests, the Ommiads — Division of the Khalifate — Arab Civilization — The Two Differing Invasions, and Ecclesiastical Society — The Church in the Early Middle Ages — Charles Martel and Pepin the Short — Charlemagne King of the Lombards and Patrician of Rome — Charlemagne's Conquest of Germany — Charlemagne as Emperor — Government under Charlemagne — Learning and Literature under Charlemagne — The Empire's Weakness — Louis the Pious — Battle of Fontanet and Treaty of Verdun — Charles the Bald and Feudalism — The Last Carolingians Page 200

Chapter XIV. The Northmen And Feudalism

The Northmen in France — The Northmen in England, the Polar Regions and Russia — Ravages by Saracens and Hungarians — Feudalism, or Heredity of Offices and Benefices — Duties and Privileges of the Suzerain — Feudal Condition of the Subordinate Classes — General Character of Feudalism — The Great Fiefs of France— Great Fiefs of Other Countries — Civilization from the Ninth to the Twelfth Centuries — The Beginnings of Popular Literature — Old and New Dynasties in Germany — The Saxon Kings — The House of Franconia and Hildebrand— Gregory VII and Henry IV— The Concordat of Worms — The Hohenstaufens (Frederick Barbarossa) — Henry VI and Innocent III— Frederick II and the Papacy Page 217

X CONTENTS.

Chapter XV. Era Of The Crusades

Condition of the Orient and the Early Capetians — The First Crusade Started on Its Mission — How Judea Became a Christian Kingdom — France under Louis the Fat and Louis Vn — Second and Third Crusades — France under Philip Augustus — Fourth Crusade and Latin Empire of Constantinople — Crusaders in the North (Teutonic Knights) — Crusading Wars of the Christians of Spain — The Almohad Moors in Spain — Crusade against the Albigenses — France under Louis VHI and Louis IX — The Last Crusades in the Orient — Results of the Crusades in the Orient — Urban Population of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries — Intellectual Progress — National Literatures Page 235

CHAPTER XVL

THE LATER MIDDLE AGES IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND.

The Norman Conquest of England — The Conqueror's Norman Successors — House of Plantagenet (Henry II) — Richard, John and Henry III — The First English Parliament — France under Philip III and Philip IV — Philip the Fair, Pope Boniface VIII, and the T»mplars — The Last Direct Capetians and the Salic Law — Beginnings of the Hundred Years' War — The Battles of Crecy and Poitiers — The Jacquerie and the Treaty of Bretigny — Charles V and Duguesclin — France under Charles VI (Armagnacs and Burgundians) — Unrest in England (Wycliffe) — Revolution in England, and Renewed War with France — Charles VII and Joan of Arc — Reforms and Successes of Charles VII Page 253

CHAPTER XVIL

MIDDLE AGES IN SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE.

Intestine Quarrels in Spain — Feudalism in Castile and Aragon — The House of Anjou in Naples — Italian Republics — Guelphs and Ghibellines — Return of the Papacy to Rome, and Italian Principalities — Brilliance of Literature and Art — The German Interregnum and the House of Hapsburg — The Emperors Powerless — Scandanavia and Poland — Mongols in Russia, and Turks at Constantinople — Character of Mediaeval History Page 268

CHAPTER XVIII.

MEDIEVAL LITERATURE, ART AND INVENTIONS.

Dawn of New Tendencies — Marco Polo — Beginnings of Italian Literature — Dante and the "Divina Commedia" — Petrarch, Boccaccio and Their Successors — Elements of the Renaissance in Art — The First Renaissance (Donatello) — Ghiberti and Brunellesco — Great Inventions (Gunpowder) — Beginnings of Artillery and Portable Firearms — Navigation in Ancient Times — Beginnings of the Mariner's Compass — The Compass Perfected — The First Paper in Europe — The Invention of Printing — Development and Diffusion of Printing. Page 280

CHAPTER XIX.

THE FIRST PERIOD OF THE MODERN ERA.

Chief Divisions of Modern History — Louis XI and the League of the Public Weal — Success of Louis's Dangerous Game — Mad Career of Charles the Rash — The Great French Fiefs Become Crown Lands — France under the Minority of Charles VIII — England under Henry VI — England under Edward IV — Richard III and Henry VII — Why the Moors Remained so Long in Spain — Ferdinand and Isabella — Conquest of Granada — The Spanish Inquisition and Growth of Royal Power — Ferdinand Regent

CONTENTS. xi

and King, and Progress in Portugal — Germany under Frederick III and Maximilian I — Political Changes in Milan and Venice — Troubles in Florence — Rome and Naples — Strength of the Turks — Mahomet II— Bajazet II and Selim the Ferocious — First Modern European Wars — Charles VIII Wins and Loses Naples — Conquest of Milan and Naples by Louis XII — League of Cambrai, Holy League, and Failure of France Page 295

CHAPTER XX.

REVOLUTIONS IN TRADE, CULTURE AND RELIGION.

Age and Economic Causes of Exploration — The Colonial Empire of the Portuguese — First Spanish Explorations in the Atlantic — The Inspiration of Columbus — First Voyage of Columbus — Other Discoveries by Columbus and His Followers — Results of These Explorations — The Revival of Letters — Revival of the Arts and Sciences — The Demand for Religious Reform — Protests against the Policy of the Popes — The Church in Germany — Monks and Humanists — Luther's Early Life — Quarrel about Indulgences — Luther Secedes Page 315

CHAPTER XXL

FIRST WARS OF AMBITION, RIVALRY AND RELIGION.

Francis I and Charles V — First Franco-Austrian War — Battle of Pavia and Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai — Luther at Worms and Wartburg — Sacramentarians and Anabaptists — The Peasants' War (South Germany Devastated) — Lutheranism Established in North Germany — Francis I's Alliances and Soliman's Successes — Confession of Augsburg (Melanchthon) — The Schmalkalden League and Anabaptists at Miinster — War Renewed between Charles V and Francis I — More Wars of Religion in Germany — An Aftermath of Personal Rivalry — The Reformation in Scandinavia and Switzerland — The Reformation in the Netherlands and France — The Reformation in England — Character of the Three Reformed Churches— Consequences of the Reformation Page 330

CHAPTER XXIL

SECOND PERIOD OF THE WARS OF RELIGION.

Reforms in Catholic Church Government — The Council of Trent — Strength of the Rejuvenated Papacy — Dominions of Philip II — Character of This Period — Beginning of the Wars of Religion — Catholicism Successful in the Netherlands and France — Spain's Scattered Strength — Battle of Lepanto — Events in England, and the St. Bartholomew Massacre — Protestant Progress in France and the Netherlands — The Netherlands, Spain and England — Spain Worsted — Henry IV, King of France — Decline and Ruin of Spain — Prosperity of England and Holland — Preliminaries to the Thirty Years' War — The Thirty Years' War (Palatine and Danish Periods) — Thirty Years* War (Swedish and French Periods) — The Treaties of Westphalia — How the Participants Fared Page .147

CHAPTER XXIIL

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV.

The France of Richelieu — Troubles Arising under Mazarin — War of the Fronde and Treaty of the Pyrenees— England's Struggle for Political Liberty— The Agitation under Charles I— England's Great Civil War— Cromwell and the Commonwealth— The Counter-Revolution of 1660 — Organizers of France's Power— The Flanders War —The Dutch War— Revocation of the Edict of Nantes— Political and Religious Agitation in England — James II and the Revolution of 1688 Page 365 xfi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXIV.

RISE OF ENGLAND, RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA.

Full Development of Absolutism — Literature and Art in France — Literature and Art in Other Countries — The Sciences in the Seventeenth Century — The War of the League of Augsburg — France in a Deplorable Plight — War of the Spanish Succession — The War in Spain, and Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt — Russia and Poland at This Epoch — Peter the Great and Charles XII — Work and Character of Peter the Great — The Rise of Prussia — The Heritage of Louis XIV — On the Eve of Another Great War — War of the Austrian Succession — Aggrandizement of Prussia — The Seven Years' War Page 380

CHAPTER XXV.

BEGINNINGS OF ENGLAND'S COLONIAL EMPIRE.

England from 1688 to 1763 — English and French Beginnings in India — Early Inhabitants and Literature of Hindustan — History of India — The Brahmans and the Caste System — India Ready for a Change of Masters — France and England at War in India — Further Conquests by Dupleix — Dupleix Defeated by Clive and Recalled — France Loses India — France in the New World — The Franco-English Conflict in America — The English Conquest of Canada — English Maritime Discoveries (Captain Cook) — Cook's Last Voyage — French Explorations — England Becomes a Power in India. . .Page 397

CHAPTER XXVI.

BIRTH OF THE UNITED STATES.

State of the Original English Colonies — ^The Founding of Virginia and New England — Beginnings of the Other English Colonies — Political Conditions in the Eighteenth Century — America's Resistance to the Stamp Act — Period of Constitutional Agitation — Separatist Movement and Philadelphia Congress — Franklin and Washington — Declaration of Independence — First Period of the War of Independence — Saratoga and the Policy of France — The French Alliance with the Colonies — England Declares War against France — A European Side-issue — War of the Revolution (Second Period) — Spain and Holland Join in the War — War of the Revolution (Third Period) — Hostilities in the Antilles, Europe and India — Treaty of Versailles — The United States after the War— The Constitution of 1787 Page 415

CHAPTER XXVII.

EUROPE ON THE EVE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

Catharine II, Frederick II, and Poland — The Destruction of Poland Completed — Discoveries and Literature in the Eighteenth Century — Ideas and Institutions at Odds — Reforms Effected by the Governments — Selfishness of the Princes — France under Louis XV and Louis XVI — A Bad Administrative Organization — Absence of National Unity — Abuses in the Organization of Justice — Abuses in Levying and Collecting Taxes — Defects of the Military Organization — Position of the Clergy in French Society — Reforms among the Clergy — Conditions among the Nobility — The Third Estate — Conditions in the Industrial World — Agriculture, Its Bondage, and Manorial Rights — Royal Dues — The Crowning Evil Page 436

CHAPTER XXVIII. "

HISTORY'S DEEPEST AND WIDEST GULF.

Divine Right and National Sovereignty— -Choosing the States General— From States Genera! to Constituent Assembly— October Days, Emigration, and Paper Money— The Civil

CONTENTS. xiii

Constitution of the Clergy — The Constitution of 1791 — The Legislative Assembly — The Revolution Abroad — The First Coalition against France — The Paris Commune and Its Massacres — Valmy, the Convention, and the King's Death — The Reign of Terror — Self-Destruction of the Terror — Military Campaigns, 1793-1795 — Another Constitution — Bonaparte's Opportunity — France under the Directory — Bonaparte's First Campaign in Italy — Bonaparte in Egypt — Victory of Zurich — Internal Anarchy and Military Revolution Page 454

CHAPTER XXIX.

BONAPARTE AS DESPOT OF FRANCE AND OF EUROPE.

Organization of the Consulate — Reforms Effected by Bonaparte — Battle of Marengo, and Treaties of Luneville and Amiens — Bonaparte's Life Consulate — Bonaparte Becomes Hereditary Emperor Napoleon I — Third Coalition — Austerlitz and Presburg — The Confederation of the Rhine — States in Vassalage to Napoleon — Jena, Tilsitt, and the Continental Blockade — Invasion of Spain — Battle of Wagram — Reaction against the Napoleonic Spirit — Preparations for Insurrection in Germany — Progress of Liberal Ideas in Europe — Formation or Revival of Nationalities — The Invasion of Russia — Taking Advantage of Napoleon's Absence — From the Beresina to Elba — The Restoration, the Hundred Days, Waterloo Page 472

CHAPTER XXX.

RECONSTRUCTION AND REACTION AFTER NAPOLEON'S FALL.

The Congress of Vienna — How the Great Powers Fared — The Confederation of the Rhine — How the Other Countries Fared — The Holy Alliance — Why the Work of the Congress Did not Last — Character of the Period between 1815 and 1830 — Efforts to Retain the Old Order — General Dominance of the Privileged Class — Overzealous Partisans the Worst Enemies — An Attempt to Effect Protestant Union — Liberalism in the Press — An Age of Secret Societies — Conspiracies and Assassinations — Revolution in Spain and Its Echoes — The Holy Alliance Policing Europe — Repressions in Germany and Italy — French Interference in Spain Page 490

CHAPTER XXXL

Spain Loses Its American Colonies — The Spanish-American Question in Europe — England and Portugal — The Revolt of the Greeks — England and Russia in the Near East — The Janissaries Destroyed and Russia Successful — Room for Improvement in British Affairs — France under Charles X — Condition of the World in 1828 — Dom Miguel in Portugal and Don Carlos in Spain — Wellington's Ministry — The Diet of Frankfort — Russia under Nicholas I — France under Polignao — The French Revolution of 1830 — Electoral Reform in England — The Belgian Revolution — Liberalizing Switzerland, Denmark and Sweden Page 508

CHAPTER XXXIL

General Condition of Europe after 1830 — Prussia Advancing to Leadership — Changes in the Germanic Confederation — The Revolutionary Ferment in Italy — Poland's Great Insurrection — "Peace Reigns at Warsaw" — Revolutions in Spain and Portugal — The Carlist Civil War in Spain — Policies and Parties in France — European Interests in Asia — The First Eastern Question (Constantinople) — Decline of Turkey and Ambition of Egypt's Viceroy— Conquest of Syria and Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi^S^cond Syrian War and Treaty of London— The Straits Treaty and France's Istifatidn— xiv CONTENTS.

Second Eastern Question (Russia in Asia)— England and Russia in Indirect Conflict —Importance of Herat and Cabul— England's First Afghan War and Later Conquests—Third Eastern Question (the Pacific Ocean)— Isolation of China and Japan— The Opium War— France and China Page 524

CHAPTER XXXIII.

A Brief Respite of Peace and Progress— Progress of Socialistic Ideas — Development and Diffusion of Socialism— Free Trade and Income Tax in England— England Adopts a New Colonial System— Constitutional Rule Established in Prussia — Liberal Agitations in Austria and Italy — Austria Fails to Grasp Its Opportunity — Why Louis Philippe's Throne Tottered — Louis Philippe's Throne Totters and Falls — The Second French Republic — Louis Napoleon Becomes President of France — Revolution in Austria— The Hungarian Rebellion — The Conquest of Hungary — Failure of the Lombard Revolt — The Revolution in Central Italy— Battle of Novara — The French in Rome— Prussia and Austria— Rioting at Berlin — The Frankfort Parliament and the Duchies Question — End of the Frankfort Parliament — Prussia's Ambition and the Zollverein Page 544

CHAPTER XXXIV.

THE AGE OF NAPOLEON THE LITTLE.

Genesis of the Second Empire— Restoration of the Empire— Revival of the Eastern Question — Russia and the Christians in Turkey — War Begun between Turkey and Russia — Sinope — France and England Join Turkey — Invasion of the Crimea — Siege of Sebastopol — Balaklava and Inkerman — Death of Nicholas I — The Treaty of Paris — Piedmont's Interest in the War and the Treaty — Characters of Cavour and Napoleon — Austria Driven to War — Italian Campaign (Magenta and Solferino) — The Treaty of Villafranca — Other Annexations to Piedmont — The Union of Italy Completed Page 566

CHAPTER XXXV.

FORMATION OF GERMAN UNITY.

Germany and Prussia after 1848 — Bismarck's Rise and Character — The Affair of the Duchies — Napoleon III Outwitted by Bismarck — Rupture between Austria and Prussia — The War of 1866 in Germany — The War in Venetia and the Adriatic — Campaign in Bohemia (Sadowa) — The Treaty of Prague — Germany and Austria after 1866— Germany and France from 1866 until 1870 — Spain Furnishes a Pretext for War — Beginning of the Franco-Prussian War — The Fighting before Metz Was Invested — The Chalons Army and Battle of Sedan — Revolution and Investment of Paris — The Fighting Around Paris — Fall of Metz and Other Fortified Places — The Army of the Loire — Operations in the North and East — Treaty of Frankfort — The New German Empire Page 584

CHAPTER XXXVL

EASTERN EUROPE AFTER THE CRIMEAN WAR.

Russia, Its Serfs, and the Poles — Turkey under Abdul Aziz — Rumania and Servia after 1856 — War in Bosnia, Bulgaria. Servia and Montenegro — The Ottoman Constitution — Russia Declares War— The Russo-Turkish War (Early Operations) — Temporary Turkish Revival— Closing Period of the War — Treaties of San Stefano and of Berlin — Rumelia and Bulgaria — Servo-Bulgarian War — Bulgarian Revolution — Armenian Massacres— Cretan Insurrection— Turko-Greek War— New Aspects of the Eastern Question • Page 605

CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER XXXVII.

Growth of the United Kingdom's National Debt — Extension of British Sway in India — The Great Indian Mutiny — Suppression of the East India Company — England's Second Afghan War — England Again at War with China — Electoral and Other Reforms in England — English Legislation for Ireland — The Irish Land and Home Rule Questions — Egypt and the Suez Canal — England's Conquests on the Nile — England in South Africa — Cape Colony and the Boers — The Great Zulu and Boer Wars — Rise of the Australian Commonwealths Page 619

CHAPTER XXXVin.

THE DOMINION OF CANADA.

French Beginnings in the New World — The Founding of Port Royal and Quebec — Acadia's Vicissitudes — The Slow Growth of New France — The Colonial Wars — France Driven From North America — Canada and the American Revolution — Creation of the Dominion of Canada — The Canadian Constitutions of 1791 and 1840 — The Confederation of 1867 — Canada in the War of 1812 — The Papineau Rebellion and Its Outcome — Lord Durham and the Struggles for Responsible Government — Development of the Northwest — Relations with the United States since our Civil War — Manitoba and the School Question — Recent Development of the Dominion — Leaders of Men in Canada from Macdonald to Laurier Page 634