Footprints of the world's history, from the dawn of civilization to the present time

Front matter

UBRARY OF CONGRESS

DDDD5b3fl3flD vv vv iPii

From the Painting by Gustav Rlchter.

Preface

The crifictsm which Professor Bury, the latest and by far the best

annotator of Gibbon, makes of the author of the "Decline and Fall of the

Roman Empire," to the effect that he had no idea of writing history for

history's sake, is applicable to the vast majority of historians. Tliey have been

advocates rather than judges. They have m^de special pleas to the great jury

"f the reading public instead of stating the facts and the bearing of the evidence

im the bench. Therefore they do not deserve the praise bestowed oti tliat

-manised Greek, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, zvho is still admired for the

■icioiisness of his remarks and criticism as well as for the ease of his style\

■ the fidelity of his chronology. "He nez'er mentioned anything but zvhat

authenticated, and totally disregarded the fabulous traditions zvhich fill

disgrace the pcges of both his predecessors and followers." A century

r Tacitus claimed to have adopted the same course, but yet was not free

cm prejudice against the imperial form of government. "My purpose," he

s at the beginning of his "Annals," "is to relate * * i^ without either

terness or partiality, from any motives to zvhich I am far removed." "The

ncipal office of history," he tells us elsezvhere, "I take to be this, to prevent

tuous actions from being forgotten, and that evil zvords and deeds should

»• an infamous reputation zvith posterity." History shoidd be what Cicero

jeti es it, "the zvitness of the times, the torch of truth, the life of ynemory, the

teal ler of life, the messenger from the pist."

On these lines I have aimed to compile this record of the world's progress, fro I the dim daiun in the Tigris-Euphrates and Nile valleys to the full noonday of jjentieth century developmait. So as to get the amplest information. pc ible betzveen tlie covers of a single z^olume, unauthentic at ed stories and rf' uisitions on mooted points have beeyi discarded so as to leave more room fi sketches of the evolution of institutions and the' progress of civilisation. Ii ts more interesting and much more useful to know hozv the various peoples Iv -ed and zvere gozfcrned th''n to know the gruesome details of how armies z 'ere arrayed against each other and fought. The results of zvars are more 'nportant than the zvars themselves. Therefore, the greater part of tlie space of this volume is dez'oted to institutions, their origin and development, and the

Preface'

causes of their decay and extinction, or grourth and survival For this reason the causes of the fall of the Assyrian, Babylonian, Hebrew, Egyptian, Greek and Raman empires are divelt upon and emphasized. The maritime supremacy of Tyre and Carthage did more for human, progress than the conquests of Cyrus and Alexander. Rome took a long step backivards when it accepted Cccsctrism in preference to the reforms proposed by the Gracchi and their successors. Roman militarism tiaturally led to the Oriental despotism introduced and estublishcd by Diocletian and Constantine, and therefore it imis\ that the Roman empire fell a prey to the northern barbarians even more easily, if more slowly, than Persian power hud crumbled under the blozvs of Alexander's phalanxes. Then began, under the guidance of Christianity, the formation of a neiv Europe which culminated in Charlemagne's empire. But in this empire the seeds of feudalism had been sozmi, and from them grew the semi-anarchy of the later Middle Ages. It found its full development in Italy and Germany, while elsezvliere reaction against it brought absolute monarchy in France, Spain and England. While England at comparatively little cost got rid of this condition in the seventeenth century, at the same period it reached its highest development on the continent. Therefore the reaction, when it had matured, zvas more violent there and brought on a coimter movement zvhich culminated in Napoleon's tyranny. Meanwhile real liberty, both ciznl and religious, had been born on the west side of the Atkmtic, and tkef New World was preparing to teach the old — even England zuas to take lessons from its recreant daughter. The nineteenth century, then, has been the greatest in civil and political progress as zvell as in the inventions that have revolutionized industrial life, and the tzventieth is its child.

This history describes all these vicissitudes — zvhy the ancient monarchies collapsed, hozv the Roman republic became an empire, zuhy that empire fell, how the northern barbarians became civilized, hozv feudalism arose and what it was, hozv it generated absolutism, hozv that absolutism generated the religious revolution of the sixteenth century and the political cataclysm of the close of the eighteenth, and hozv the zvork of acquiring freedom has had to be done all over again in the nineteenth. Tlie book closes zmth a review of conditions late in the summer of ipo6.

Chapter I. The Threshold Of History

The Things that Make History — Asiatic and European Civilizations — The Dawn of History — Prehistoric Man — The Races of Mankind and Their Languages — The Black and the Yellow Races — The White Races (Aryans and Semites) — The First Homes of Civilization — The Primitive Books Page 17

CHAPTER H.

THE OLDEST HAMITIC AND SEMITIC EMPIRES.

The Southwestern Dispersion — The Old Chaldean Empire — Cities and Kingdoms of Chaldea — Customs of Ancient Chaldea — The Chaldean Religion — The Chaldean Sciences — Chaldean Writing — Egypt and the Nile — The Nile's Inundations — The Country's Products — Geography and Chronology of Egypt — Beginnings of Egyptian History — The First Three Dynasties — The Fourth Dynasty and the Pyramids — End of the Old Empire (Fifth to Tenth Dynasties) — Achievements of the Twelfth Dynasty — Domination of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings — Religion of the Ancient Egyptians — Government and Arts of Egypt — Egyptian Writing Page 25

Chapter III. From Abraham To Moses

Abraham and the Land of Promise — Divisions of the Holy Land — The Lands Bordering on Judea — Climate, Products and Inhabitants — Life under Abraham's Rule — Egypt in the Time of the Hebrews — The Countries of Asia at This Time — Phoenician Commerce and Colonies — Egyptian Conquest Under the Eighteenth Dynasty — The Nineteentl'. or Ramessian Dynasty — End of the Nineteenth Dynasty — Persecution and Exodus of Israel — The Laws of Moses — Phoenicia under Egyptian Domination — Splendor of Thebes Page 4.3

Chapter IV. The Later Ancient Asiatic Empires

The Jews in the Land of Promise — The Reigns of David and Solomon — The Rise of Assyria --Phoenicia and the Colonies of Tyre — Egypt Under the Twentieth and Twenty-first Dynasties — The Twenty-second Dynasty — Egypt in the Ninth and Eighth Centuries B. C. — Revival of Assyria — The Second Assyrian Empire — Assyria Under Sargon — The Reign of Sennacherib — Assarhaddon and Assurbanipal (Conquest of Egypt) — Asia and Egypt at Assurbanipal's Death — Phoenicia and the Founding of Carthage — The Medes and the Persians — Their Religion (Mazdeism) — The Early Median Kings — Fall of Nineveh and Battle of Mageddo — The New Chaldean Empire and the Je\ys — Babylon's Brief Ascendancy — Rise of the Medo-Persian Empire — The Persians in Lydia — Description of Babylon — The Fall of Babylon — Cyrus and the Jews — The Persian Conquest of Egypt — Darius Hystaspis — Character of Medo-Pcr-

sian Rule Page 58

vii viii CONTENTS.

Chapter V. Ancient Independent Greece

The Land and the People— The Heroic Age and the Trojan War— The Dorian Invasion- Early Political Organization— Private Life of the Greeks— The Religion of the Greeks— Sparta and Lycurgus— Athens (Draco and Solon)— The Pisistratidae, Clisthenes and Themistocles— First Medo-Persian War (Battle of Marathon)— Second Medo- Persian War (Salamis and Platsea)— End of the Medo-Persian Wars— The Athenians and Pericles— Athens as an Intellectual Center— The Peloponnesian War (First Period)— Second Period of the Peloponnesian War Page 82

Chapter VI. The Macedonian Era

Sparta's Predominance— Philip of Macedon Begins the Conquest of Greece— Philip and Demosthenes— Alexander's Early Triumphs— Destruction of the Persian Empire- Close of Alexander's Career — The Age of Alexander — Dismemberment of Alexander's Empire — Syria and Egypt — Macedonia and Greece — Greece Becomes a Roman Province — Greece's Services to Civilization — Shortcomings of the Religious and Political Spirit of the Greeks Page 96

Chapter VII. Rome's Rise To Greatness

Italy and Its Inhabitants — Legends and History of the Beginnings of Rome — ^The Republic (Consuls, Tribunes, Decemvirate) — The Laws of the Twelve Tables — All Offices Opened to the Plebeians — The Gauls in Rome — The Earlier Samnite Wars — Second and Third Italian Anti-Roman Coalitions — The War with Pyrrhus — First Punic War and Conquest of Sicily — Second Punic War (First Period) — End of the Second Punic War — Third Punic War and Destruction of Carthage — Roman Conquests in the East — Conquest of Spain (Viriathus and Numantia) Page no

Chapter VIII. Critical Period Of Roman History

Conquests Bring Moral and Constitutional Changes — The Gracchi and Their Vain Eflforts for Reform — Marius and the Conquest of Numidia — Invasion of the Cimbri and the Teutones — Renewal of Internal Troubles (Saturninus and Sylla) — Revolt of the Allied Italians — Proscriptions in Rome (Sulpicius and Cinna) — Sylla's Proscriptions and Dictatorship — Close of Sylla's Career (Ruin of the Popular Party) — Sylla's War Against Mithridates — Lucullus and Pompey against Mithridates — Revival of the Popular Party in Rome — The Gladiators— Pompey and the People — The Pirates' War — Cicero and Catiline's Conspiracy Page 125

CHAPTER IX. THE CiESAREAN REVOLUTION

Caesar Becomes Leader of the Popular Party— Caesar's Consulship — Caesar's Gallic War — General Uprising of the Gauls — Crassus Defeated and Slain by the Parthians — Civil War between Caesar and Pompey— Alexandrian War— Caesar Dictator— Caesar's Last Plans and Death — Second Triumvirate — The Battle of Philippi — Antony in the Orient — The Treaty of Misena — The Administration of Octavius — Antony's Expedition against the Parthians— Actium— Antony's Death— Egypt a Roman Province — The Imperial Power Constituted — Character of the Government and Reign of Augustus — Military and Financial Organization— Able Administration of Augustus. . .Page 130

CONTENTS. ix

Chapter X. The Augustan Empire

External Policy — Defeat of Varus — Beginnings of the Reign of Tiberius — Tiberius the Tyrant — Caligula and Claudius — Nero, the Last of the Julians — Civil War (Galba, Otho and Vitellius) — The Reign of Vespasian — Titus and Domitian — The Antonines (Nerva and Trajan) — The Third of the Antonines— The Reign of Antoninus Pius— The Philosopher Emperor — Inglorious End of a Glorious Dynasty — Military Anarchy (from Pertinax to Septimius Severus) — From Caracalla to Alexander Severus — Six Emperors in Nine Years — Philip, Decius and the Thirty Tyrants — Claudius, Aiirelian and Tacitus— The Last of the Army's Puppets Page 155

CHAPTER XL

IMPERIAL ROMAN ABSOLUTISM AND CHRISTIANITY.

Diocletian and the Tetrachy — New Emperors and Fresh Civil Wars — The Beginnings of Christianity — Struggles and Triumph of the Church — The Imperial Administration Reorganized — Court Splendor and Its Support — The Heavy Burden of Taxation — The Army and the Church — Constantine and His Sons — Julian, Called the Apostate — Jovian. Valentinian and Valens — Theodosius the Great — End of the Empire in the West— The Change Page 173

Chapter XII. The Western Empire Divided

The Middle Ages Defined — Manners and Religion of the Northern Barbarians — The Coming of the Huns to Europe — The Visigothic Invasions — Alaric — The Visigothic, Suevian and Vandal Kingdoms — The Hunnic Invasion under Attila — Barbarian Kingdoms of Gaul, Spain, Africa and Britain — The Ostrogoths in Italy (Theodoric) — Justinian and the Revival of the Eastern Empire — Beginnings of the Franks — Reign and Conquests of Clovis— The Age of Fredegunda and Brunhilda — Sluggard Kings and Mavors of the Palace Page 187

CHAPTER XIIL

THE MOHAMMEDAN AND CAROLINGIAN ERAS.

Arabia and Mohammed — Character of the Koran — The Khalifate, Arab Conquests, the Ommiads — Division of the Khalifate — Arab Civilization — The Two Differing Invasions, and Ecclesiastical Society— The Church in the Early Middle Ages— Charles MarteJ and Pepin the Short — Charlemagne King of the Lombards and Patrician of Rome — Charlemagne's Conquest of Germany — Charlemagne as Emperor — Government under Charlemagne — Learning and Literature under Charlemagne — The Empire's Weakness — Louis the Pious — Battle of Fontanet and Treaty of Verdun — Charles the Bald and Feudalism — The Last Carolingians Page 200

Chapter XIV. The Northmen And Feudalism

The Northmen in France — The Northmen in England, the Polar Regions and Russia — Ravages by Saracens and Hungarians — Feudalism, or Heredity of Offices and Benefices — Duties and Privileges of the Suzerain — Feudal Condition of the Subordinate Classes — General Character of Feudalism — The Great Fiefs of France — Great Fiefs of Other Countries — Civilization from the Ninth to the Twelfth Centuries — The Beginnings of Popular Literature — Old and New Dynasties in Germany — The Saxon Kings — The House of Franconia and Hildebrand — Gregory VII and Henry IV — The Concordat of Worms — The Hohenstaufens (Frederick Barbarossa) — Henry VI and Innocent III — Frederick II and the Papacy Page 217

^ CONTENTS.

Chapter XV. Era Of The Crusades

r- J-*- ( fi,» nr.Vnt and the Earlv Capetians— The First Crusade Started on Its Mis- ^°""'sron-Ho: Judea Becam: a Christ^L Kingdom-France under Louis the Fat and Louis Vl-Second and Third Crusades-France under Ph.hp Augustus-Fourth au ade and Latin Empire of Constantinople-Crusaders m the North (Teutonic KD"ghts)-Crusading Wars of the Christians of Spain-The A mohad Moors in Spain-Crusade against the Albigenses-France under Lotus Vni and Louis IX- The Last Crusades in the Orient— Results of the Crusades in the Orient— Urban Population of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries— Intellectual Progress— National Literatures "Se 235

Chapter XVI. The Later Middle Ages In France And England

The Norman Conquest of England— The Conqueror's Norman Successors— House of Plantagenet (Henry II)— Richard, John and Henry III— The First English Parliament—France under Philip III and Philip IV— Philip the Fair, Pope Boniface VIII, and the Templars— The Last Direct Capetians and the Salic Law— Beginnings of the Hundred Years' War— The Battles of Crecy and Poitiers— The Jacquerie and the Treaty of Bretigny— Charles V and Duguesclin— France under Charles VI (Armag:nacs and Burgundians)— Unrest in England (Wycliffe)— Revolution in England, and Renewed War with France — Charles VII and Joan of Arc— Reforms and Successes of Charles VII Page 253

CHAPTER XVIL

MIDDLE AGES IN SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE.

Intestine Quarrels in Spain — Feudalism in Castile and Aragon — The House of Anjou in Naples — Italian Republics — Guelphs and Ghibellines — Return of the Papacy to Rome, and Italian Principalities — Brilliance of Literature and Art — The German Interregnum and the House of Hapsburg — The Emperors Powerless — Scandanavia and Poland — ■ Mongols in Russia, and Turks at Constantinople— Character of Mediaeval History Page 268

Chapter XVIII. Medieval Literature, Art And Inventions

Dawn of New Tendencies — Marco Polo — Beginnings of Italian Literature — Dante and the "Divina Commedia" — Petrarch, Boccaccio and Their Successors — Elements of the Renaissance in Art — The First Renaissance (Donatello)— Ghiberti and Brunellesco — ■ Great Inventions (Gunpowder) — Beginnings of Artillery and Portable Firearms — Navigation in Ancient Times — Beginnings of the Mariner's Compass — The Compass Perfected—The First Paper in Europe — The Invention of Printing — Development and Diffusion of Printing Page 280

Chapter XIX. The First Period Of The Modern Era

Chief Divisions of Modern History — Louis XI and the League of the Public Weal — Success of Louis's Dangerous Game— Mad Career of Charles the Rash— The Great French Fiefs Become Crown Lands— France under the Minority of Charles VIII— England under Henry VI— England under Edward IV— Richard III and Henry VII — Why the Moors Remained so Long in Spain — Ferdinand and Isabella — Conquest of Granada— The Spanish Inquisition and Growth of Royal Power — Ferdinand Regent

CONTENTS. xi

and King, and Progress in Portugal — Germany under Frederick III and Maximilian I — Political Changes in Milan and Venice — Troubles in Florence — Rome and Naples- Strength of the Turks— Mahomet II— Bajazet II and Selim the Ferocious— First Modern European Wars— Charles VIII Wins and Loses Naples— Conquest of Milan and Naples by Louis XII— League of Cambrai, Holy League, and Failure of France Page 295

Chapter XX. Revolutions In Trade, Culture And Religion

Age and Economic Causes of Exploration — The Colonial Empire of the Portuguese — First Spanish Explorations in the Atlantic-— The Inspiration of Columbus— First Voyage of Columbus— Other Discoveries by Columbus and His Followers— Results of These Explorations — The Revival of Letters— Revival of the Arts and Sciences — The Demand for Religious Reform— Protests against the Policy of the Popes— The Church in Germany — Monks and Humanists — Luther's Early Life — Quarrel about Indulgences — Luther Secedes Page 315

CHAPTER XXL

FIRST WARS OF AMBITION, RIVALRY AND RELIGION.

Francis I and Charles V— First Franco-Austrian War — Battle of Pavia and Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai — Luther at Worms and Wartburg — Sacramentarians and Anabaptists—The Peasants' War (South Germany Devastated)— Lutheranism Established in North Germany— Francis I's Alliances and Soliman's Successes— Confession of Augsburg (Melanchthon)— The Schmalkalden League and Anabaptists at Miinster— War Renewed between Charles V and Francis I — More Wars of Religion in Germany—An Aftermath of Personal Rivalry— The Reformation in Scandinavia and Switzerland— The Reformation in the Netherlands and France— The Reformation in England— Character of the Three Reformed Churches— Consequences of the Reformation Page 330

CHAPTER XXIL

SECOND PERIOD OF THE WARS OF RELIGION.

Reforms in Catholic Church Government — The Council of Trent — Strength of the Rejuvenated Papacy — Dominions of Philip II — Character of This Period — Beginning of the Wars of Religion — Catholicism Successful in the Netherlands and France — Spain's Scattered Strength — Battle of Lepanto — Events in England, and the St. Bartholomew Massacre — Protestant Progress in France and the Netherlands — The Netherlands, Spain and England — Spain Worsted — Henry IV, King of France — Decline and Ruin of Spain — Prosperity of England and Holland— Prejiminaries to the Thirty Years' War— The Thirty Years' War (Palatine and Danish Periods) — Thirty Years' War "(Swedish and French Periods) — The Treaties of Westphalia — How the Participants Fared Page 347

CHAPTER XXIII.

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV.

The France of Richelieu — Troubles Arising under Mazarin— War of the Fronde and Treaty of the Pyrenees— England's Struggle for Political Liberty— The Agitation under Charles I— England's Great Civil War— Cromwell and the Commonwealth— The Counter-Revolution of 1660— Organizers of France's Power— The Flanders War —The Dutch War— Revocation of the Edict of Nantes— Political and Religious Agitation in England— James II and the Revolution of 1688 Page 365

^11 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXIV.

RISE OF ENGLAND, RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA.

Full Development of Absolutism— Literature and Art in France— Literature and Art in Other Countries— The Sciences in the Seventeenth Century— The War of the League of Augsburg— France in a Deplorable Plight— War of the Spanish Succession — The War in Spain, and Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt — Russia and Poland at This Epoch —Peter the Great and Charles XII— Work and Character of Peter the Great— The Rise of Prussia — The Heritage of Louis XIV — On the Eve of Another Great War — War of the Austrian Succession— Aggrandizement of Prussia — The Seven Years' War Page 380

CHAPTER XXV.

BEGINNINGS OF ENGLAND'S COLONIAL EMPIRE.

England from 1688 to 1763 — English and French Beginnings in India — Early Inhabitants and Literature of Hindustan — History of India — The Brahmans and the Caste System — India Ready for a Change of Masters — France and England at War in India — Further Conquests by Dupleix — Dupleix Defeated by Clive and Recalled — France Loses India— France in the New World — The Franco-English Conflict in America — The English Conquest of Canada — English Maritime Discoveries (Captain Cook) — Cook's Last Voyage — French Explorations — England Becomes a Power in India... Page 397

CHAPTER XXVI.

BIRTH OF THE UNITED STATES.

State of the Original English Colonies — The Founding of Virginia and New England — Beginnings of the Other English Colonies — Political Conditions in the Eighteenth Century — America's Resistance to the Stamp Act — Period of Constitutional Agitation — Separatist Movement and Philadelphia Congress — Franklin and Washington — Declaration of Independence — First Period of the War of Independence — Saratoga and the Policy of France — The French Alliance with the Colonies — England Declares War against France — A European Side-Issue — War of the Revolution (Second Period) — Spain and Holland Join in the War — War of the Revolution (Third Period) — Hostilities in the Antilles, Europe and India — Treaty of Versailles — The United States after the War — The Constitution of 1787 Page 415

CHAPTER XXVIL

EUROPE ON THE EVE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

Catharine II, Frederick II, and Poland— The Destruction of Poland Completed— Discoveries and Literature in the Eighteenth Century — Ideas and Institutions at Odds — Reforms Effected by the Governments — Selfishness of the Princes — France under Louis XV and Louis XVI — A Bad Administrative Organization — Absence of National Unity — Abuses in the Organization of Justice— Abuses in Levying and Collecting Taxes —Defects of the Military Organization— Position of the Clergy in French Society- Reforms among the Clergy— Conditions among the Nobility— The Third Estate- Conditions in the Industrial World— Agriculture, Its Bondage, and Manorial Rights — Royal Dues— The Crowning Evil Page 436

CHAPTER XXVIII.

HISTORY'S DEEPEST AND WIDEST GULF.

Divine Right and National Sovereignty— Choosing the States General— From States General to Constituent Assembly— October Days, Emigration, and Paper Money— The Civil

CONTENTS. xiii

Constitution of the Gergy — The Constitution of 1791 — The Legislative Assembly — The Revohition Abroad — The First Coalition against France — The Paris Commune and Its Massacres — Valmy, the Convention, and the King's Death — The Reign of Terror — Self-Destruction of the Terror — Military Campaigns, 1793-1795 — Another Constitution — Bonaparte's Opportunity — France under the Directory — Bonaparte's First Campaign in Italy — Bonaparte in Egypt — Victory of Zurich — Internal Anarchy and Military Revolution Page 454

CHAPTER XXIX.

BONAPARTE AS DESPOT OF FRANCE AND OF EUROPE.

Organization of the Consulate — Reforms Effected by Bonaparte — Battle of Marengo, and Treaties of Luneville and Amiens — Bonaparte's Life Consulate — Bonaparte Becomes Hereditary Emperor Napoleon I — Third Coalition — Austerlitz and Presburg — The Confederation of the Rhine — States in Vassalage to Napoleon — Jena, Tilsitt, and the Continental Blockade — Invasion of Spain — Battle of Wagram — Reaction against the Napoleonic Spirit — Preparations for Insurrection in Germany — Progress of Liberal Ideas in Europe — Formation or Revival of Nationalities — The Invasion of Russia — Taking Advantage of Napoleon's Absence — From the Beresina to Elba — The Restoration, the Hundred Days, Waterloo Page 472

CHAPTER XXX.

RECONSTRUCTION AND REACTION AFTER NAPOLEON'S FALL.

The Congress of Vienna — How the Great Powers Fared — The Confederation of the Rhine — How the Other Countries Fared — The Holy Alliance — Why the Work of the Congress Did not Last — Character of the Period between 1815 and 1830 — Efforts to Retain the Old Order — General Dominance of the Privileged Class — Overzealous Partisans the Worst Enemies — An Attempt to Effect Protestant Union — Liberalism in the Press — An Age of Secret Societies — Conspiracies and Assassinations — Revolution in Spain and Its Echoes — The Holy Alliance Policing Europe — Repressions in Germany and Italy — French Interference in Spain Page 490

CHAPTER XXXL

Spain Loses Its American Colonies — The Spanish-American Question in Europe — England and Portugal — The Revolt of the Greeks — England and Russia in the Near East — The Janissaries Destroyed and Russia Successful — Room for Improvement in British Affairs — France under Charles X — Condition of the World in 1828 — Dom Miguel in Portugal and Don Carlos in Spain — Wellington's Ministry — The Diet of Frankfort — Russia under Nicholas I — France under Polignac — The French Revolution of 1830 — Electoral Reform in England — The Belgian Revolution — Liberalizing Switzerland, Denmark and Sweden Page 508

CHAPTER XXXIL

General Condition of Europe after 1830 — Prussia Advancing to Leadership — Changes in the Germanic Confederation — The Revolutionary Ferment in Italy — Poland's Great Insurrection — "Peace Reigns at Warsaw" — Revolutions in Spain and Portugal — The Carlist Civil War in Spain — Policies and Parties in France — European Interests in Asia — The First Eastern Question (Constantinople) — Decline of Turkey and Ambition of Egypt's Viceroy — Conquest of Syria and Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi— Second Syrian War and Treaty of London — The Straits Treaty an4 France's Isolation —

XIV

Contents

Second Eastern Question (Russia in Asia)-England and Russia in Indirect Conflict -IiTorr^Ke of Herat and Cabul-England's F.rst Afghan War and Later Conquests-Third Eastern Question (the Pacific Ocean) -Isolation of China and Japan- The Opium War— France and China i^age 524

CHAPTER XXXIII.

A Brief Respite of Peace and Progress— Progress of Socialistic Ideas— Developtnent and Diffusion of Socialism— Free Trade and Income Tax in England— England Adopts a New Colonial System— Constitutional Rule Established m Prussia— Liberal Agitations in Austria and Italy— Austria Fails to Grasp Its Opportunity— Why Louis Philippe's Throne Tottered— Louis Philippe's Throne Totters and Falls— The Second French Republic— Louis Napoleon Becomes President of France— Revolution in Austria— The Hungarian Rebellion— The Conquest of Hungary— Failure of the Lombard Revolt— The Revolution in Central Italy— Battle of Novara— The French in Rome— Prussia and Austria— Rioting at Berlin— The Frankfort^ Parliament and the Duchies Question — End of the Frankfort Parliament — Prussia's Ambition and the Zollverein Page 544

Chapter I

The Things That Make History. — When, after a weary climb we find ourselves on the summit of a lofty mountain, and look back from that commanding altitude over the ground we have traversed, what is it that we behold ? The minor details of the scenery, many of which seemed large and important to us as we passed, are now lost to view, and we see only the great and imposing features of the landscape, the high elevations, the town-studded valleys, the deep and winding streams, the broad forests. It is the same when, from the summit of an age, we gaze backward over the plain of time. The myriad of petty happenings are lost to sight, and we see only the striking events, the critical epochs, the mighty crises through which the world has passed. These are the things that make true histor)', and not the daily doings in the king's palace or the peasant's hut. What we should seek to observe and store up in our memories are the turning points in human events, the great thoughts which have ripened into noble deeds, the hands of might which have pushed the world forward in its career; not the trifling occurrences which signify nothing, the passing actions which have borne no useful fruits in human affairs. It is with such turning points, such critical periods in the world's development, that this work proposes to deal; not to picture the passing bubbles on the stream of time, but to point out the great ships which have sailed up that stream, laden deep with a noble life-sustaining freight. This is history in its deepest and best aspect, and we have set our camera to photograph only the men who have made and the events that constitute this true history of the world.

Our dictionary tells us that history is "a systematic record of past events, especially of the events in which man has taken a pan"; adding, "it recounts events with careful attention to their importance, their mutual relations, their causes, and their consequences." And many centuries before our dictionary was compiled Cicero defined it as "the witness of the times, the torch of truth, the life of memor}', the teacher of life, the messenger of antiquity." As these definitions may rightly be regarded

* ' 17 i8 The Threshold of History

as too broad for a work of the present volume's scope, let us adopt here that of the late Edward A. Freeman: "By history in the highest sense we understand the history of those nations which have really mfluenced one another, so that their whole story, from the beginning to our own time, forms one tale, of which, if we wholly leave out any part, we cannot rightly understand what follows it. Such a history as this," he adds, "is found only in the history of the chief nations of Europe and of the countries colonized by them, and of those nations of Asia and Africa which have had most to do w^ith them."

Asiatic and European Civilizations. — It is in Asia we find the oldest existing civilizations, namely, those of Hindustan and China; and, radically different as European civilization is from them, it was from Asia also and from northeastern Africa that it took its beginning. But it developed and flourished while its parents decayed and perished. Crushed beneath the Juggernaut wheels of Asiatic barbarism, they disappeared many centuries ago; but it has grown in vigor and beneficence until it now sways the destinies of the entire world. There is, then, a great gap or gulf, in many ways wide and deep, between the history of the East, as we may vaguely call the history of Asia and Africa, and the history of the Western world in Europe and America. Of the many differentiating features that might be pointed out, we need adduce only one — the history of the East does not give the same political teaching as that of the West; it is almost wholly the record of a mere succession of empires and dynasties, of despotisms faUing one before the shock of another, like a house of cards toppling from a mere breath; and it can scarcely be said to be the history of the people. It is therefore unnecessary to treat of the history of the East beyond its relations to that of the West. For history in the highest sense, for the history of man in his highest political and social character, for the highest development of art, literature and political freedom, we must look to the family of mankind to which we ourselves belong, and to those divisions of the world which it has made almost exclusively its own. The branch of history which is history in the highest and truest sense is the history of the Aryan nations of Europe, and of those who have in later times gone forth from among them to carry the arts and languages of Europe into other continents. Next to them in historic importance come the two Semite peoples through whom the world has received the three religions that inculcate belief in a single omnipotent Supreme Being. The history of the other families of mankind need be dealt with only in so far as the Ar}'an nations and countries of European civilization are brought into relations with them.