Practical plumbers' work, with numerous engravings and diagrams

Front matter

IGAL INSTRUCTION SERIES

PLUMB ERiS'

P£u^N.f£A§Sl|U(iK:

Preface

rr — -

Peactical Plumbees' Woek contains, in a form convenient for everyday use, a comprehensive digest of information contributed by experienced craftsmen, scattered over the columns of Building Woeld, one of the weekly journals it is my fortune to edit, and supplies concise information on the general principles and practice of the art on which it treats.

In preparing for publication in book form the mass of relevant matter contained in the Journal, much of it necessarily had to be re-arranged and re- written. The bulk of the matter and illustrations contained in this book were contributed by my old time colleague at Eegent Street Polytechnic, Mr. J. Wright Clarke, the authority on Practical Plumbers' Work, and he has kindly revised the whole of the proofs of this present manual.

Readers who may desire additional information respecting special details of the matters dealt with in this book, or instruction on any building trade subjects, should address a question to Building Woeld, so that it may be answered in the columns of that journal.

P. N. HASLUCK.

June, 1905,

Contents

CHAPTER

I.— Introductory : Materials and Tools Used . II.— Solder and How to Make It III.— Sheet Lead Working IV.— Pipe Bending.

V. — Pipe Jointing VI.— Lead Burning VII. — Lead-work on Roofs Index

Chapter I. Introductory: Materials And Tools Used

A comprehensive treatise on plumbers' work would need a large volume ; for the modern plumber is expected to supplement an intimate acquaintance with the common or immediate facts and principles of his craft by more than a smattering of applied science.

The title is taken from "plumbum," the Latin name for lead ; whence plumber, a worker in lead. The origin of the craft is lost in oblivion, but references are made in Scripture to lead as material of commerce. In early times plumbers had to cast their own materials, such as sheets and pipes ; sheet lead is used for roof coverings, such as "flats," " gutters," " flashings," etc., and pipes for the conveyance of water into or from houses. Cisterns and pumps were made and fixed by him, as were also lead coffins or wooden shells lined or covered with that metal, lead figures cast solid or with sand cores, and a variety of utensils. In the present day the plumber is still a worker in lead in a manufactured state, but he has had more responsibilities pressed upon him. In addition to being skilful in the manipulation of the materials he uses, he is regarded as a responsible person in all questions of domestic sanitation and water supply.

The duties of the plumber may be summed up under three heads : (1) keeping water out of houses (roof work) ; (2) getting water into houses, and storing and distributing it where required for use ; (3) getting it out of houses after it has served its purpose. In some places the plumber is also a painter, glazier, paper-hanger, gasfitter, hot-water fitter, bell-hanger, coppersmith, tinsmith, locksmith, etc. One book of convenient size cannot treat all these branches, and the scope of the present volume is restricted to working in lead.

Lead (chemical symbol Pb, an abbreviation of the Latin word plumbum) is the material chiefly worked upon by the plumber. It is made by roasting galena, a native sulphide (consisting of 13*3 parts of sulphur to 86 of lead) in reverberatory furnaces, at a dull red heat, by which most of the sulphide becomes changed by oxidation to sulphate. The contents of the furnace are then thoroughly mixed, and the temperature is raised, when the sulphate and sulphide react upon each other, producing a sulphurous oxide and metallic lead.

Lead mining is carried on in Derbyshire and the North of England, as well as in Cornwall, in the Isle of Man, and at Leadhills, in Scotland. Spain, however, with about 120 thousand metric tons annually, is the greatest lead-producing country in Europe, the other countries being arranged in the following order with respect to the quantities produced, the figures after each representing thousands of metric tons (the metric ton is equal to 0*984 imperial ton) : Germany, 90 ; England, 67 ; France, 15 ; Italy, 10 ; Greece, 9 ; Belgium, 8 ; Austria, 6 ; and Russia, lj. The annual output of the United States of America is reckoned at 110,000 tons ; and of late years the annual output in Australasia has been reckoned at between 50,000 and 60,000 tons.

Load melts at about 617° F., it expands greatly on heating, and does not always return to its original dimensions. The qualities that render it useful for such a large variety of purposes are its durability, easy fusibility, flexibility, malleability, and elasticity. It is oxidised by moist air, and pure water containing oxygen dissolves lead oxide when placed in contact with the metal; for which reason lead cisterns ought never to serve for collecting rainwater for domestic use. The basic acetate of lead formed by exposing the metal to acid fumes (as the vapour of vinegar) is decomposed by carbonic acid, forming a carbonate of lead, which, when washed and purified by levigation, is ready for use

MATERIALS AND TOOLS USER as a paint — the well-known and universally applied whitelead. Litharge is obtained by oxidising lead in a reverberatory furnace, and the product, when further roasted, forms the higher oxide known as red-lead — also used as a r3 III

bu c3

o bo S paint. Lead has a specific gravity of 11*4; its atomic weight is 207.

It may be useful here to explain the expressions specific gravity and atomic weight. Specific gravity commonly means the ratio of the weight of a body to that of an equal volume of water, the water being taken at a definite temperature, usually at the temperature at which its density is greatest — namely, 4° C (39*2° F.). Fownes states, however, that " in all cases of solids and liquids the standard of unity adopted in this country is pure water at the temperature of 15*5° C. or 60° F." The specific gravity of a substance is, then, the ratio of its density to that of the standard substance. In other words, specific gravity denotes the weight of a body, as compared with the weight of an equal bulk or volume of the standard body, which is reckoned as unity. In speaking of atomic weight, the standard of comparison is an atom of hydrogen, so that to say that the atomic weight of lead is 207 is to imply that an atom of lead is 207 times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen.

Lead comes into the hands of the plumber in a manufactured form as cast pigs, sheets, or pipes. The pigs of lead are generally the pure lead as it leaves the furnaces, and weigh from 1 cwt. to 1^ cwt. each. Sheet lead is either cast cr milled. Fig. 1 shows all the appliances necessary for making cast sheets of lead. It is necessary to have a goodsized and well-lighted shop, with stone or paved floor ; a " casting-frame " A made of wood and having its sides and one end raised ; a metal trough with stoppered ends or " headpan " b at the highest end ; another trough with one stopped and one open -end, called a " footpan," c at the lower end of the frame ; a cast-iron melting " pot " G set in brickwork, and having flues round and a fireplace beneath, and a load or two of fine loamy sand. The tools used are two 28-lb. ladles l ; a piece of board the same length as the width of the frame, and having handles projecting about 18 in. over the sides, called the strike e ; a pair of " planes " f made of sheet copper with edges curved up and handles in the centre, similar to a square float used by plasterers ; a waggon d which is a large bowl on wheels for conveying spare lead back to the pot ; a " drawing-knife " n for cutting off the bottom edge of the sheet after casting ; a pair of " sheethooks 5; o ; a pair of " handspikes," and a couple of " rollers " for shifting the sheets after casting, or a swinging or small travelling crane for the same purpose ; " felts " for holding the ladles, a broom i for sweeping up spilleol lead, a " sieve "

J for screening the sand, a watering-pot m, and a couple of shovels K.

Milled lead is manufactured by casting a cake of lead and then passing it between large rollers until it is reduced to the desired thickness. Milled sheets are made from 20 ft. to 40 ft. long, and from 6 ft. 9 in. to 9 ft. wide. Sheet-lead is described as being five-, six-, or seven-pound lead. This signifies that one square foot of lead will weigh such a number of pounds. It is difficult to mill lead to a less thickness than 3-lb. ('051 of an inch), because of its want of tenacity. The weights of sheet-lead vary from 3 lb. to 14 lb. per foot super. ; above this weight it is usual to describe the milled lead as plates.

In lead casting, the first operation is to fill the pot with lead and light the fire. The frame is then prepared by covering it with the sand, which has been sifted, wetted with water, and thoroughly mixed and spread evenly by means of the strike. After beating down with the shovels and again making even with the strike, the sand is " planed " until it is quite even and has a hard, compact surface. " Muffles " are then put on the handles to raise the strike off the sand bed, the thickness being according to the substance of l°ad required. The headpan, which is of the width of the frame and has a lip resting on the top end, is then filled with molten lead ladled from the pot. When the lead has cooled — until it ceases to scorch a piece of white wood dipped in it — two men take up positions at the top end, one on each side of the frame, and hold the strike in readiness ; the contents of the pan are then upset by another man on to the frame, and the strikers immediately drop the strike on to the edges and run down to the bottom end of the frame, pushing the spare lead into the footpan, whence it runs into the waggon, and is dragged back to and emptied into the pot. Should the lead in the waggon be too cold for ladling, an iron ring or hook is partly immersed, so that when cold enough the lead can be lifted bodily into the pot. Immediately the strikers have done their part, a man with the drawing-knife cuts off the bottom selvedge so as to allow the sheet to contract, as it cools, without cracking. The lead is then rolled up and removed from the frame ; the sand is sifted, re-wetted, and the whole proceedings repeated.

U PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK.

For making milled sheets, the lead is first melted in a large pot set in brickwork, and then run into a square mould, the size being according to the intended width of the sheet. An ordinary size is 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 6 in. deep. After being run into the mould, and while still molten, the lead is skimmed until all floating dross or dirt is removed. The cake of lead, which is of the size of the mould by 5 in. deep, and weighs about 7 tons, is allowed to set. It is then hoisted by means of a crane on to 1 the mill, which consists of a frame usually about 60 ft. or 70 ft. long by 7 ft. 4 in. wide (some mills are larger, and can turn out sheets 9 ft. wide), with cross rollers the whole length of the frame, and two large steel rollers in the centre, one being above the other. These large rollers, with adjusting screws to regulate the space between them, are turned by powerful machinery. The cake of lead is run on the travelling rollers, then passed between the larger ones, which reduce it in thickness and make it longer. It is then drawn back by the large rollers, which have been adjusted closer together, and is further elongated and reduced in thickness.

When this process has been repeated until the sheet is about 1 in. thick, it is cut up by machine-worked shears into suitable lengths, according to the desired weights per foot of the finished sheets. These pieces, one at a time, are further rolled out and then folded, or doubled, in the middle and again rolled. The two sheets at the finish are each 34 ft. or 36 ft. long by 7 ft. wide, and weigh 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or any other number of pounds per square foot. When the sheets are passing between the rollers for the last time, cutters are arranged at the sides of the frame to cut off the side edges ; the ends are trimmed by hand. An iron mandrel is laid across each sheet, and the lead is dressed on to the mandrel, winch handles being subsequently fixed on the ends. These are turned by hand, and the lead is wound round them. The sheets are then corded and tied, rolled or hoisted on to a weighing-machine, and stamped with number, length, total weight, and weight per foot, after which they are ready for the market. The quality of lead may be judged by its softness and malleability, hardness denoting the presence of impurities. Plumbers tell the weight of ordinary sheet lead by simply feeling it with their fingers or measuring it with their rule. The specific gravity of lead is 1T4 ; hence a square 1 in. thick weighs 59 lb., and for 6-lb. lead a square foot is about 0*1 in. thick. Some tool-makers keep notched gauges for the purpose, but the most accurate method is to square up the lead and weigh it.

Lead pipes used by the Eomans were made of long strips of sheet lead bent cylindrical and joined at the edges. Haydn's " Dictionary of Dates " says that lead pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use in the year 1236 — in what country is not stated. It is quite evident, however, that they had been used long before that date. The pipes for the first London waterworks were of lead, and the works were builb by a Dutchman named Peter Morris (or, according to a more probably correct version, Maurice), in the year 1582.

Up to the year 1741 lead pipes, so far as can be traced, had been made by hand, but in that year James Creed invented a machine for their manufacture on a large scale. This machine cut the lead up in strips to the width required for the given diameter of pipe. These strips were turned into pipes by means of rollers ; between the rollers was placed a ball, which produced the inside diameter of the pipe, and at the same time the edges were scraped fib for soldering by a tool fixed on the frame which held the ball.

Lead pipes were first rolled solid in the year 1790. In that year, John Wilkinson, of Berwick-upon-Tweed, cast lead ingots in lengths, and put them on bars of iron, or of other metal harder than lead. These bars, or mandrels, as they are usually termed, he varied in length and diameter according to the size of pipe required. The mandrel, with the lead upon it, and extended to the length and thickness of the pipe manufactured, he passed repeatedly between rollers with grooves of different sizes, according to the external diameter required. He also claimed the process of drawing the lead ingots through metal gauges or dies of different diameters, after the lead has been placed on the mandrel, each succeeding die being less than the previous one, until the same was extended to the length and thickness required. The mandrel was then withdrawn, leaving a pipe of even diameter and thickness and of uniform length.

Knowledge of the deleterious effect of lead pipe uporj potable water induced many chemists and other ingenious inventors to attempt improvements upon the ordinary lead pipes, and amongst these are found lead pipes lined with tin, which invention was secured by patent to George Alderson in 1804.

One of the greatest — perhaps the greatest of all — improvements in lead and composition pipes was made by John Hague, in the year 1822, when he patented and introduced his solid pressing arrangement. The pipes manufactured upon this principle for gas and water supply services are now almost universally employed, especially for the former purposev These pipes are forced out by means of hydraulic pressure through a die or core placed in the bottom of a cast-iron mould. Pipes of this description are much cheaper and much more reliable than those made in strips and soldered at the joints. In fact, Hague's patent completely revolutionised the lead pipe trade.

The hand-made lead pipe is made out of sheet lead, and the solid pipe is pressed out of solid lead by means of a pipe press, worked by powerful machinery. Each kind used as soil pipes has its advantages and advocates, and there is not much difference in efficiency and durability when the seam in the hand-made pipe is properly wiped or floated with ladle and iron. The machine-made pipe is the easiest to manipulate when it is necessary to make bends in it. When the pipes are used for conveying soft water, or acids, or other corroding agents, the seamless pipes are the best, as in some cases the solder is eaten away by the acids, and in others electrolysis sets up owing to two metals^ lead and tin, being in contact in the presence of moisture.

Machine-made lead pipe is made now by pressing lead in a semi-molten state though dies by hydraulic machinery. The presses are of two or three different kinds. The commonest consists of a very strong cast-iron cylinder with closed top, in which are fixed the die and core of the size of the intended pipe. The bottom of the cylinder fits fairly tight, and slides up and down as it is pushed or pulled by a shaft connected to a piston in another cylinder beneath, which contains water under a great pressure. The piston being lowered, and the top chamber empty, the latter is filled with melted lead through an opening which is afterwards closed with an iron plug and fastened. On turning on the water to the lower cylinder, the piston is forced upwards and the lead pushed out of the die at the top in the form of pipe. If small, the latter is wound on a wooden drum as it escapes ; if large, it is supported by a cord attached to the upper end and carried over a pulley above, the free end being held tight by a man. The hydraulic pressure in the "ram," or lower cylinder, is from 1 ton to 15 tons per square inch, according to the size of the pipe being made. This pressure is derived from a series of pumps, w r orked by steam or other power, and is steadied by an " accumulator," which not only helps to keep the pressure even, but stores up the power in case of stoppage. Should the pumps be kept working when the pipepress is stopped, gearing, attached to the accumulator, opens a valve to relieve the excess of water pressure, or throttles the supply of steam to the pumps.

To find the w r eight of a lead pipe of any thickness and diameter: — Eule : Subtract the square of the internal diameter of the pipe from the square of the external diameter — both in inches — and multiply the remainder by 3*86 ; the result w411 be the weight of the pipe in pounds per foot run.

The thickness of lead pipe required to withstand a given pressure may be calculated by the following rule : Multiply the head of water in feet by the radius of the pipe in inches and by '433, and divide the product by 2,745, which latter equals the tensile strength of the lead in pounds per square inch. The result equals the thickness of pipe required in fractions of an inch. Or: Multiply the head of water in feet by the diameter of pipe in inches, and by 0*0000787. For each of these results a factor of safety of 10 is required, hence the last rule becomes : —

' T = H X D X 0-000787 in which T represents the thickness of the pipe in fractions of an inch.

The illustrations on pp. 18 and 19, Figs. 2 to 52, show a few of the tools that are in ordinary use. The name of each tool is given under its illustration, and further information, other than that obtainable in trade catalogues, is unnecessary. A large number of tools is necessary for special work, or work that has to be done under difficulties, or has complicated parts.

PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK.

Fig. 3— Straight Copper Bit.

Fig. 2.— Adjustable Bevel.

^^ Fig. 1.— Hatchet Copper Bit.

Fig. 5.— Brass Blowpipe.

I >— t— >„JL»

Fig. 6.— Cold Chisel.

Fig. 9.— Compasses

5!

V o

Fig. 7.— Bend Bolt.

Fig. 8.— Hand Dummy

V\(r iQ ~ Fig. 12.— Bending Dresser.

Fig. 14 -Wiping ohS&e _

Cloth.

and Reel.

Fig. 16.— Quench Hook.

Fig. 15.— Hammer.

Fig. 20.— Bent Shave Hook. y\

Shave

Fig. 19.— Gauge Hook.

Fig. 21.— Spoon Hook.

Fig. 23.- Soldering-iron.

Fig. 18.— Long Dummy.

n

Fig. 26.— Drawing Knife.

( o o oL. — -— -* Fig. 24.— Chippinr Knife.

y J'n&x

ID

: 25,— Bossing Mallet.

D

' Fig. 27— Tomahawk Mallet.

Fig. 28.— Wedge Mallet.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED.

Fig. 30.— Cutting Pliers.

Fig. 29.- Jack Plane with Metal Sole. c

Fig. 31.— Steel Fixing Point.

■0£

P

Fig. 32.— Shears.

Fig. 31.— Bule.

Fig. 33.-Solder ^^i^il^^^^PPPpp^-f "

Fig. 36.— Rasp,

Fig. 35.- Two-hole Pliers.

Fig. 37.-Square.

tn

Fig. 33.— Screwdriver.

C

Fig. 33.— Bending Stick.

Fig. 43— Small Fig. 4i.-Large Turnpin.

Turnpin.

n

Fig. 42.— Setting-in Stick.

1) ^

A

Eent Wedge.

ISj arrow

Bevel

Wedge.

Fig. 47.— Wide Bevel

Wedge.

K arrow

Chase

Wedge.

Wide

Chase

Wedge.

Fig. 50.— Thumb Wedge,

Fig. 52.— Screw Wrench.

Fig. 51.— Shark's Jaw Wrench.

PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK.

The following table is introduced to show at a glance the different thicknesses and weights of lead pipes commonly

A

B

C

D

A

B

D f

Thin

Zh

Thin i H ii i i

12*

I n i

Thin i

3|

Thin i * ii

15^

>j l'f

Thin

J> il

Thin

4| i

Thin i

I

-

Thin

Thin

5 6

24 20

Middle Strong

23 26

Thin r^

5»

*h

CO

I i i

Thin

I r^

Thin t

Thin to i

.5

9^

"p r

Thin

— i i

Thin manufactured, so that, when ordering pipes, the strength of pipe can be given when the weight is stated in the specifica-

MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED.

tion. Column a shows the internal diameter in inches ; b is the trade term indicating the strength of the pipe ; c the weight in pounds per yard ; D the average length in yards.

The plumber usually carries his tools in a bag made of carpet, with a smaller one for his wiping cloths, and sometimes another for his small tools. . On country jobs a large box or chest is generally used, as a bag will not nearly hold them all.

Figr. 58. — Plumber's Tool-chest.

The tools of a plumber are heavy, and a chest to hold them should be very strong. A chest to hold all that are used by plumbers would be very large, but a great many — such as long dummies, large ladles, pots, etc. — are not of sufficient value to be kept in a box. A plumber's ordinary kit of tools would go in a chest 2 ft. 6 in. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 1 ft. 2 in. deep (all inside dimensions). If a hot-water engineer's tools, such as stocks and dies, etc., are included, then the

PEAGTICAL PLUMBERS 7 WORK.

box must be increased in size, or, better still, a separate one used. One reason for making the box strong is that, in addition to the weight of tools, plumbers do not always have proper lock-ups provided when working in new buildings, and their tool chests are convenient for holding a few articles such as cocks and valves, bar solder, and similar material.

The plumber's tool-box is made of yellow pine, | in. thick when planed on both sides, with dovetailed angles,

Fi£\ 51. — Side Section of Plumber's Tool-chest.

Fig\ 55. — End Section of Plumber's Tool-chest.

plinth, and lid mouldings. The lid is clamped at the ends across the grain, and for the hinges box garnets are much better than ordinary butts. These box garnets are shown at f (Fig. 53). For fastening the lid, a staple and eyes, shown at G and h respectively, and a padlock are preferable to an ordinary box lock. The fastenings should be screwed on so that they cannot be removed by taking out the screws from the outside. For carrying the box, wood cleats, and loops or rings made of rope — the ends being spliced together — are very suitable, and better than small iron handles on plates. These are shown at J, in Figs. 53 and 54. Figs. 2 and 3 are sections lengthways and crossways.

A, B, and c, in Figs. 53 and 54, and a in Fig. 55, show a tray 4 in. deep made of f-in. deal, and having dovetailed angles ; it is provided with divisions, and slides on deal fillets screwed on to the box ends. The division a is for small tools, such as pliers, small turnpins, gouges, hand chisels, etc. ; b for wiping-cloths, and c for shave-hooks, drawing-knife, rule, and similar tools. The heads of shave-hooks should be rolled up in " felts " when being packed for carriage. The tray can be lifted out of the chest on to the bench during working hours, and the tools replaced from time to time after being used. This will obviate the cloths being made dirty or the shave-hooks blunted by being knocked about on the bench..

The lower part of the chest is divided by a partition into two portions (d and e, Fig. 55). One side is for boxwood and other tools used for lead-laying ; the other is for hammers, long chisels, steel points, screw wrenches, spanners, and other metal tools. The lead-plane and saw should be placed in the former. The carpet tool-bag and plumber's overalls, when not wanted, can be packed on the front of the tray at k. The bottom of the box should have the grain of the wood running from back to front, and outside two fillets should be screwed on, with the grain running lengthways, These keep the chest clear of the floor, and also answer as runners when the chest is being dragged along, thus preventing the end plinth piece being forced off. The inside of the chest is left quite plain, but the outside should have three coats of oil paint, the finishing coat to be lead colour. As toolchests are sometimes miscarried, it is an advantage to have the name and address of the owner, or the firm he works for, painted on the front, where it will be less likely to wear off than if painted on the lid.

A plumber's tool-bag, already referred to on p. 21, is usually made of good Brussels or other strong carpet, and it should have a lining of thin leather or strong canvas. Brussels carpet is about 27 in. wide, and a piece about lj yd. long is the quantity required for an ordinary sized bag. The lining should be cut to the size required, so as to avoid a seam at the bottom, and should be closely sewn up the sides. The carpet should then be cut to suit the lining, allowance being made for seams and for about 2^ in. to turn down at the top inside the leather ; it should then be closely sewn, wrong side out, with strong carpet thread, after which it should be turned, the leather lining put inside, and the %\ in. allowed at the top of the carpet turned down and closely sew T n all round inside the leather. Holes should then be cut near the top, and eyelets, consisting of short pieces of compo. pipe, tafted to the carpet inside and out ; a piece of sash cord is threaded through these eyelets for carrying the bag. In place of eyelets, short pieces of leather strap may be riveted to the top of the bag, with brass rings in them to pass the cord through.

Chapter II. Solder And How To Make It

Plumber's solder, wiping solder, also sometimes called " metal," for use with the ladle and the soldering cloth, is made up by melting together pure lead and block tin in the proportion of 2 lb. of lead to 1 lb. of tin. Plumber's fine solder is made of about equal parts of those two metals. Strip solder — used with the copper bit — is made in the proportion of 2 lb. of tin to fully 3 lb. of lead. Gasfitter's solder may be made in the proportion of 8 lb. of tin to 9 lb. of lead; tinman's copper bit solder is 1 lb. of lead to 1 lb. of tin ; pewterer's blowpipe solder is 1 lb. of lead, 1 lb. of tin, and 2 lb. of bismuth. The proportion of lead and tin may vary within certain limits without apparent effect on the solder.