Upholstery, with numerous engravings and diagrams

Contents

used by Pai

Whitewashi

Embellishm

Chapter I

upholsterers' materials.

The object of this handbook is to treat the subject of upholstery so simply but so exhaustively that any person handy with tools can, from the instructions here given, successfully upholster any piece of furniture, or repair furniture already upholstered. Upholsterers' work includes the hanging of fancy draperies and decorations, and the planning and laying of linoleum and carpets, and these matters will also be discussed.

A start will be made with some notes on the materials used in upholstering furniture.

Morocco leather, sometimes called levant, is a natural leather made from the skin of the goat. It is generally dyed a maroon, which is the most common colour used in furniture coverings, and it is usually finished with a rough pebble grain, though samples often met with are embossed in various geometric patterns and richly gilt. It is tough, durable, pleasant to the touch, and soft and pliable.

Roan skins are manufactured from sheep skins, and are d} r ed various colours. They are grained in imitation of almost any natural leather. They are often sold as real moroccos, to which they have a somewhat similar appearance, but they are not so durable though somewhat cheaper. Roan skins and moroccos are not large enough to cover a large chair seat or couch bottom ; consequently two or three skins have to be seamed together to get the reio Upholstery.

quired length. In this way furniture covered in real skins can easily be distinguished from (hose in leather cloths.

Real morocco leather and roan skins are sold by the skin, according to size and quality, and the beginner will find them difficult to lay ; there is often much scheming to prevent waste, as only certain parts of a hide can be used.

Carriage cloth is used considerably for covering medium-class furniture ; it is made in a variety of colours and textures, such as corduroys, Bedford cords, tweeds, diagonals, serges, etc., and varies in width from 27 in. to 54 in., and costs from Is. 6d. to 4s. per yard.

Hair cloth or hair seating is used to a large extent on ordinary couches and sofas, and cottage furniture. The horse-hair intended for this cloth is dyed black, and woven in hand looms with a black linen warp. The hair is soaked in water to make it supple, and put in one length at a time with a peculiar kind of shuttle. The weave is a kind of sateen, the weft or hair in this case being flushed to the surface. It is woven with a raw edge on each side, no selvedge being possible on account of the short length of the horse-hair. After leaving the loom the cloth is hotrolled to give it a lustre. Hair-seating is made in widths varying from 16 in. to 30 in. It is a very strong, durable material, not liable to fade, but on account of its open texture catches a lot of dust. There are several cheap imitations which usually consist of black polished linen warp and weft, both plain and figured.

American leather is largely used for cheap and medium-class work. It consists of a waterproof paste spread on calico, and can be obtained in almost any colour, and grained or embossed in a variety of patterns. In the trade it is known as A C leather (American-covered leather). This material is difficult for a beginner to by on properly,

Upholsterers* Ma terials. i i

being apt to kink and wrinkle unless carefully handled.

Velvets embrace a large variety of materials, and their chief feature is their pile or nap surface. Stamped velvet is a plain velvet stamped or embossed in a rotary press with suitable designs. Common mixed goods go through this process, the better qualities, such as Genoa, friese, plush, etc., being figured in the weaving. There are several mock velvets, known as velveteen and plushette.

Friese velvet is distinguished by its ground being covered with small loops left uncut.

Utrecht velvet is made from mohair, the wool of the Angora goat ; it is heavier in pile and texture than the silk and mixed velvets, and is also cheaper. In conjunction with Wilton pile, a kind of carpet, it is often used for making velvet borders for furniture upholstered in saddle-bags.

Velveteen is a short pile material, the weft and warp being composed of cotton.

Wilton pile — French moquette — is sometimes used, but the heavy pile of the cloth prevents a neat appearance being obtained.

Velvets are obtainable in 24-in. widths, and vary in price from 2s. to 10s. per yard. Saddle-bag coverings are made from Wilton-pile saddle squares, sometimes called moquette, and plain Utrecht velvet borders. Saddles can be bought in stock sizes of 18 in. and 22 in. square, and also extra large sizes for couch and settee seats, 27 in. wide. The velvet borders are seamed to the edges of the saddle-bags. Care should be taken in laying on saddle-bag coverings to get the squares parallel with the frames. Half-saddles are often used for small chairbacks and arms.

In some velvets the pile surface is produced by inserting steel wires across the warp threads, these wires being secured b^Tthe raising and depression of the loom healds or harness, thus producing a shed

I 2 or opening in the warp threads for the insertion of another wire. In Fig. 1, one of these wires is shown in section with warp threads thrown over and uncut. The small groove at the top is for the insertion

Fig-. 1. — Grooved Wire in Velvet Weaving-.

of the velvet knife, which cuts the threads and allows the wire to be removed, the cut threads forming the pile surface. Terry piles have the loop left intact or cut in certain portions only, forming raised fig ares, etc. After cutting, the goods are sheared to get an even height of pile, and steamed to make the pile stand up. Another method of pile weaving much used for plushes, which are a variety of heavy silk pile velvets, is by producing two single pile fabrics at one operation, and without the use of

Fig. 2. — Lister Method of Producing Velvet Pile.

wires, this being part of the Lister patents. The cloth is woven as a double fabric with the weft yarn a (Fig. 2) interlacing from one to the other ; before leaving the loom this weft is cut in the centre by

Upholsterers' Materials.

l 3 a mechanically operated knife shown at b, thus forming two separate fabrics ready for the finisher. The crimp coverings used in upholstery are made of cctton warp and weft, and are woven with two warps or beams. The bottom warp is white, and this makes the plain part; the top warp is blue, and makes the crimp stripe. In Fig. 3 A is the warp beam which contains the white yarn ; this is heavily weighted in the usual way with levers, etc. The

Fig. 3. — Weaving Crimp Coverings.

yarn from this warp passes over the lower rod of the bar bearer d. b is the crimp warp which contains the blue yarn ; this is very lightly braked with a chain and spring c, which is secured to the loom top. The top bearer rod is worked backward and forward by a lever and eccentric, the yarn being pulled off the top beam at treble the speed of the bottom. Owing to this slackness, the yarn forms itself into loops on the surface of the cloth, thus giving it a crimped appearance in the blue stripe only. The draughting is exactly the same as plain cloth — first and third, then second and fourth in healds, two ends in a dent.

Damasks are rather expensive, as they are usually of silk. They are very richly ornamented, but are not much used at present.

Brocades are made both in silk and wool. The figuring is raised slightly above the surface, which is not piled or cut. They are not very costly, and wear well.

Irish terries are not much used at present. Terry has a very rich lustrous surface ; the pattern, generally of a geometric nature, is of worsted warp and silk weft. It is a tough, warm material, and about the same price as velvet.

Silk tapestry differs from other coverings in not being a woven fabric. It is made by a kind of embroidery process, the pattern being worked on a web foundation with needles instead of shuttles. It is very costly, and is mostly used for high-class drawing-room suites. The name tapestry is given to a large number of woven fabrics, some of which are merely cotton prints. A variety known as Gobelin tapestry is mostly imitations of pictures, etc., in silk.

Cretonnes are printed twilled-cotton fabrics used for upholstered wicker-work furniture, breakfastroom suites, cheap cushions, dust covers, etc. They can be bought in widths of 27 in. upwards.

Tabinet is a delicate kind of silk, usually watermarked by being subjected to pressure whilst damp. It is chiefly used in conjunction with silk damasks and brocades for Persian bedsteads and hangings.

Repp corduroy is a kind of worsted or woollen cloth of a very stout, close texture. It is sometimes called railway cloth, from the fact that some of the railway companies use it as a covering for carriage seats and backs. It is a very strong, warm material, not expensive, and is made in various colours and patterns.

Upholsterers' Materials. 15

Serges, beavers, and tweeds are not very suitable for furniture coverings, but are largely used in upholstering carriages, etc.

For stuffing, curled horse-hair is the best material to use, but it has one disadvantage in that it is rather expensive. Several substitutes are sold, the following being the most important : Cocoanut fibre is a splendid material for getting firm edges : it should be of the clean, long-stapled variety, and not powdered. Algerian grass, dyed black, has much the same appearance as horse-hair, but is harsh and brittle. New Orleans moss and wild pineapple fibre are also used as horse-hair substitutes. When horse-hair is burnt it leaves a black ash, whilst vegetable fibres burn to a light grey ash.

Alva, a seaweed from the shores of southern Russia, the Baltic, and other places, is used in large quantities in the upholstering trade. It should be dry, as the damp green portions often seen in a bale of alva are liable to breed vermin. German alva is inferior to French, which is crisper and has more spring in it. The Dutch alva is the cleanest and most free from lumps. None of the vegetable fibres, however, is to be compared with hair, as they do not present the same amount of elasticity. Take a handful of each material and compress it ; good hair will expand again on pressure being removed, while the others will do so only to a very limited extent. In use, seats stuffed with them become hard and lumpy very soon, while hair retains its spring for a considerable time, though, of course, it eventually becomes matted.

Cotton and woollen flocks were, until recently, almost exclusively used in the north of England for stuffing cheap furniture and beds. Flocks — short stapled, fluffy fibres — are the waste and fallings from the various machines used in preparing the threads for the looms and in finishing the cloth. There are several qualities and varieties of flocks, the best being those made in the operation of raising or fulling fine woollen cloth. The cheapest are the screenings from the cotton-cleaning machines. There are also mixtures of cotton and wool, dyed and in natural colour. Flock makes a nice warm stuffing, but is inferior to the fibres mentioned above for making good edges.

Kaising flocks are the short fibres torn from the surface of woollen cloth in the process of raising the nap or pile.

Cutting flocks are thrown off in the operation of cutting or clipping the face of certain kinds of cloth ; these are cheap, usually very short in staple, and enter into the composition of flock wall-papers.

Milling flocks are formed in the operation of milling the surface of woollen fabrics.

Noils are the short fibres of wool removed in the process of wool-combing. Noils and millings are almost pure wool, and command a good price ; they are chiefly used for woollen flock beds.

Mill puff is cotton or a mixture of cotton and worsted waste, and is much used in stuffing cheap furniture. It is mostly the screenings or fallings from cotton, etc., thrown down during cleaning and burring.

Mungo is prepared from woollen rags torn into short fibres. Wool extract is very similar to mungo, but has all the vegetable matter extracted by a chemical process. In preparing flocks for the market, they are mixed or blended to produce the different qualities and colours. Cotton flocks, such as teazed or mill puff, are usually packed in bags of 56 lb., whilst woollen flocks are put up in 50-lb. bags.

Flock manufacture is usually carried on as an adjunct to a woollen mill, the woollen waste being sorted on large wire grids, which allow the dust and powdered material to fall through. The better qualities are dyed, dried by heat, and passed into a

Up hols te r /■: r s' Ma teria ls. 17

"willpwing" machine, which beats and opens all the fibres. They are then passed into a curling machine, and blown out by compressed air, and afterwards packed in 50-lb. bags for the market.

The machine used by upholsterers for dressing flocks is known as a teazer or willey (see Chapter II., p. 27).

Teazed wools are a pure wool flock, but are a bad colour, with no curl, and are manufactured from the fluff and sweepings of the mills ; they are very cheap and warm.

Black wool flocks are in many different qualities and colours, and are chiefly made by the combing machines used in wool carding ; they are of medium curl, are much used for mattress stuffings, and are often blended with coloured flocks and sold as " red spot fancy, " mottled mixture, brown mixture, etc., the name denoting what colour has been blended with the black. White wools are a pure wool flock with a full curl and soft elastic feel, which in ordinary circumstances last for years without matting.

In addition to the fillings already mentioned, there are special materials for hot climates, the principal of these being paper shavings, wood wool, manna, aloes, etc., the object being to get a loose texture which will admit of more perfect ventilation.

Wadding is cotton or cotton-waste very finely carded to give it a soft, fluffy appearance. It is gummed to tissue paper. The grey wadding is the kind mostly used by upholsterers.

Hessian is a coarse jute cloth, and is used as underlinings, first stuffing, etc. The manufacture of this cloth forms the staple industry of Dundee in Scotland. It is made in many varieties and widths ; that known as spring hessian is a very strong cloth, about twenty picks to the inch, and weighs 10^ oz. to the yard 40 in. wide. The coarser kinds, such as scrym. are used as underlinings and first stuffings.

Web or webbing is strong coarse braid composed of cotton-wool alone, or mixed with linen woven plain or tabby, and can be obtained in rolls of 18 yards. Spring web is very strong material made of linen with a pointed twill or herring-bone pattern running through it. Webbing is used for spring seats, and other light work. For backs, etc., not intended for rough wear, a cheaper variety, known as German webbing, is used, but not in good work, in which webbing forms the foundation for the whole job. Consequently, if poor material is used, the work sinks and bags quickly.

Gimps are used to give a finish to the tacking rebates in upholstered work, and are generally \ in. wide. The kind used for hair-seated work is black polished linen, either plain or figured. Scroll gimp is a kind of thick silk twist in zig-zag form, stiffened by coarse threads running through it, and is used on velvets, plushes, etc. Gimps are sold by the gross yard, wound on a card.

Banding is very similar to gimp, and is used for much the same purpose. It is made from long strips of covered leather, folded double and pasted fast at the back, and can be got to match any colour of leather used in upholstered work.

Buttons may be had to match all kinds of furniture coverings. They are packed in cardboard boxes, which each contain one gross.

Upholsterer's twine is a special twine, very - strong and tough, and sold in \-Va. and \-\h. balls. Good twine should not break when pulled in use. Twine used in mattress making is of two kinds ; one, the thicker of the two, is tufting twine, and the other stitching twine.

Wire spiral springs have the diameter of their centres half that of their ends, the free ends of the wire being coiled inwards, to prevent cutting the coverings. Sizes from 4 in. to 12 in. are obtainable. They are made of different gauges *f wire to suit

Upholsterers' Materials. 19

various purposes ; 4-in. springs are of No. 12 gauge, and the 12-in. springs of No. 6 gauge. They are secured to wood spring-rails in sofas, etc., with wire staples put over the bottom coil, and are tied or stitched with twine to furniture which has webbed foundations.

Old-fashioned springs sometimes met with are found to have the free ends tied down to the first coil by lapping with fine rose-wire. This method results in a certain amount of roughness, which is liable to cut the underlinings unless well lashed with cording. Springs are so cheap that it will not pay to lap the ends by hand labour ; but should a spring need shortening for some special purpose, use a pair of strong round-nose pliers, care being taken not to buckle the spring.

Springs used in mattresses are discussed in Chapter IX.

Pom-poms are used for ornamenting upholsterers' work. To make a pom-pom lap a wood or cardboard washer with three or four thicknesses of fibres, which may be of silk, worsted, or cotton. Cut all the fibres at the outer edge of the ring with a pair of pointed scissors ; this will release the ring. Bind the tuft in the centre with fine silk twist, and trim the pom-poms to shape. Another method is to knock two smooth spikes into a board, say 1 ft. apart, wrap the materials round the spikes to the required thickness, and tie up every \\ in. Cut off in the centre of each tie, which will make eight pom-poms. Flatten with a blow from a mallet or under a press. For fine work, a rough creel could be fitted, and ten to twenty of the strands wrapped at once. A vandyked edge could be given to the pom-poms by trimming with a mattress tuft punch.

Mattress ribbons are used to bind the parts together, and can be procured in colours and stripes to match the ticking, being packed in rolls containing one gross yard. The flocks used for mattress fillings are almost all woollen ; cotton flocks arc used, but to a limited extent only. The flocks most seen are the self-colours, which may be black, brown, etc. ; these are often mixed and blended with one another, and sold as spot fancies, brown mixtures, greys, mottled, etc., and prices vary from l^d. per lb. for a black wool to Is. for the best bleached white woollen flocks. A good bedding flock should have a fine and even texture, free from powder and loose fluff, and the fibres should separate freely, be soft and springy, and have a wholesome smell. The horse-hair used for hair mattress fillings should be curly and much shorter in staple than that used for upholstering furniture ; this material is much adulterated with brush-draft and dyed vegetable fibres, w T hich are very difficult to detect. However, the burning of a sample may prove an easy test, horse-hair giving a black ash and vegetable matters a light grey ; this has already been referred to. A reasonable price for mattress horsehair is from Is. to 2s., or even more, per lb.

Ticking for mattress-making is stocked in widths of 58 in. and 63 in. Cotton ticking costs from lOd. to Is. 3d. per yard, union ticking from Is. 4d. to Is. 9d. per yard, and linen ticking from 2s. to 5s. per yard. Black linen and coloured sateens and lustres are used for backing purposes, and cost from 3|d. to 7d. per yard. Trimmings are used for finishing purposes, and are made in silk, wool, cotton, or leather, the last named being called banding, which is usually secured with fancy- or plain-headed studs. Mattress buttons are obtainable in any material used as mattress coverings.

2 I

Chapter II

upholsterers' tools.

Uholsterers' tools are usually not numerous or costly, and in the following list every tool and its use is explained.

Fig. 4.— Packing Needle.

Fig. 4 shows a packing needle, used for coarse rough sewing, such as seaming hessians. scrym, etc. Other finer needles are required for thimble work, but an assortment beginning with the carpet needle

Fig. 5.— :Stitcking-up or Mattress Needle.

and ranging in size to the packing needle here shown Mill doubtless meet all requirements.

Fig. 5 is the stitching-up or mattress needle, pointed at each end. and varies from 8 in. to 10 in.

Fig. 6.— Half -moon Xeedle.

in length. It is used for stitching the edges of stuffed-up work, also for buttoning or tufting, and blind-stitching the edges of mattresses. A substitute for this needle can be made from an old solid-steel

Upholstery.

umbrella wire. First scrape off the enamel and grind both ends to a fine point, using the hole in which the umbrella cover was fastened as the needle eye.

■Hand Knife.

Fig. 6 is a half-moon needle, known as a spring needle. It is used for stitching the springs used in spring seats and backs to the webbing or canvas.

Fig-. 8.— Canterbury Claw Hammer.

Fig. 7 shows a hand knife, which should be

stropped on an emery board and finished on a strap.

Fig. 8 shows a hammer, known as a canterbury

-G imping* Hammer.

claw ; this is used for driving in tacks and general work. The upholsterer's gimping hammer (Fig. 9) has a small round polished head much longer than the ordinary hammer. It is used for gimping,

Upholsterers' Tools.

banding, and fixing fine laces by means of small enamelled nails called gimp pins. Fig. 10 illustrates an upholsterer's pincers. These are almost

Fig. 10. — Upholsterer's Pincers.

indispensable for straining short webs, leather coverings, etc., as they hold the material much

Fig. 11. — Stud Gauge.

firmer than the ordinary pincers and without the risk of tearing the fibres. Gimping hammers and pincers are sold in three sizes.

mm

Figs. 12 and 13.— Web Strainer.

Fig. 11 is a stud gauge, which is useful for marking the positions of the brass-headed studs used for

Upholstery.

finishing edges. For ordinary §-in. brass studs the points of the guage should be \ in. apart. In marking for studs, put the last point of the gauge in the last hole made before striking again, to en sine

Fig - . 14.— Web Strainer with Spikes.

that the holes shall be at equal distances apart. A large prick wheel is often used for the same purpose.

Figs. 12 and 13 show a web strainer. It can be made from a piece of hard wood, such as birch or beech, 12 in. long, 4 in. wide.

Another type of web strainer or stretcher, as

Fig-. 15. — Web Strainer in use.

shown in Fig. 14, is made out of 1-in. stuff, fitted with spikes or nail points at each end — one set to stick in the stuffing rail, and the other to embed in the web. This has then to be pressed down till the web is perfectly taut, when it can be tacked on to the

Upholsterers' Tools.

2;

rail (the other end having been previously tacked down) and the stretcher released, the web being cut off 1 in. from the tacks and nailed over. The pair of web strainers shown by Figs. 15 and 16 have no spikes to weaken the web. They can be made out of g-in. or 1-in. oak, or any hard wood. The web is first tacked on one side of the job, the strainers then held in an upright position on the edge of the wood, the web passed through the hole of strainers in the form of a loop, and the roller put through the loop ; it is then levered down till the web is tight.

The regulator (Fig. 17) is for working the stuffing materials to the edges during the process of stitching-up. It is similar to a broad flat packing needle fixed in a wooden handle.

The stuffing stick illustrated by Fig. 18 can be made from a piece of hardwood about 2 ft. 6 in. long by 1^ in. thick at the other end. Cut a V notch in the smaller end, and hollow the large end with a gouge chisel. A stuffing stick chiefly used in mattress making is shown by Fig. 19.

A pair of strong scissors about 9 in. long, a 2-ft. rule, a tape measure, and a couple of chisels and a heavy hammer for taking off sofa backs, etc., will

Fig. 17. — Regulator.

be required. For trade purposes a treadle sewing machine cannot be dispensed with ; there are several suitable machines on the market, such as the Singer Co.'s No. 7 ; Bradbury's also make a good machine. In seaming leather or leather cloth, it is important to use " leather point " needles.

For supporting the frames whilst being upholstered, a pair of light wood trestles, about 2 ft. 6 in. high and 3 ft. long, should be used, and for small work a bench with a flat top, about 4 ft. square, will be useful.

Upholsterers' aprons have two pockets in the front, lined with stout moleskin. One pocket is

Fig. 18.— Stuffing Stick.

used for tacks, and the scissors, etc., are carried in the other.

In re-upholstering it is necessary, before using the matted stuffing materials over again, or before using new stuff, to pick or card them,, so as thoroughly to tear and separate the fibres. Flock-carding or dressing machines are made both for hand and power, and some have special attachments for teazing hair and fibre. It is a good plan to have a

Upholsterers' Tools. 27

separate room for these machines, as the operation is very dusty, and, except at the feeding and delivering parts, the machine should be cased in with boards, sliding or hinged doors being provided for cleaning and oiling. The casing should be continued to a tapered funnel communicating with the

Fig. 19.— Stuffing Stick for Mattresses.

open air, and, if possible, a power-driven exhaust fan should be fixed in the upper parts of the funnel to remove the dust and other impurities. Hand cards have the same purpose as the machines. Fig. 20 shows the top portion of a pair of hand cards ; the bottom part is similar, with the exception of the handles, which are used to give a sliding motion to the top part, the bottom part being held stationary on the bench. Fig. 21 shows the principles of a flock-carding machine, which is known as a teazer

Pig". 20.— Top Part of Pair of Hand Card-.

or willey. A is a large drum covered with spikes or card cloth, and geared to run at a high speed. The small drums or worker rollers (e and c) are also covered in a similar manner. The material to be carded is fed into the hopper D, and is carried round the large drum, coining in contact with the worker rollers, which tear up and separate the fibres ; these are then thrown on the revolving delivery table e

UrilOLSTKRY by suitable catch rollers. The power is imparted by a cranked handle, or belt-driven pulleys. The working parts are cased in to prevent the material flying off the drums.

Fig. 22 shows a pair of grapple hooks, useful for

Flock Teazer, or Willey.

suspending bales of flock, etc. These are slung from the ceiling by means of ropes passing through the eyes. Each hook grips the opposite side of the bale ; thus the bale mouth is held open, and as the bale is not liable to tilt- over, much waste is prevented.

2 9

Chapter III. Frames, Webbing, Springing, And Stuffing

Upholstered furniture frames are of two kinds, stuff-over frames (Fig. 23) and show-wood frames (Fig. 24). Stuff-over frames (Fig. 25) are generally

Fig. 23.— Stuff-over Chair.

heavily built, as the whole of the woodwork is covered with the exception of the bottoms of the legs. They are, however, more difficult to stuff than the show-wood frames (Fig. 26), which are generally ornamented with mouldings and carvings.

3°

Upholstery.

Upholstered furniture is generally made up in sets known as suites ; these usually consist of one couch or settee, one pair of easy chairs, sometimes called divans, and from four to eight small chairs, according to the size of the room being furnished. Odd chairs are known as occasionals.

The modern construction of chair frames is anything but satisfactory, too much time and labour

Fi<

\\. — Show -wood Chair, being spent on ornamentation instead of sound jointing. The joint almost universally used in chair-making is the dowel joint (Fig. 27). The advantage of the dowel joint over the mortise joint is solely in the saving of wood, as it will be seen that the length of the rail is exactly the distance between the uprights. The joint is made by boring holes and