Ergonomy, or, Industrial science

Contents

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THE INDUCTION, 5

THE LABORATORY, ..---- 16

Chapter I. The Induction

In the nineteenth century of the Christian era, civil society is convulsed with pecuniary distress, scientific strife, moral disorder, and social delirium. These fruits of a highly cultivated age, are well calculated to excite a lively and most reasonable curiosity. Convulsions occurring in an age adorned with science, literature, and religion ; in a country endowed with industry, enterprise, and wise institutions, must, by every reflecting mind, be regarded as a very singular phenomenon in the philosophy of human affairs. Such remarkable vicissitudes afford a long series of admonitory lessons ; and legislative efforts to improve the Divine economy, like the inscriptions of lovers upon trees, only serve to perpetuate the remembrance of human passions and misfortunes.

Nature, to a philosophic observer, seems to harmonize with absolute benevolence, to design physical and social happiness. Everything seems formed for everything, and subsists by mutually giving and receiving benefits. The extremes of creation are brought into the closest vicinity, the seemingly incongruous elements are blended into the mildest harmony.

As a benign consistency still pervades the material world, pecuniary derangements must result from human annoyances. The unconstrained operation of the Divine laws, would, like oil upon waves, restore these tumultuary occurrences into peaceful tranquillity. The Industrial System, if freed from human interruptions, would proceed with as much regularity as the spheres revolving in the firmament.

The ensuing pages are designed to point out the laws of the Industrial System, to unfold a simple, useful, and elegant science. Observation is the only possible mode of ascertaining the Divine legislation ; and a strong impression of this preliminp^ry proposition, effectually debars unprofitable speculations, intricate reasonings, and fallacious conclusions.

To define, to classify, to measure, are the three successive steps in philosophy. The true interpreter of nature notices particular facts, groups such as possess perfect similarity, and points out their respective proportions. To free his reasonings from every possible embarrassment, he singles out his particular fact from the other facts which are irrelevant to his particular purpose. Classification, as it " brings in" particular facts under general classes, is called induction, or the inductive philosophy. Mensuration of every kind is nothing more than a comparison of a quantity with its measuring unit. The mathematician purges his elements from every impurity, classes his facts according to an exact resemblance, and compares his quantities with absolute certainty. Philosophy, in its utmost extension, embraces no more than three distinct operations, which, if illustrated by a few appropriate examples, will enable us to pass over the Industrial System with satisfaction and success.

1. The first step clears the elementary principle from every impurity. Reasoning starts from axioms upon which the human mind rests with implicit confidence. No plurality is conceivable without an elementary unit, no compound is possible without constituent elements, and no general proposition is supposable without particular facts. A number when separated from every other attribute of body, suggests the same thought to every human mind ; and a line when considered as " mere length without breadth or thickness," leaves no possibility for error or confusion. The elementary principles of nature, the ultimate existences, are the particular facts, which, in every science, rise up from an unfathomable deep with unadorned simplicity. The loftiest superstructures are built upon the lowliest facts. The primary notion, of which proportions are the mere development, slumbers in the mind of the rudest peasant ; and upon notions so seemingly trivial, are built the loftiest monuments in modern science. Upon the simple basis of gravitation, as an elementary fact, JSTewton erected the magnificent superstructure of modern astronomy.

2. To classify, the second step in philosophy, is nothing more than grouping facts of the same kind under distinctive " sorts or species." As the principles of nature are classible according to some exact resemblance, the observer discriminates, in a great number of particulars, that common circumstance in which they all agree, and extracts it pure and unmixed, from the other superfluous circumstances. As lines are classible with lines, surfaces with surfaces, cubes with cubes, mathematical inductions cannot be vitiated by any possible obscurity. Actions which bear an exact resemblance in a single particular, are classible ; and science, through comprehensive inductions, is continually extending her already extensive domain. A falling apple suggested to Newton the sublime conception, that the planets had the same gravitative generality. An apple and a planet, so dissimilar in other particulars, are precisely similar in gravitation, the only particular which relates to practical astronomy. The science of the philosopher diiFers in degree only, not in kind, from the information, which is the fruit of the commonest experience. Newton, in classing the planets under gravitation, only enlarged his views to that universal induction which comprehends under it an infinite number of particulars, and includes a whole science in a single principle.

3. To ascertain proportions, is the third step in philosophy. Newton discovered the proportion of the forces of gravitation acting at comparative distances ; and the rule of action, the inverse squares, is established by observing, the planetary motions. Gravitation, acting by this determinate rule, moves an apple and a planet, moulds the huge masses of bodies into their appointed forms, and governs, through myriads of ages, the mighty system composed of myriads of worlds. This comprehensive rule, throughout the minutest details, so explains the celestial appearances that every seeming irregularity becomes a necessary result. Composed of system within system, the physical universe, " ordered by number and measure," moves with beautiful and salutary regularity.

Measuring, after a unit of comparison is selected, is reduced to counting. To measure a quantity is nothing more than comparing it with some other quantity of the same kind, a quantity exhibited to the human senses. A measure of length must be length ; a measure of superficies must be superficies ; a measure of capacity must be capacity. " To measure a quantity," is to " fix upon some known quantity of the same species" for a measuring unit, and to determine the proportionality of the quantity to the measure. Time, a definite portion of duration, is measurable by " any instruments or marks w^hich divide it into equal portions ;" and the geometer selects " some measure of this common duration" to estimate planetary motions, to ascertain longitude at sea. " Without some fixed parts or periods, the order of things would be lost to our finite understandings, in the boundless invariable oceans of duration and expansion which comprehend all finite being, and in their full extent, belong only to the Deity." Quantities of every kind are expressible by numbers ; the number always expresses " how many times the assumed unit of quantity is contained in the given quantity."

The inductive method, as illustrated in the preceding examples, leads us along the only true road to science. A method so successfully used in modern investigations, is applicable, with equal success, to Industrial afi'airs. The philosopher, in this Science, defines his axiom, classes the elementary facts under a universal induction, and determines the numerary proportions. To collect particular facts, to assort them into appropriate groups, to weave the whole into a connected system, is the task devolving upon philosophic economists. This extensive field, abounding with scientific curiosities and moral felicities, presents attractions to inductive philosophers and observant historians. This extensive range, as in other sciences, exemplifies the three elementary operations in philosophy.

1. Human labor is the sole elementary axiom. Labor, being irresolvable into simpler elements, is a clear and comprehensive elementary principle. A commodity, a specific body, is nothing more than labor, the only contemplated attribute, embodied in a perceptible form. The astronomer solely considers gravity ; the economist solely considers labor. In computing pressures, an engineer leaves out of view the freshness and salubrity of fluids ; in calculating eclipses, an astronomer does not include the fertility and population of planets ; and in estimating elaborations, an economist excludes from consideration the form and beauty of commodities. The notice of excluded attributes, though real existences, would only confuse the human mind. The exclusion of extraneous considerations leaves the elementary axiom in absolute purity, and enables the student to glide along a limpid stream.

This elementary axiom possesses interesting peculiarities which augment its perspicuity and impressiveness. Existing materials have no exchangeable proportions, till men have acquisitions to compare, acquisitions which require human labor. The first occupant

of any material, being unable to purchase of the Supreme Proprietor, expends labor upon a Divine gratuity. As no exchangeability can come into play before acquisitions are compared, the Industrial attribute is distinctly designated from every original attribute which inheres in material substances. Exchangeability decreases towards the first elaboration where, without leaving any residual quantity, it entirely disappears. The labor embodied in a commodity is accumulative till that commodity comes to the mart for consumption. Cotton, the result of the planter's labor, receives an accession of labor by its transportation to the English manufactory, by its transmutation into cloth, by its re-transportation to America. A similar accession occurs in elaborating every particular commodity. As the Industrial attribute is generated by man, he has the acutest experience of its actual existence. Ten thousand daily sensations make an indelible impression of the labor expended in elaborating commodities. Continuous elaboration is necessary for the prolongation of man's physical existence, for the development of his corporeal powers, mental faculties, and moral sensibilities.

2. Industrial facts from their absolute purity, are classible by mathematical resemblances. Equivalent commodities exhibit a wide diversity in weight, length, superficies, capacity, form, color, and fragrancy ; while, on the contrary, inherent labor is the sole attribute of coincidence, the only discriminating attribute in the " Industrial Science." The similarity of the elements, being impressed in human experience, are clearly discernible ; and the reasonings, being mathematical

12 ERGONOAir.

comparisons, are conductable with as much certainty as those in hydraulics or astronomy. A precise resemblance in labor suggests a comprehensive induction in commodities. The astronomical induction was a happy suggestion of an occult attribute of matter ; while, on the contrary, the induction of commodities is suggested by daily sensations and reflections in conferring the peculiar attribute. While minor distinctions are blended into each other's shades in inseparable complexity, the Deity is pleased to exhibit comprehensive inductions for human use, to hide minor differences from impertinent curiosity. The universal induction of labor, a useful extension of thought, includes a whole science in a single principle;

3. The third step is to measure human labor. Man, in the act of elaborating, obtains an acute perception of Industrial proportions, and, with the greatest facility measures a quantity which has been conferred by his own exertions. Labor, like a line in geometry, is an inseparable attribute of body, and, like a longitudinal quantity, is only calculable by the body in which it inheres. As gravity is inseparable from planetary bodies, so labor is inseparable from the containing substances. Mensuration in astronomy depends on a measure of force ; so mensuration of commodities depends on a measure of labor. A portion of matter is assumed as a measure of gravitation ; so a portion of elaborated matter is assumed as an Industrial measure. The Industrial unit "constitutes the standard or scale by which the prices of all things bought or sold are ascertained." A portion of silver being assumed as a unitj the number of times that portion is exchangeable for any given commodity, is the measure of that given commodity.

After a unit is fixed, commodities are exchanged solely by arithmetic. Children distinguish simple proportions, and the proportionality of commodities is fixed on the human mind with absolute clearness. The proportionality of gravitation at comparative distances, a proportionality of secondary utility, is within the range only of highly cultivated minds ; while, on the contrary, the proportionality of labor, a proportionality applicable to life and morals, is perfectly familiar to a child in the nursery. As the proportionulity of labor is so important in human affairs, no intricate proportions were admitted into the Industrial economy. These problems do not require a solution by the complicated proportions of squares or cubes, by the abstruse properties of ellipses or parabolas. As few minds are adequate for recondite mensuration, the Deity has been pleased, in the Industrial System, to work solely by simple multiples. From its beautiful simplicity, the proportionality is comprehensible by the feeblest as w^ell as by the most cultivated understanding.

Industrial facts being delivered with mathematical solemnity, require a mathematical language. Every science has its peculiar nomenclature for its leading principles ; and technical terms, being selected from the dead languages, are not liable to change by popular usage. As these terms are used in a precise sense, the mind preserves a pure conception of their distinctive meanings. Ergonomy is derived from two Greek wordSj and means the law of labor. It is a term whicn is unincumbered with an impure usage.

Industrial Science requires only a single axiom, only one specific induction, and only one simple proportionality. It has a most impressive axiom, a most luminous induction, and a most elegant simplicity. From a single axiom arises a choice collection of interesting developments ; and these shifting scenes afford the most striking facts in human history, facts which excite lively emotions in ever}'' inquisitive mind. The variety of facts possessing a strict unit}/, prevents the repetition of a uniform narrative ; and by employing general propositions, the human mind comprehends in a few theorems, a great number of inferences and conclusions. As the science of labor is a vast collection of facts, the economist only retains the more striking results, and drops all minuter circumstances which are only interesting to particular pursuits. In these comprehensive inductions, the natural connection is unbroken by hasty transitions, and no minute accumulation of circumstances can destroy " the light and effect of those general pictures, which compose the use and ornament" of the Industrial economy. To restrain the wanderings of the fancy, the economist must look to the Industrial axiom, with as much singleness of purpose as the faithftil Mohammedan at Fez or Delhi turns his face towards the temple at INiecca.

A beautiful simplicity runs through the sciences which affect human life and social manners. To effect a variety of purposes by a single principle, is characteristic of Deity. The law of labor, like that of gravitation in astronomy, explains all the Industrial appearances in their minutest details, and inspires the coldest natures with reverential sentiments. The several departments, being conductible by the inductive mode, are investigated by the same philosophic principles. The physical world, which still maintains its original affinities and proportions, affords a permanent basis for the moral sciences. The investigation of the physical laws, paves the way for the moral departments, which complete the harmonious superstructure.

To enrich the subject, to relieve the severity of thought, to entertain the reader, the leading principles are interspersed with variegated examples. As these examples are introduced merely as illustrations, particular reference to their original sources, is deemed unnecessary. The author, once for all, acknowledges his indebtedness to a wide circle of ancient and modern literature. The volume, as it treats of a science applicable to every nation, is designed for popular reading as well as for recondite study. The work, the first of a series, is committed to a generous, indulgent, and enlightened community.

Chapter II. The Laboratory

Material substances are tlie substratum for human labor. The materials are formed into curious structures, arranged into symmetrical figures, or cast into heaps of rude magnificence. The earth, the grand laboratory, contains the materials of the several kingdoms of nature, a mixture of the dullest with the most resplendent substances. Nature, in her active laboratory, is continually working up the rude materials, and her frugal economy makes one set of materials perform many purposes. Specific materials are running through the several kingdoms of nature with more or less rapidity, and blending into each other by almost evanescent shades. Nature mounts up in the gentlest ascent from dead matter to the delicate structure of the human brain, and fills up the widest extremes by the nicest gradations. The sportive variety in details, is a serious uniformity in leading principles. Nature, which performs for man the humblest services, is moving with ceaseless activity over wider scenes in mightier operations.

The earth, being the storehouse of appropriate materials, efi'ective agencies, and elegant models, requires a description so minute as to point out its elaborative capabilities. This description will furnish instructive analogies, and impart perspicuity to subsequent reasonings. The materials, with the various laws employed in elaboration, are splendid gratuities for which the Deity does not receive the least equivalency. This universal induction, kept always in sight, will give us luminous conceptions, extensive views, and infallible conclusions.

More than fifty distinct elements, in various combinations, compose the material world. Silica, composing rocks and sands, appears in amorphous or crystalline magnificence ; and alumina, next in abundance, usually appears in rude masses, but is nearly the sole constituent of the ruby and the sapphire, two of the most beautiful gems. Lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron, are abundant materials ; while glucina is found only in the euclase, the beryl, and the emerald. The organic elements are dissipated by burning in the atmosphere.

Primitive rocks compose the frame of the globe, form the loftiest mountains, and extend below the other formations. Transition rocks, composed of primitive fragments consolidated into continuous masses, often contain much organic remains, with various metallic ores. Secondary formations, showing a less crystalline structure, contain organic remains of known existing species. Alluvial deposits are those accumulations which are constantly forming by fluvial currents and mountain torrents.

The various strata on the large scale, are wrapped round the globe like the layers of an onion, maintaining the same relative situation. They have an inclination to the horizontal plane, an arrangement which successively exposes a rich variety of minerals at the surface. Gneiss forms the vast mass of the Carpathian mountains ; and granite, which frequently rises to the surface, composes the tops of the loftiest mountains, as well as the basis of the earth's solid crust. Granitic rocks not adapted to afford a fertile soil, generally constitute mountain districts which are illsuited for human habitations ; while, on the contrary, level and temperate regions are usually composed of strata containing those ingredients which are subservient to luxuriant vegetation.

Each element from the Divine mensuration, enters into combination by numerary proportions. Particles possess elective affinities which, under given circumstances, seize upon other particles within their attractive sphere. Hydrogen unites with eight times its weight of oxygen ; and each element combines by its simple equivalent, or by some of its multiples. The Deity has measured the waters, meted out the heavens, weighed the mountains, and established batteries to separate compounds, to combine substances into new arrangements, to modify chemical forces in endless complexity.

Hydrogen, a highly inflammable, united with oxygen, a strong supporter of combustion, produces water, which can neither be set on fire nor support flame. The one loses its supporting power ; the other lays aside its combustibility. Muriate of ammonia is a solid substance formed by a liquid with a gas ; and carbonate of ammonia, a hard crystallization, results from the union of two invisible gases. Iodine, the vapor of which is of a violet hue, forms a red compound with mercury, a yellow one with lead. The difference between white and red lead, arises solely from the amount of oxygen in their respective compositions. A brown oxide of copper gives rise to a blue salt ; while a salt of a yellow oxide of lead, is colorless. A substance, in successive combinations, is blue in the pink, white in the rose, purple in the hyacinth, poisonous in the upas, delicious in the melon, and medicinal in the aloe. Tungsten, compounded with chlorine, appears as a deep red mass with a brilliant fracture, or in the form of delicate needles of a deep red color, resembling wool.

Bodies which evince little disposition to combine, decompose from the slightest causes ; and those which contain the highest quantity of gas, easily part with one equivalent. As combustion is nothing more than rapid oxidation, every combustible derives its power of burning in the open air, from its affinity for oxygen. A disengagement of gas produces effervescence ; and carbonate of soda separates itself by efflorescence, from a mixture of carbonate of lime and sea salt in the soil. Carburetted hydrogen collects in mines, mingles with the atmosphere, and forms explosive mixtures. When cohesion becomes too strong for affinity, particles arrange themselves into symmetrical forms, which are reducible to a common axis.

Caloric, which converts solids into liquids and liquids into gases, removes barriers to affinity. Sometimes a higher, sometimes a lower temperature, accompanies chemical action. Caloric keeps up vital action ; the electric fire, which purities the stagnant atmosphere above, fuses the mineral veins beneath ; and the ver-

20 E R G N :\i Y .

nal sun causes the seed to burst its envelope, the new plant to expand with leaves, and the fruit to arrive at maturity. It warms the blood, melts metals, expands the air, raises clouds, and clothes the earth with verdure. From the proportionate activity of attractive and repulsive forces, result solidity, fluidity, elasticity, viscidity, toughness, and symmetry.

1. At the hot springs of San Vignone, a coat of lime-stone is formed six inches deep, in a year. Drifting winds have inundated the coast of Cornwall with sand, which, with oxide of iron in aqueous solution, has formed stone fit for architectural purposes. The herbage along a stream in one of the Azores, is encrusted with silica in all the successive steps of petrifactions from a soft state to a complete conversion into stone. In some locations, fine particles of lime or quartz, crystallize into marble, alabaster, cornelians, stalactites, or rock crystals.

The soil holds in solution those substances which pass into vegetable structures. Silica imparts friability to soils ; alumina, a plastic character ; and lime a medium texture. After decay has efi'aced every trace of organization, the remains contribute to vegetable developments. Silica, which is made available to plants through the intervention of soda or potassa, is necessary to sustain a stem in an upright position. Alumina, which furnishes little aliment to plants, has indirect influences proportionate to its conspicuous position in soils.

The proportion of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere, is nearly the same in all elevations and latitudes. Oxygen is necessary to fermentation, to combustion, to the germination, development and maturity of plants. Nitrogen neutralizes oxygen for respiration and combustion ; and carbonic acid, the proper food of plants, forms sometimes the five hundredth part of the volume of the atmosphere. Water, which exists as an elastic fluid in the atmosphere, is, by a diminution of temperature, condensed into clouds.

2. Vegetable life transforms dead matter into organized bodies. The tenderest organs and the mildest solutions, produce combinations which the chemist cannot form with the most effective apparatus and the strongest acids. Nitrogen derived from putrifaction, is united to other elements for forming nutritive substances ; and many compounds become necessary mediums in effecting final developments, in stimulating plants to appropriate elementary particles. Vegetation transforms brown earth, insipid water, and invisible gas into elegant flowers, delicious fruits, and sturdy trees.

The seed-lobes nourish the young plant till its organization can draw materials from extraneous sources. Roots, so unpleasing to the sight, fix the plant in the ground, draw moisture by appropriate vessels, and turn in pursuit of appropriate nourishment beneath the surface. Trees which grow on mountains, fasten their long branching roots into the clefts of rocks, for braving storms and tempests. A tree which stands on a wall, as soon as unsteadiness occurs, stops its upward growth, to send down a root to the ground for establishing a firm position. Trees, according to their wants, direct their roots towards dry or moist earth ; and plants of the same species put forth fibrous or

22 E E G N M Y .

bulbous roots, to suit the soil on which they stand. One plant appropriates potassa, and another, standing in the same vicinity, assimilates silica in large proportions.

Plants springing up where the seeds are cast, grow up with a sufficient covering to protect their delicate internal structure. The grasses, which robe the earth with universal verdure, possess such unconquerable vitality as to survive wasting desolations and severe pressures. The stem of corn, without bark or woody fibre, has a silicious exterior to protect its interior, " like a casing of metal " " corroborated by sheaths and knots." An imperial infant reposing in its cradle enriched with cunning devices, is less brilliantly lodged than the ripening seed which is nursed in " the lily's bell, or the violet's cup." The concave petals are gracefully curved around the centre, to reflect warmth, and to guard against injury. " As the mother folds her nursling to her bosom," so the instinctive blossom folds her own frail loveliness around her still more fragile offspring.

To the bark succeeds a green substance, then a reservoir of moisture or vital energy. The pores admit light and heat, which modify colors, tastes, and fragrancies. The sap vessels are coated and spiral, and the food which is furnished by the soil or the air, is taken by introception in liquid or gaseous forms. Nutriment is conveyed from the lowest fibres to the highest twigs ; and vessels corresponding to the lacteals of animals, are distributed in minute ramification over the surface of the leaves. The fluids, after undergoing chemical transformations, deposit, in the various parts, their respective secretions. Leaves undergo the most elegant metamorphoses ; and buds " come forth closely packed and enveloped with imbricated coverings." Buds shoot into branches, expand into leaves, effloresce into blossoms, contract into pistils, and swell into fruit '• through all the varieties of nuts, pods, and berries."

Concentric circles, as in the dogwood, beautifully diversify the woody fibres. The apple, so delicately fragrant, is often of so deep a red that the boughs seem hung with rubies, or touched with fire just kindling into flame. To the oak is imparted a tanning principle ; to the cinnamon, a grateful taste; to the cinchona, a febrifuge quality. The Indian cassava, which has edible leaves, secretes a poisonous oil in its roots ; and the cinnamon, which has bark so exquisitly fragrant, puts forth a flower which is highly ofi'ensive. The accacia contains a sweet gum in its bark, an ofi'ensive fluid in its root, an astringent juice in its stem, and a regaling odor in its flower. The rose pours fragrancy from its coral ; the juniper, from its trunk ; and the heliotrope, from its leaves. Elegant florets scent new-made hay ; sandal wood sheds its sweet perfume upon the felling axe ; and minute plants afibrd a delicate fragrancy at eventide.

Plants embellish the barren scenery with flowers, which hang down from the drooping branches like tassels, exhibiting the richest purple with the deepest crimson. The dogwood, a lovely ornament of the wild, luxuriates in swamps, or shoots from the clefts of precipitous ledges. The magnificent tulip-tree lifts its towering head, and displays its brilliant goblets. The water lily " has been called the queen of flowers, the swan of the waterS; the lady of the lake, the river nymph, the white rose of the rivulet." " It is so graceful, so fragrant, so magnificent," " that this profusion of praise falls below its exquisite loveliness."

In the forests of Brazil, parasites climb the loftiest trees, descend to the ground, re-ascend from roots, spread in every direction, tangle themselves in every possible form, and festoon the woods with variegated flowers and rich verdure. These vegetable boas, after strangling their victims, remain attached to the surrounding trees, and form magnificent twisted columns, around which a fresh growth of plants soon rises, twisting and clinging with an indescribable grace. Nature banishes everything ugly, melancholy or repulsive ; everything which speaks of gloom, decrepitude, or decay. Amidst the breath of eternal spring, fruits and flowers, in colors ever fresh, load the same branches in constant succession. As soon as a tree shows symptoms of decay, thousands of climbing plants weave a covering robe, descend from the. summit, playfully wave their plumes, sportively embrace other climbing parasites, and finally lose themselves in the immense thicket. No sooner does a tree fall, than parasites begin to prepare its funeral pall, its gorgeous canopy, and its sofa velveted with delicate plants. The shroud of death is so embellished as to appear the graceful drapery of a festal scene.

Plants form aliments for animals, which are chiefly nourished with organic substances. As only a small part of seeds and fruits are needed for germination, the redundancy affords relief to the necessities of animated nature. "There is more sweetness in the orange, more oil in the olive, more juice in the peach, more pulp in the apple than the nourishment of the embryo requires."

3. Animal chemistry produces living tissues ; and life, the active state of an animal, includes sensation with the ordinary attributes of living beings. Sensation belongs exclusively to living organic structures ; and life necessarily pre-supposes an organic structure for a visible residence. The body is an apparatus contractable by volition, an organization which enables the animal to provide for its own safety. It neither grows perpendicular to horizontal planes, nor preserves a parallel direction in the vessels containing its fluids, and, though subject to gravitation, overcomes some of its ordinary influences. As long as vitality remains, the organism does not yield to the ordinary elective aflinities.

Iron is found in the blood, lime in the bones, and silica in the enamel of the teeth. Soda, phosphorus, and sulphur, are assimilated into the body ; and acids, variously combined, are found in the solid as well as in the fluid parts. Gelatin a;nd albumen constitute the transparent membranes ; fibrin, the muscles and ligaments. Bones, the basis of the frame, are connected by ligaments, and covered with fibrous membranes. Muscles move the solid parts, fat lubricates the articulations, and cellular substances furnish a soft bed for the vessels and nerves. Mucous membranes coat the canals, while serous membranes line the cavities, soften the surface, and give the internal organs an