Harvard college, by an Oxonian

Front matter

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Chapter I. Page

The Growth of Harvard. — The Infant College. — Early Gifts and Bequests. — " A Constellation of Benefactors." — Grants of Public Money. — The Revolutionary War. — Modern Benefactors. — Founders of Families and Founders of University . . . i

CHAPTER H.

The P'oundation of Harvard. — Cambridge in England and Cambridge in New England. — " Fair Harvard." — Emmanuel College. — The Washington Elm. — General Washington a Doctor of Laws. — The University at Concord. — An Overbearing Treasurer, — Harvard and Slavery . . . . . . . . . .23

CHAPTER HI.

Religious Liberty. — The Divinity School. — The College Chapel. — The Dudleian Lectures. — The English Liturgy , . . .42

CHAPTER IV.

Punishments and Fines. — "The Ancient Customs." — Fagging and " Hazing." — Tutors and Undergraduates. — Rebellions . . 55

CHAPTER V.

Odd Characters. — Changes of Names of Places. — Commencement Day. — Lafayette. — Russian Naval Officers. — Oxford Commemoration. — The Association of the Alumni. — The Classes. — The After-dinner Speeches ......... 77

vii viii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

PAGE

Phi Beta Day. — Foundation of the Society. — Emerson's Oration in 1837. — Charles Sumner. — The Meeting and the Dinner . . 107

CHAPTER Vn.

Class Day. — Its Origin and Growth. — Orators, Poets, and Odists. — The New England Summer. — The "Spreads." — The Exercises at the Tree . . . . . . . . . . .120

CHAPTER VIII.

The Undergraduates. — Harvardians and Oxonians contrasted. — The Athletic Craze. — A Baseball Match. — Games regulated by the Governing Body of the University. — President Eliot's Report . 134

CHAPTER IX.

Caps and Gowns. — Harvard College and University. — The Dormitories. — Room Rents. — Students' Life Seventy Years Ago. — Memorial Hall \ca

CHAPTER X.

A Visit to Three Dormitories. — Dining Clubs. — The Liquor LaM^. — Baths. — Signs and " Shingles." — Clubs. — Politics. — Christmas. — A Student's Library 171

CHAPTER XI.

Harvard " Boys." — " Harvard Indifference." — Harvard and Yale. — Honest Poverty. — Oxford Servitors. — Poor Students. — " Money Aids " . . . . , . . . , ^ 185

CONTENTS. ix

CHAPTER XII.

PAGE

From a College to a University. —George Ticknor. — Influence of Germany. — Oxford Colleges Forty Years Ago. — Provincialism. — Foundation of New Schools at Harvard. — Duties of Professors . 209

CHAPTER XIII.

The Elective System. — American Schools. — The Study of Greek at Oxford and Cambridge. — Examinations and Prizes. — The Graduate School

CHAPTER XIV.

The Law School. — Nathan Dane. — Joseph Story. — Professor Langdell. — The Law Library. — The Law Review . . .253

CHAPTER XV.

The Lawrence Scientific School. — Special Students .... 266

CHAPTER XVI.

Radcliffe College.— The Harvard Annex 273

CHAPTER XVII.

The Library. — Gifts from England. — The Fire of 1764. —Gore Hall. — The Bequests of Prescott, Sumner, and Carlyle. — J. L. Sibley. — Dr. Justin Winsor 285

CHAPTER XVIII.

The Government of Harvard. — The Charter. —The Overseers.— The Corporation, Church, and State. — The Faculty. — The President. — The Professors. — Oxford and Harvard .... 297

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIX.

PAGE

Graduate Schools in Oxford and Cambridge. — Respublica Litei-atoriim. — American Students in English Universities. — The Old Home . . . , . . . . . . , .317

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Charles William Eliot, President .... Frontispiece First Harvard Hall, built in 1682 . . Vignette on title-page — Harvard College in 1726 Facing page 4

Holden Chapel . . . ,

Harvard College. The Second Centennial Celebration, 1836

The Wadsworth House

The Yard

The Hemenway Gymnasium

Memorial Hall

The College Gate

Austin Hall

The Museum of Comparative ZoSlogy .

The Library, Gore Hall . . c . .

Sever Hall ........

26 ^ 86 122 —

200 ^-

XI

CHAPTER I.

The Growth of Harvard. — The Infant College. — Early Gifts and Bequests. — "A Constellation of Benefactors." — Grants of Public Money. — The Revolutionary War. — Modern Benefactors. — Founders of Families and P'ounders of University.

IN the summer and early autumn of last year, I spent in all nearly two months in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the seat of Harvard College, the first and the oldest of American universities. A young graduate of the College, with whom I had fallen into talk on my outward voyage, as we paced the deck of the Cephalonia, had begged me not to keep Oxford in my memory when I visited the American Cambridge. Oxford's ancient towers, her chapels and cloisters, her halls, her quadrangles and her lawns, High Street and Broad Street, Magdalen Bridge, and the massive ivy- mantled city walls, all made his heart sink within him when he thought of his own beloved Alma Mater. Dear as she was to him, how could she be dear to one in whose mind there always lived the image of the most beautiful and the most venerable of all universities ? " ' Oxford,' Southey once playfully said, ' is a place to make an American unhappy.' " Some touch of this unhappiness seemed to have fallen upon my companion as he then spoke to me. There was no need for it. If Oxford has ever made a single American unhappy, Harvard on many a summer day has made at all events one Englishman happy.

In a fog on the Banks of Newfoundland I had caught a

B I heavy cold, and for nearly a fortnight after my arrival I kept to the house. When at length I ventured out, I found the "Yard" of Harvard as pleasant a place to stroll in as the garden of St. John's and the walks of Magdalen. One thing only was wanting — there was not a single bench to be found. There was shade, and there was beauty, and the hurrying to and fro of young and eager life ; but there was no place for a weary man to sit and rest himself, as he watched the flickering of the light and shadow upon the grass, and the student's strong and rapid step. In my journal ^ I, recorded : —

" On a hot June day I strolled with great pleasure in the Yard. The lawns were beautifully green, and the tall, graceful trees cast everywhere a delightful shade. It was surprising how green was the grass and how fresh, overshadowed though it was by trees. There is no quadrangle in Oxford more delightful on a hot summer day. Harvard surely is a College that a man can love." The old red-brick halls which enclose two sides of the Yard recalled to my mind not so much Oxford as the Courts of the Temple. Much of the beauty of the scene was due to the freshness of the foliage, for the New England spring is late. I had spent the winter in Switzerland. When I left Clarens on May 2, the lilacs had already faded. Ten days later I found them in full bloom in the parks of Liverpool. On the twenty-second, the day on which I landed, they were still in bud in Cambridge. In June, therefore, the trees were in their first freshness. In the winter, when they were stripped of their leaves, and when the lawns were hidden beneath the snow, the Yard would not bear a comparison with Oxford. I was fortunate in seeing it at its best ; when the

1 In the few extracts which I give from my journal I have not strictly followed the text; sometimes I have thrown two entries into one.

red-brick halls, half- revealed through the green leaves, halfhidden, with a sky above them blue as the skies of Italy, have a beauty of their own.

One pleasant sight I unfortunately missed. In the summer evenings it has long been the habit for the Glee Club to sing in the Yard, while the students lie about on the grass, or lean out of the windows of their rooms listening. I went there once or twice in the hope of hearing the songs, but I chose the wrong time or the wrong day. The Yard was silent. This pleasant custom, I fear, is not so well kept up as of old. The Crimson, the undergraduates' daily paper, laments its decay. So long ago as Emerson's young days, singing was cultivated in the College. He presented himself with some of the other freshmen to the singing-master, who, " when his turn came, said to him, ' Chord ! ' ' What? ' said Emerson. ' Chord ! Chord ! I tell you,' repeated the master. ' I don't know what you mean,' said Emerson. ' Why, sing ! Sing a note ! ' So I made some kind of a noise, and the singing-master said, ' That will do, sir. You need not come again.' " ^

The long vacation I spent in a pleasant village on Cape Cod. When I returned to Cambridge at the end of September, it was almost with a feeling of anxiety that I went back to a spot where I had happily sauntered away so many an idle hour. I feared lest I should find that, under the fierce influence of the summer heats, most of its charms had passed away. My mind was soon set at rest. "The Yard," I recorded, "looked very pretty and pleasant in the sunshine of an autumn day. I wandered about it for more than half an hour with enjoyment, watching the bustle of the beginning of term, and the young life so full of activity and hope.

How many Presidents of the United States — Presidents, at least, in their confident ambition — were passing by me ! "

How vast was the change since those far-distant days when "the fair and comely edifice " of freshly-cut timber in which the infant University was lodged, on a narrow strip of land "bordering a pleasant river," was "thought by some to be too gorgeous for a wilderness, and yet too mean, in others' apprehensions, for a college ! " ^ Oxford, not many years earlier, had seen rise amid the meadows outside her city walls, that graceful pile in which the Gothic college and the ancient Jacobean mansion are so happily blended. The fair monument which Nicholas Wadham raised to himself is durable, for it is built in stone. No less durable is the monument which John Harvard helped to raise, built though it was with unseasoned wood. This home of learning was destined to prove an abiding city; for its foundations rested, not on the piety of any one man, but on the zeal and the affection of a high-minded community. A man of great nobility of character presided over the General Court of the Colony which passed the first vote of money "towards a school or college." It was Henry Vane — Milton's "Vane, young in years, but in sage counsels old." He links Harvard to Oxford, for it was in Magdalen, most beautiful of colleges, that he had studied. His statue might well stand beside the Puritan minister's, under the shadow of the noble hall which commemorates the brave men who, two hundred years later, fell in the defence of that liberty for which Harvard crossed the sea, and for which Vane gave his life.

1 New England^ s First Fruits and Johnson's Wonder Working Providence^ 1651, quoted in The Early College Buildings at Camh'idge, by A. M. Davis, 1892, p. 4.

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However " fair and comely " was the outside of the building, inside there was poverty enough. In a country where the midwinter cold ofttimes is so sharp that it freezes the inlets of the sea, in few of the chambers and studies was there a fireplace. The modern American likes to keep up the temperature of his house to seventy degrees. In the lecture-rooms at Harvard, the thermometer is not allowed to fall below sixty-eight. It often stands above this oppressive heat. The forefathers of these delicate New Englanders lived in a building made of ill-seasoned wood, which would soon have shrunk and let the north wind sweep through the crevices. "The students must have collected in the hall within the settle, where, by the light of the public candle, cowering over the public fire, was to be found the only place where they could, with any sort of comfort, pursue their studies during the long winter evenings."^ A set of rules, under the name of Liberties and Orders of Harvard College, had been drawn up for their government. No scholar was to be admitted till "he was able to read Tully, or &uch like classical author extempore, and make and speak true Latin in verse and prose, suo {tit aiunt) Marte, and decline perfectly the paradigms of nouns and verbs in the Greek tongue." ^ Such a knowledge of Latin seems, at first sight, little likely to have been met with in so young a settlement; but outside Oxford and Cambridge, there was perhaps, at this time, no spot where among an equal number of inhabitants, so many Englishmen were to be found who had received a liberal education. So early as 1638 there were forty or fifty graduates of the old country

1 The Early Buildings at Cambridge, p. 23; The College in Early Days, p. 8.

2 Quincy's Harvard, I. 515.

dwelling in the sparse villages of New England.^ These men were not those failures of a university who, in the present age, year after year cross the sea to our Colonies to become failures once more. They were a chosen band, broken to toil and hardships, and yet retaining a deep love of learning. Their children should not grow up in ignorance. "'Learning,' to use their own fine expression, was not 'to be buried in the graves of the fathers.' " ^ In almost every parish there was a minister "who usually prepared the young men for their examinations. Latin was taught ^s a spoken language. Often teacher and pupil would take walks together through the fields and woods, and converse of all they saw in Latin." ^ The rules by which the infant College was governed are too long to quote at length. The following will serve as instances : —

** Every one shall consider the main end of his life and studies to know God and Jesus Christ, which is eternal life.

"They shall honour as their parents magistrates, elders, tutors, and aged persons by being silent in their presence (except they be called on to answer), not gainsaying; showing all those laudable expressions of honour and reverence in their presence that are in use, as bowing before them, standing uncovered, or the like.

"None shall pragmatically intrude or intermeddle in other men's affairs.

"None shall, under any pretence whatsoever, frequent the company and society of such men as lead an ungirt and dissolute life.

" The scholars shall never use their mother tongue, except that in public exercises of oratory, or such like, they be called to make them in English.

" Every scholar shall be called by his surname only till he be invested with his first degree, except he be a Fellow- Commoner or Knight's eldest son, or of superior nobility."*

1 Life of Joseph Story., II. 256.

2 Harvard College, sjoth Anniversary ^ p. 253.

* History of Higher Education in Massachusetts, by G, G. Bush, p. 24.

* Quincy's Harvard, I. 515.

By this last rule it is not meant that the Christian name shall not be used, but that no title of respect, such as Sir or Master, shall be given. Johnson, in a note on Sir Oliver Mar-text in As You Like It, says : " He that has taken his first degree at the University is in the Acadej?iical style called Dominus, and in common language was heretofore termed Sir^ ^ In the Harvard accounts, quoted in Mr. A. M. Davis's Ea7'ly College Buildings,'^ we find entered Sir Bulkeley, Sir Brewster, and Sir Downing. Sir Downing was George Downing, the "stingy fellow" and "perfidious rogue" of Pepys's Diary. ^

The lot of the two first presidents, Dunster and Chauncy, was as hard as the lot of learned men has so often been in all times and in all countries. The ills which assailed the scholar's life assailed them. They were scarcely happier than Lydiat or Galileo. Both were men of great learning. Chauncy had been nominated, by the heads of Houses at the English Cambridge, to the chair of Hebrew, and had filled the chair of Greek."* They did their duty faithfully, and had as their reward, " thankless labour, unrequited service, arrearages unpaid, posthumous applause, a doggerel dirge, and a Latin epitaph."^ It was the ?es diwa et I'egni novitas — the hard times and all the difficulties of a young settlement — which were mostly to blame. The first president had added to his troubles by " falling into the briers of Antipaedobaptism. He had borne public testimony in the church at

1 Johnson's Shakespeare, ed. 1765, II. 66. 2 p_ g.

4 Perhaps, however, he was only Greek Lecturer at Trinity College, See the Dictiona?y of Natio7ial Biography

^ Quincy's Harvard, I. 14.

8 HARVARJp COLLEGE. chap.

Cambridge against the administration of baptism to any infant whatsoever," Privations he was more able to put up with than heresy. In a petition to the Governor he said: "Considering the poverty of the country, I am willing to descend to the lowest step; desiring nothing more than to supply me and mine with food and raiment."^ The second president also had his own briers of baptism into which he fell. Contrary to the prevailing faith among the settlers that "a sprinkling was sufficient," he maintained, says an early writer, "that the infant should be washed all over, — an opinion not tolerable in this cold region, and impracticable at certain seasons of the year."^ He had as hard a lot as his predecessor.

Nineteen years after the College had been founded, it possessed, as was stated in a memorial, " in real revenue about twelve pounds per annum (which is a small pittance to be shared among four Fellows), besides fifteen pounds per annum which, by the donors' appointment, is for scholarships."^ Nevertheless, the sum of money voted by the General Court for the foundation of the College, "was equal to a year's rate of the whole Colony." ^ From the first, gifts and benefits had not been wanting, but it was "willing poverty" rather than wealth which gave. Of wealthy men there were few, if any, to be found. John Harvard, that "godly man," that "lover of learning," a graduate of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and "sometime minister of God's word at Charlestown," bequeathed to the College half his property and his library. The sum received was not quite four hundred pounds. His books give us some insight into the character of a man of

1 Quincy's Harvard, I. i8, 20. ^ 73. j, ^y^ whom, unhappily, scarcely- anything is known. He had brought with him across the sea more than two hundred and sixty volumes, among them not only Chrysostom and Calvin, Duns Scotus, and Luther, but Homer and Plutarch, Terence and Horace, with Stephanus's notes. Chapman's Hoi?ier, ^z.Q.orC's, Essays 2cs\di Advancejnent of Learning, dC(\A Camden's Remains. The magistrates raised among themselves two hundred pounds to be spent on books. Other gifts came in. The Rev. W. Allen sent two cows. Cotton cloth worth nine shillings was given by Richard Dana, the ancestor of another Richard Dana, who, nearly two hundred years later, when a student of Harvard, failing in health, went for two years before the mast, and on his return gave the world a delightful book. The Rev. Mr. Latham, of Lancaster County,^ England, sent five pounds. Richard Saltonstall, a man of large means, gave more than five hundred pounds. He belonged to one of those New England families, happily not few in number, who, generation after generation, have shown their love for Harvard. Theophilus Gale, Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, "a learned and industrious divine, as appears by his Court of the Gentiles and his Vanity of Pagan Philosophy,^' bequeathed his library to the College. From Sir John Maynard, who outlived all his brother-lawyers, and but for the coming of William of Orange would have outlived the law also, came eight chests of books. From the New England towns and villages, and even from distant settlements, contributions flowed in. Little Scarborough, away to the north in Maine, sent two pounds nine shillings and sixpence, while from the far-distant South, the

1 I have seen on a tombstone in the graveyard of Barnstable, Massachusetts, a man described as being born " in the County of Lancashire, England." The meaning of the word shire is apparently lost in America.

people of Eleutheria in the Bahamas, "out of their poverty," sent one hundred and twenty-four pounds. Smaller gifts came in, such as a pewter flagon worth ten shillings, a bell, a fruitdish, a sugar-spoon, a silver-tipt jug, one great salt, and one small trencher-salt.-^ In the Infoi'ination of the Present Necessities of the College which was laid before the General Court in 1655, mention is made of "some parcels of land," owned by the College, "none of which can with any reason or to any benefit be sold." A happy thing it was that these "parcels" were retained, for some of them have risen enormously in value. The house and plot of ground in Boston which one Henry Webb bequeathed to the College in 1660, ten years ago, was set down in the accounts as worth one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars [^33,730].- Let "the gentle reader " who buys his book at Messrs. Little, Brown & Co. 's shop give a thought to the old Puritan, who two and a half centuries ago lived on this very spot, and dying left "the rent to be forever for the maintenance of some poor scholars, or otherwise for the best good of the College."

With all these gifts, the College long remained poor. How small were its means, even so late as 1695, is sho\vn by a vote of the Corporation " that six leather chairs be forthwith provided for the use of the library, and six more before the commencement, in case the treasury will allow of it."^ Forks appear for the first time in the accounts, in 1707. So late as the middle of last century, " each scholar carried to the dining-table his own knife and fork, and when he had dined,

- lb. I. 23; Anmial Reports, 1 883-4, Appendix, p. 19; The Exhibitions at Ilarviwd College, by A. M. Davis, p. 5. ^ Higher Education, etc., p. 49.

wiped them on the tablecloth."^ A short time before Adam Smith became an exhibitioner of Balliol College, the knives and forks were chained to the table. ^ In the inns in France, even many years later than this, a knife was not supplied, only a fork. Dr. Alexander Carlyle, in 1742, noticed, as a sign of increasing refinement in Scotland, that at the tavern in Haddington, where the Presbytery dined, knives and forks were provided.^ There was so little money in the Colony that the Harvard students often settled their accounts in kind. "Bills were paid with rye, Indian [corn], wheat, malt, apples, butter; with cows, oxen, sheep, lambs, steers; with beef, pork, and bacon; with sugar and salt; with wool and sacking. Payments in meat would appear, at one time, to have become disproportionately large"; for in 1667 the overseers "ordered that the Steward shall not be injoyned to accept of above one quarter part flesh-meat of any person."*

Better days were drawing near. Harvard had warm friends on both sides of the Atlantic, and on both sides wealth was rapidly increasing. From the old home gifts and bequests came to the College, which, likely enough, would have gone to Oxford or Cambridge had either university been opened to the Nonconformists. The miserable test of the Thirty-nine Articles deprived our ancient seats of learning of good men and good money. " Among the English Dissenters, Harvard College had at all times been the object of munificent patronage." "The constant stream of gifts which flowed from England " did not cease even with the War of the Revolution.^

1 Early College Buildings, pp. 13, 20.

2 Scotland and Scols/nen in the Eighteenth Ceninry, IT. 307.

^ A. Carlyle 's Autobiography, p. 64. * Early College Buildings, p. 12.

^ Quincy's LJarvard, II. 115; Higher Education, etc., p. 52.

In the names given to Holden Chapel and Holworthy and Hollis Halls, are commemorated English benefactors who never set foot on American soil. Sir Matthew Holworthy, a London merchant, bequeathed to the College the largest sum which it received in the seventeenth century. Of men bearing the name of Hollis, there was "a constellation of benefactors," to use the words of President Quincy. So long ago as 1690, Robert Thorner, the uncle of the first of the seven who form this constellation, left property to the College. The last, who died in 1804, bequeathed one hundred pounds to be laid out in Greek and Latin classics. Four of these men bore the Christian name of Thomas. The first Thomas founded Professorships of Divinity and of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. "Scarcely a ship sailed from London during the last ten years of his life without bearing some evidence of his affection and liberality." On sending the first of his numerous presents of books to the Library, he wrote : "After forty years' diligent application to mercantile business, my God, whom I serve, has mercifully succeeded my endeavours, and with my increase inclined my heart to a proportional distribution. I have credited the promise, 'He that giveth to the poor lendeth to the Lord, ' and have found it verified in this life." His grandson's donations, though not nearly so large, scarcely fell short of two thousand pounds sterling.^ He is Thomas Hollis, "the strenuous Whig," described by Boswell, " who used to send over Europe presents of democratical books, with their boards stamped with daggers and caps of liberty." Many of these volumes came to Harvard " splendidly bound, and the covers stamped with a characteristic emblem or device. Some are marked by a liberty

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O X cap, or an owl holding in its talons a pen, with the motto, 'By deeds of peace '; others by the effigy of Liberty, holding in her right hand her cap, and in her left a spear." The learned Mrs. Carter said " he was a bad man. He used to talk uncharitably." To which Johnson replied : "Poh! poh ! madam; who is the worse for being talked of uncharitably? Besides, he was a dull, poor creature as ever lived; and I believe he would not have done harm to a man whom he knew to be of very opposite principles to his own. I remember once at the Society of Arts, when an advertisement was to be drawn up, he pointed me out as the man who could do it best. This, you will observe, was kindness to me. I, however, slipt away, and escaped it." When Mrs. Carter went on to say: " I doubt he was an Atheist," Johnson rejoined, " I don't know that. He might, perhaps, have become one if he had had time to ripen (smiling). He might have exuberated into an Atheist." ^ Horace Walpole described him as a "most excellent man, a most immaculate Whig, but as simple a poor soul as ever existed, except his editor." " Dr. Franklin wrote much more highly of him. Speaking of what he had done, he writes : " It is prodigious the quantity of good that may be done by one man, if he will make a business of it.'''' ^

Though, at its foundation. Harvard received a grant of public money, nevertheless, to the Commonwealth, during the two centuries and a half of its existence, it has owed but little. It has slowly been raised up to its great height, first by the generous zeal for learning in outsiders, and next by the love and liberality of its own children. By the State it was far

1 Boswell, Life of Johnson, Clarendon Press edition, IV. 97.

2 Walpole's L^etters, VII. 346.

3 Franklin's Memoirs, ed. 1 81 8, III. 135.

more encumbered by the unsoundness which afflicted the currency during the whole of the eighteenth century, than relieved by the aids which were conferred. Twenty years before the vast disturbance to public credit that was caused by the Revolutionary War, so early as 1755, the treasurer of the College, on valuing its property, " put down all the capital sums at only one-fifth part of the nominal sums originally given, in consequence of the funds having sunk by the depreciation of the paper currency." ^ By the end of the war the depreciation had become far greater. Fifteen thousand six hundred pounds, not in nominal but in real value, which before the outbreak of hostilities had been invested in the public funds, if sold out eleven years later, would have produced no more than seven hundred and fifty-eight pounds.^ Silver and gold had disappeared from common use; "in paper money, a quill cost a dollar and a half, and a dinner over fifty dollars." ^ In 1780 the Professor of Divinity was paid in paper money, the magnificent sum of nine thousand one hundred and ninety-two pounds, for one year's salary. Let not our Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford mournfully reflect that in a petty college in a small colony, in the comparative poverty of last century, a rebel's heterodoxy received as its reward nearly five times as much as his own orthodoxy at the present day in the wealthiest university in the world. In gold, silver, and copper, the poor man would have been paid only eighty-seven pounds ten shillings and eight-pence;^ more than enough, no doubt, for a Dissenter and a rebel, but scarcely enough for the needs, however modest, of human life. Part of the heavy