Christopher Columbus

Preface

A SERIES of volumes, upon the Pioneers and Patriots of America, would certainly be defective if they did not contain an account of the adventures of Christopher Columbus, the most illustrious of all the pioneers of the New World. Columbus had his enemies. He has been vehemently assailed. The writer has endeavored to give a perfectly correct account of his character and career, and has been careful to present to the reader his authority for every important statement. Many may think that the assaults upon his character do not deserve so much attention as is allotted to them in these pages. But when the reader has seen all that the most determined enmity can bring against him, a more correct judgment can probably be formed of his true merits and defects.

John S. C. Abbott, s

CHAPTER 1. Struggles of his Early Life

FAes Parentage and early life — State of the times — Adventures of the sailor boy — His studies- — Personal .appearance — ^Visit to Lisbon — Result of his studies — Rumors of other lands — His high ambition — Application to the Court of Naples — Royal perfidy — His marriage — Departs for Spain — Scene at Palos — Visits the military court of Ferdinand and Isabella — Weariness of hope deferred — Conference of the philosophers — The astonishing decision .... 9

CHAPTER n. --

Columbus at Cordova — Power of the feudal nobility — New rejections — Return to La Rabida — Hopes revived — ^Journey of the prior — Persistent demands of Columbus — Interview with Isabella — The dismissal — The recall — The hour of triumph — Exultant return to Palos — Fitting out the expedition — Its character — Departure of the fleet , . .34

CHAPTER III. Land Discovered

The mutinous crew — The gleam of the torch — The account criticised — Landing at San Salvador — Doubts as to the identity of the island — Enchanting scene — Two days on the island — Story of the dead pilot — Traffic with the natives — Their innocence and friendliness — Exploring the island- Uncertainty of the language of signs 57

6 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV. A Tour among the Islands

PAG>

Number of islands — The wrong and the reparation — Kindness ol Columbus — His description of the natives — The discoveiy of Concepcion ; of Fernandina — Beauty of the scenery — Landing at Exumata — Disappointment of Columbus — Cuba discovered — Exploration of the islands — Manners and customs of the inhabitants 77

CHAPTER V. Romantic Adventures

Religious views — The garden of the king — Desertion by Pinzon — Beauty of the region — Immense canoes — Porto Rico, the island of the Caribs — Hayti — Rich scenery — Terror of the natives — The maiden captive — Communications opened | Account of Peter Martyr — Visit of the chief — Guacanagari — Punta Santa, or Grande Riviere — The shipwreck — Hospitality of Guacanagari — Amusements of the natives — The royal dinner party — Life in Hayti — The Caribs — Preparations for the return voyage — The fortress . . 100

CHAPTER VI. The Return Voyage

The Nina meets the Pinta — Rio de Gracia — A fierce tribe encountered — The first conflict — Peace established — Life at sea — Terrific storm — Vows of the admiral and crew — Distress of Columbus — The parchment and cask — They reach the Azores — Troubles at St. Mary's — Continued storms — Enters the Tagus — Honors at Lisbon — Court intrigues — Reception at Palos — Excitement throughout Spain — Sad Cate of Pinzon — Columbus at the Spanish ourt . . . X30

CHAPTER VII. The Second Voyage

Excitement throughout Europe — The coat-of-arms— Pension adjudged to Columbus — Ane;;dote of the egg — The Papal

CONTENTS. 7

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sanction — Religious zeal of Isabella — Designs of Portugal — The new armament — (I-eneral enthusiasm — Sailing of the fleet — The pleasant voyage-— Electric phenomenon — Cruise through the Antilles — Lost in the woods — Conflict between the boats — Po:to Rico — The Caribbee Islands — The approach to Hayti — The Gulf of Samana — La Navidad reached — Fate of the colony . . ..... 159

CHAPTER VIII. Life at Hispaniola

Statement of Guacanagari — The chief suspected — Escape of the female captive — Gloom at Navidad — Exploring tours — The fleet sail — The city of Isabella founded — Busy scene at the landing — Disappointed expectations — Expeditions of Ojeda — Traversing the plains — Suffering in the colony — Letter to the sovereigns — The slavery question — Testimony of T. S. Heneken — Insurrection of Bernal Dias — Tour to the mountains — Vivid description ....... 190

CHAPTER IX. The Coast of Cuba Explored

The fortress of St. Thomas — Extravagant expectations of the Spaniards — The exploring expedition — The arrest of thieves — Commencement of the maritime cruise — The harbor of Guantanamo — Interesting scene with the Indians — Jamaica — Its grandeur and beauty — Naval scene — Events at Santa Gloria — Native canoes — Events of the voyage — Testimony of Humboldt — The decision — The Island of Pines — Speech of the chief — The return to Hispaniola — Incidents of the voyage . 221,

CHAPTER X. The Return to Spain^ and the Third Voyage

Arrival of Bartholomew Columbus — Outrages of Margarite — Conspiracy against Columbus — Friendship of Guacanagari — Feat of Oieda — E-n->lavin£i the natives — A bloody battle—

8 CONTENTS.

PAOK

Despotism of Columbus — Mission of Juan Agiiado— The return to Spain — Weary months of disappointment — Unfortunate ebullition of passion — The third voyage commenced — Incidents of the voyage — The administration of Bariholomew Columbus — Anarchy at Hispaniola . . . 250

CHAPTER XI. Th( Return to Spain, and the Fourth Voyagi

The revolt of Roldan — Conciliatory proposals of Columbus — Duplicity of Columbus — The expedition of Ojeda — Anarchy at Hayti — The fortresses — Waning of popularity — Bobadilla app/inted commissioner — Measures of Bobadilla — Columbus in chains — His reception by the King and Queen. Preparations for a fourth voyage — The outward voyage — Reception of Columbus at San Domingo — The tornado — He reaches Honduras — Cruise along the coast — Conduct of the Spanish sailore — The settlement destroyed — Escape to Jamaica . sSt

CHAPTER XII. The Shipwreck at jfamaica

Exploring the island — Heroic adventures of Mendez — Mental sufferings of Columbus — The meeting of two brothers Porras — Disasters of the mutineers — Piratic march through the island — Mr. Irving's testimony — Anecdote of the Eclipse — Strange expedition of Escobar — Sufferings of the voyage — The Island of Navasa — The narrative of Mendez — Base conduct of Ovando — Heroism of Mendez — End of the rebellion — Their return . . . . . . . . • 3' "

CHA'TER XIII.

The Closing Scenes of Life.

The crimes of Ovando — Depopjilation of the island — Testimony of Mr. Irving — The rescue — Reception at San Domingo— The sympathy of Columbus for the natives — Sickness and suflFerings of Isabella — Death and burial — Letters of Columbus — Visit to the court — Cold reception — His last will — The dying scene — The burial — His character .... 333

CHAPTER I. Stn/oror/^s of his Early Lifg

Parentage and early life — State of the times — Adventurjcs of the Sailor Boy — His studies — Personal appearance — Visit t) Lisbon — Result of his studies — Rumors of other lands — His high ambition — Application to the Court of Naples — Royal Pertidy — His marriage — Departs for Spain — Scene at Palos — Visits the Military Court of Ferdinand and Isabella — Weariness of hope deferred — Conference of the philosophers — "" he astonishing decision.

In the magnificent maritime cit\' called Genoa the- Superb, there was born, about the year 1435,'^ a child

* The date of his birth is a Vfxata qu<rstio. Washington Irving, rleying upon the evidence given by Bernaldez, in the " Cura de los Palacios," states it to be about 1435 or 1436. This inference he draws from the remark of Bernaldez that he died " in the year one thousand five hundred and six, at the age of seventy, a little more or less." Juan Bautista Munoz, in his '* Histoire del Naevo Mundo, " concludes that he was born in 1446. Don Ferdinand, the .\dmirars son, relates, that in a letter addressed by his father to the King and Queen, and dated 1501, lie Slates, that he had then been forty years at sea ; an'^. in another letter that he was fourteen years old when he went to sea ; so that, allowing a year either way for probable inattention to minuteness in these statetnents, we get the dateof his tirth, fixed by his own hand, at about 1441

J* now known throughout the whole civiHzed world as Christopher Columbus. Even the precise year of his birth is not known. He was the child of humble parents ; and his father, a very worthy and industrious man, who followed the employment of a wool comber, labored hard for the support of his household.

The harbor of Genoa was filled with shipping from all the commercial ports of the then known world. The wharves were crowded with sailors, speaking diverse languages and dressed in every variety of costume. The boy had received from nature a reflective mind, a poetic imagination, and a strong love for adventure. As he strolled the streets, and gazed upon the majestic ships, his childish spirit was roused to visit distant lands.

There were four children in the family, three sons and a daughter. The father must have been a worthy and intelligent man, for he seems to have given each of his children a good common school education. Christopher was well instructed in writing, grammar, and arithmetic. He also made some proficiency in the Latin tongue, and in the arts of drawing and design. He even entered the University of Pavia, where he prosecuted, with great success, the studies of geometry, geography, astronomy, and navigation.

When but fourteen years of age, the father of Christopher inti usted him to the care of a relative

STRUGGLES OF HIS EARLY LIFE. II

by the name of Colombo, to make bis first vojage This veteran seaman had already acquired much distinction for his nautical skill. He had attained the rank of Admiral, in the Genoese navy, and had commanded a squadron.

The seas were then so infested with pirates that every merchant vessel was compelled to go well armed, ever ready for battle. We know not the incidents of this voyage. But the first voyage of Columbus, of which we have any account, was a naval expedition. Colombo, in command of a squadron, sailed from Genoa to aid King Ren^ in an attempt to recover his kingdom. This was in the year 1459. The conflict lasted for four years. The squadron of Colombo gained mu^ch renown for its intrepidity.

Christopher Columbus subsequently, in a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella, gave a brief account of an expedition upon which he was detached to cut out a galley from the harbor of Tunis. His crew chanced to learn that the galley was protected by two other ships ; they were so much alarmed as to refuse to proceed on the expedition. Columbus apparently assented to their wishes, and led them to think that he had decided to go back to obtain the reinforcement of another vessel. He altered the point of the compass and spread all sail. Night soon came on. In th« morning the ship was entering the harbor where the galley lay.

We are not informed oC the result. But the incident strikingly reminds us of the still more Important stratagem to which he subsequently resorted to induce his disheartened crew to press forward over the wild sea toward the New World, The Atlantic Ocean was, at that time, quite unexplored. A few enterprising seamen had coasted along the shores of northern Europe, and had cautiously sailed down the western coast of Africa But the commerce of the world was mainly confined to the Mediterranean. These were days of violence, lawlessness and crime.*

Every merchantman was compelled to go armed. Pirates, often sailing in fleets, infested all seas. A mariner was of necessity a soldier, ever ready to grasp his arms to repel an assailing foe. It was through this tutelage Columbus was reared. W^e have no record of his early voyages. It is simply known that he traversed much of the then known world. He vis-

* rheie is one story told of Columbus to which I ought to allude though the most reliable authorities discard it. Ferdinand, hit son, 6rst relates the incident. He says that he was engaged in a desperate sea fight. The two vessels were lashed together by iron grappling^ Hand grenades were thrown, and both were wrapped in flames. Columbus leaped into the sea and was buoyed up by an oar to the shore, a distance of six miles. See LetUrs of Columhis. Translated by H H. NL^jor, Esq. of the British Museum. Introduction, p.3g.

ited England. His adventurous keel ploughed the waters o( the North Sea till he reached the arctic shores of Iceland. It is not improbable that he might there have heard vague tales of the expeditions, centuries before, of the Northmen to the icebound coasts of Labrador and Greenland, and of the limitless shores reaching thence down south, no one could imagine how far. Subsequently, in one of his letters, he writes:

*' I have been seeking out the secrets of nature for forty years. And wherever ship has sailed there have I vovac^ed."

In the course of his wanderings he at length found himself at Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, then one of the most renowned seaports in the world. He had attained the age of thirty-five years. No particular description of his personal appearance has descended to us. We simply know that he was a tall man, of sedate and dignified demeanor, and with no convivial tastes. He was thoughtful, studious, pensive ; of a deeply religious nature ; ever pondering the mystery of this our sublime earthly being, emerging from nothing, and, after a short voyage over life's stormy sea, disappearing into the deep unknown.

He was a man of great simplicity of character, with the organ of veneration strongly developed. He was modest sensitive, and magnanimous. He was a

14 CHRISTOPHER CuLLMBUS.

natural crentleman, exceedingly courteous in hisbeai ing and without a shade of vanity. Intellectually, he certainly stood in the highest rank, being quite in advance of the philosophy of his times.

In the biography of Columbus, given by his son, we are informed that he was an earnest student. lie read the works of Aristotle, Seneca, Strabo. Many midnight hours were spent in reading the accounts of the explorations of Marco Polo, and of Sir John Maundeville. He deeply pondered the questions which these discoveries suggested. But the volume which interested him most and which most thoroughly aroused his mind, was the " Cosmographia '* of Cardinal Aliaco. It was a strange medley of folly and wisdom, of true science and absurd fable. r-'" Columbus found at Lisbon many mariners — ^ intelligent, observing men — who had explored all known seas. From them he heard of drift-wood which had been found, different from any vegetable growth known in Europe. Rude carvings had been picked from the waves, evidently cut by some savage implements. And, most strange of all, two corpses had been washed upon the Azores, presenting an appearance very unlike any of the known races of / Europe or Africa.

Gradually the idea seems to have dawned and expanded in the mind of Columbus, that there must

STRUGGLES OF llIS EARLY LIFE. 1 5

be other and vast realms on this globe, not yet discovered by Europeans. But a small portion of ouf globe had then been visited by civilized men. The mind of Columbus became greatly excited, as alone in his room he examined the meagre maps of those days. With pencil in hand he sketched the familiar shores of the Mediterranean, and the less known coast of Africa, from Cape Blanco to Cape Verde. He then, in imagination, pushed out boldly into the Atlantic Ocean, as fiftr as the Azores. Here he had to stop. All beyond was unknown and unexplored.

With flushed cheek he pondered the wonderful theme, as thoughtful men now often find their souls agitated, in contemplating the sublime and awful mystery of infinite space. What is there, he asked, in that vast ocean, extending, limitless, to the west? Is the earth a plain ? If so, where is the end, and what is there beyond ? Is it a globe ? If so, how large is it ? In the boundless ocean are there othei lands ? Would it be possible for a bold adventurei to sail around it ? It now seems marvellous that this globe could have existed so many thousand years, i ihabited by thoughtful men, while questions of such infinite moment as these should have slumbered in the mind.

The following interesting and apparently well authenticated statements are given by Hon. Willian;

Willis, in his very valuable Documentary History of the State of Maine.

In the year 1477 Christopher Columbus went out to explore and reconnoitre the old northern route, by the way of Iceland, toward the west. It is probable that he had heard of the discoveries of the Northmen in that direction, and of the short distance which was supposed to exist between the extreme north of Europe and the shores of Asia.

He made several trips, preparatory to his grand undertaking'. On the south he visited Madeira, the Canary Islands, and the coast of Guinea. He carefully studied all the routes of the Portuguese navigators, and also made himself familiar with the remotest of their discoveries toward the Azores, or Western Islands. Humboldt thinks it probable that he made an excursion to the extreme western outport of Portuguese discovery.*

He also tried the northern route, sailing toward Iceland, and some distance beyond it. It is probable that he had read the Northmen's account of Greenland, Markland, and Vineland. The last ship had returned from Greenland to Iceland, only about one hundred years before the visit of Columbus to that island. Malte Brun supposes that Columbus, when

♦ Humboldt, " Kritische Untersuchungen," vol. i, p, 231. Bertin, 1852.

STRU(KiLES OF HIS EARLY LIFE. 1^

in Italy, had heard of the exploits jf these bold adventurers beyond Iceland ; for Rome was then the centre of the world, and all important intelligence immediately flowed there.*

A Danish author suggests that Columbus, who eagerly sought out all books and manuscripts containing an account of voyages and discoveries, had met with the writings of the well-known historian Adam of Bremen, who very emphatically announces the discovery of Vineland.f These suggestions probably induced him to make his trip to Iceland ; and, according to the account of Fernando Colombo, his son, he not only spent some time in Iceland, but sailed three hundred miles beyond, which must have brought him nearly within sight of Greenland.:]:

The renowned Danish historian, Finn Magnusen, remarks: "If Columbus had been informed of the most important discoveries of the Northmen, it is much easier to understand his firm belief in the possibility of the rediscovery of a western country, and his great zeal in carrying it out. And we may conceive his subsequent discovery of America, partly as a continuation and consequence of the transactions and achievements of the old Scandinavians." *

♦ Malte Brun, " Histoire de la Geographic, 2, pp. 395, 499 f Finn Magnusen, 1. c. p. 165, note I.

Columbus, a self-taught philosopher, ascertained just how long it took the sun to traverse the two thousand miles' length of the Mediterranean Sea. From that, he inferred the distance of space 3vei V. Inch it would pass in twenty-four hours. This vas true Bac(^nian philosophy. Such problems not only expanded his mind, but disciplined his reasoning powers, and removed him from the baleful influence of visionary dreams.

The exciting study absorbed his whole intellectual being. Pleasure was unthought of. The ordinary pursuits of ambition were forgotten. He was ever conversing upon the subject with all his friends and acquaintances. Thi* drew many mariners to his studio, with narratives of what they had seen or imagined.

Gradually Columbus came to the conclusion that the world must be a globe ; and that, by sailing directly west, the shores of Asia would eventually be reached. By his measurement of the sun's apparent speed, he had formed a pretty accurate estimate of the size of the globe. It was not his supposition that there was any land between Europe and Asia on the west, but he expected that one would reach the coast of Asia about where he subsequently found the shores of the New World.

Vague reports of the great island d£ Japan, sit-

STRUGGLES OF HIS EaRLY LIFE. I9

uated just off the eastern coast of the Asiatic continent, had reached Europe. Columbus thought that he should find it about where he afterward discovered the island of Cuba. He was eminently a religious man. Notwithstanding the fanaticism of those daya of darkness, it cannot be doubted that there were many souls inspired with the most exalted principles of religious enthusiasm.

" These vast realms," said Columbus, " are peopled with immortal beings, for whose redemption Christ, the Son of God, has made an atoning sacrifice. It is the mission which God has assigned to me to search them out, and to carry to them the Gospel of Salvation. The wealth of the Indies is proverbial. I shall find boundless riches there. With these treasures, we can raise armies. With these armies, we can rescue the sepulchre of the Saviour of the world from the hands of infidels who dishonor it."

Columbus was poor. It was entirely out of his power to fit out an expedition for so momentous a tour of discovery. Most people deemed him a halfcrazed visionary. His plan was considered as aleurcl as a proposition would now be regarded to visit the moon. It was in vain to apply to wealthy individuals. Still he found some men of intelligence who examined his plans and pronounced them worthy oi serious consideration.

His hope was that, by the aid of such testimcv nials, he could secure the cooperation of some one of the courts of Europe. A sovereign state could easily supply the means, and could confer upon him that dignity and that authority which he deemed essential to the accomplishment of his plans. The court, in return, would acquire great wealth and power, with renown, which would cause it to be envied by all Europe.*

He applied first to the Portuguese Government. King John II. gave him a respectful audience, and listened attentively and apparently with much interest to his plans. Columbus by no means considered himself a humble suppliant at the foot of royalty. He considered himself a man to whom God had communicated thoughts which would aggrandize the riches and fame of the loftiest monarch, and which

* It is worthy of observation that while Mr. Goodrich, after a very careful examination of the life of Columbus pronounces him to be mean, selfish, perfidious, and cruel. Mr. Helps, after an equally close scrutiny of his career, writes :

" There was great simplicity about him., and much loyalty and veneration. He was as magnanimous as it was possible for so sensitive ftnd impassioned a person to be. He was humane, self-denying, and tourteoAS. He had an intellect of that largely inquiring kind which may remind us of our great English philosopher, Bacon. He was singularly resolute and enduring. He was rapt in his designs, having evei a ringing m his ears of great projects, making him deaf to much that prudence might have heeded ; one to be loved by those near him, and likely to inspire favor and respect." — Li/i of Columbus vy A.-thoJ Helps, p. 54.

would cause a new era to dawn upon the world. He demanded, in requital of all his services, that he should be appointed Viceroy of the realms he might discover, and that he should receive one-tenth of the profits which might accrue. ♦

While residing at Lisbon, he attended religious service at the chapel of the Convent of All Saints Here he became acquainted with an Italian lady, by the name of Dona Felipa, who was residing with her widowed mother. She was of high birth, but impoverished in fortune. Their marriage ere long ensued It seems to have been a very happy union untL death separated them. They had one son, Diego.

The king considered these demands as extravagant. Columbus was a poor and obscure sea-captain, without rank or money or friends. And yet the strange, earnest man, with his wild enthusiasm, was expecting to leap, at once, into the rank of kings. The monarch politely bowed the dismissal of the ambitious sea-captain from his audience room.

But the dignified and solemn demeanor of the man, and the entire confidence he manifested in the correctness of his views, deeply impressed the mind of the king. He could not shut out the thoughts which had been presented to him. After revolving the matter, for some time, he summoned a council of the most scientific men in Lisbon, and presented the subject to them. They met in careful deliberation. Some of the most eminent men of the council pronounced in favor of the views of Columbus But the decision of the majority was decidedly against them. They reported to the king, that his plans were so visionary as to be unworthy of further consideration.

Still the king was not satisfied. The impression made upon his mind was too strong to be thus easily laid aside. And the fact that some of the most eminent philosophers accepted the suggestions of Columbus, contributed to diminish the influence ol the report. The king then stooped to an exceedingly dishonorable measure. He fitted out a secret expedition, ostensibly to the Cape Verde Islands. Availing himself of all the information he had obtained from Columbus, he gave the captain private instructions to push boldly on, in the track which Columbus had marked out : hoping thus to steal the discovery. The captain obeyed these directions. But his sailors became alarmed. They were lost in unknown seas, and were going they knew not where. A terrible Atlantic tempest arose. This capped the climax of their fears. With united clamor they refused any longer to brave such perils. The captain was compelled to yield and to return.

CoUimbus was informed of this treachery. His

Indignation was greatly aroused. With his anger there were blended emotions of disappointment and sadness, that the royal-court, to which he had been accustomed to look with such reverence, could treat him so perfidiously.

He was then a widower, with an only child, Diego. Devoting his time to study and to the furtherance of his plans of exploration, he had no leisure to attend to his own pecuniary interests. A humble support was gained by making and selling charts. Taking his child with him, he set out for Genoa, the home of his boyhood. Here he was doomed to experience the truth of the adage, that * A prophet is not without honor save in his own country and in his own house."

He applied to the Genoese Government to aid him in an undertaking, which not only the general voice of the community had pronounced to be fanatical, but which the assembled philosophers of Lisbon had denounced as unworthy of notice.

** And who is this Christopher Columbus?" it was asked. " Why, he is a sailor of this city, " was the reply ; *' the son of Dominico Colombo, a woof ':omber. He has two brothers and a sister, residing here in humble circumstances."

This settled the question in the proud court of Genoa. The application of Columbus was contempt

24 CHRISTOPHER COLJMBUS.

uously rejected. He could not even obtain a respectful hearing. He was now in deep poverty. Hope and his inborn energies alone were left to sustain him. After revolving many plans in his mind, he finally decided to try his fortune in the court of Spain.

Taking his son Diego with him, he embarked in a coasting vessel at Genoa, and after a short cruise landed at Palos, a small Spanish sea-port at the mouth of the River Tinto. Ferdinand and Isabella were then engaged in a very desperate warfare against the Moors. They were both at that time with their army near Cordova, at the distance of nearly one hundred miles north-east of Palos. All-absorbed as their energies were in the conduct of the war, it was an unpropitious moment in which to attempt to enlist them in an expensive and doubtful enterprise.

Columbus, with a light purse and a heavy heart, set out on foot to traverse the weary leagues which separated him from the royal camp. He was pale, thin, and care-worn in aspect. His garments were thread- bare. He had no luggage to encumber him, but a small package at his side. Little Diego walked, holding his father's hand.

They had advanced but about a mile and a half from the village of Palos, when they came to a massive stone convent. Columbus was a devout man.

cordially accepting Christianity as developed in the rituals and ceremonials of that age. The monks v/ere regarded by him with great reverence.

Diego was hungry and thirsty. His father ki ocked at the door of the convent, and asked for a cup of water and slice of bread for his child.

It so chanced that the prior of the convent at that moment came to the door. The polite address, the dignified demeanor, and the intellectual features of the stranger deeply impressed him. He invited Columbus to walk in, entered into conversation with him, and became not only intensely interested in the novel views which he advanced, but, by the cogency of his reasoning was quite convinced that they must be true. He detained Columbus for several days, entertained him with all the hospitality the convent could furnish, and invited, to meet him, a neighboring physician, who was eminent for his scientific attainments.