Laundry work, for use in homes and schools

Preface

This book is designed to help those studying laundr>' work for home use, and to be used in school classes. Whatever it lacks in philosophy must be attributed largely to the fact that laundering is one of the last kinds of work to receive the benefits of scientific research. The effort has been made to present easy and effective ways of cleansing and ironing with a minimum of injury to the fabrics, and to give reasons for each step. The teacher should not only be a master of the text, but should be proficient in performing the various operations. The text and the illustrations are arranged to assist the teacher in methods of class demonstrations as well as to direct the pupils in laboratory practice.

The young housekeeper will find the book helpful in self instruction. She as well as the pupil must learn by practicing the exercises as directed, re-reading as often as necessary. It is hoped that the experienced housekeeper and the launderer may here find some things of value to them.

My able assistant, Miss Mary L. Bull, has given much aid in making the drawings, testing formulae, and revising manuscript.

Chapter I. The Laundry Room

VA

Situation . '.

Fuel-room

Fixtures

Drying-Room

Light and Ventilation

Floor 2

Movable Furnishings (Bench, Slat-Floor, Tubs) 2

Size 3

Windows 3

Ironing-Table 3

Care of Irons 3

Soap.

Quantity Desirable 3

Soap-Slicer 3

Laundry Class Room, Plan of — Illustration 4

Laundry Stove — Illustration 5

Chapter II. Water

Importance as a Cleansing Agent 6

Soft Water 6

Sources — Rain Water — Snow Water 6

Impurities in Water Detrimental to its Value for Laundry

Use 7

Iron 7

Organic and Inorganic Matter Causing Discoloration.... 7

Method of Clearing Water by Filtration 7 viii CONTENTS.

PAGE,

By Precipitation 7

Odor an Indication 8

Hard Water 8

Cause of Hardness 8

Purifying and Softening "Temporary" Hard Water 8

Purifier 8

"Boiler Scale" . 8

Quality Affected by Location 9

Softening "Permanent" Hard Water g

With Soap 9

With Potash and Sal Soda » . : g

EfTfect of Excess of Alkali and Means of Counteracting

the Same 9 o

With Lye from Wood Ashes

With Washing Compounds

With Borax

With Ammonia

Storing and Labelling Softening Agents, Rules for Use of Softening Agents

Sal Soda (Sodium Carbonate)

Powdered Lye

Borax

Ammonia

Lye from Wood Ashes

CHAPTER HL

SOAP AND UTENSILS.

Soap 12

As a Cleansing Agent 12

Its Action on Dirt 12

On Stains 12

Process of Soap Making 12

Nature of Process • 12

Alkalies Commonly Used, Sources of 12

Corresponding Classes of Soap 12

Fats Commonly Used, Sources of 13

Corresponding Kinds of Soap 13

CONTENTS. ix

PAGE.

Grades of Soap Determined by Relative Proportions of

Alkali and Fat 13

Use of Each 13

Former Methods of Making Soft Soap 14

Soft Soap — Cold Process 14

Hard Soap 15

Adulterants 16

Economy in Use of 16

Utensils 16

Washing Machines 16

Development of 16

Choice of 17

One Method of Chemical Washing 17

Washboards 17

Kinds 17

Care of 18

Wash Boilers 18

Material 18

Care of 18

Stationary Tubs — Illustration 18

Tubs 18

Mangles 19

Description . ig

Use and Care of 19

Wringers 19

Movable versus Stationary 19

Requisites Desirable 19

Care of 20

Wringing by Hand 20

Clothes Lines and Pins. ._. 20

Comparative Merits of Galvanized Iron and Rope Lines 20

Care of Lines — Of Pins 20

Clothes-Pin Apron 20

Choice of Pins 21

Chapter IV. Cleansing And Ironing Clothes

Objects of Washing 22

Healthfulness 22

Removal of Dirt, Summary of Process 22

X CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Appearance of Clothes . 22

Summary of Processes Insuring Best Results 22

Bluing 22

Object 22

Method • 22

Rinsing 22

Thoroughness 22

Object 22

Flannels, Summary of Process of Washing and Drying. . 22 Injury to Fabrics, Precautions Necessary; Illustrated by

Method of Wringing a Petticoat 23

The Cleansing Process • • 23

Methods 23

Agents 23

Water, its Temperature 23

Soaps 23

Borax or Ammonia 23

Process 23

Washing by Chemical and Mechanical Means 23

Boiling 24

Initial and Final Temperature 24

Preparation of Clothes for . 24

Proper Manipulations During and After Boiling — Reasons 25

Use of Kerosene • • 25

Reasons in Favor of Boiling 25

Rinsing 25

Bluing 25

Drying 25

Preparation for Washing 26

Sundry Preliminaries 26

Preparation of Hard Water 26

Removal of Stains . 26

Treatment of Flannels 26

Of Colored Clothes .26

Of Starched Clothes 26

Of Handkerchiefs, Much Soiled 27

Preparation of Soap 27

Putting Clothes to Soak .27

CONTENTS. xi

PAGE.

Washing Flannels First 27

Washing Day 27

How to Begin 27

To Launder Flannels 28

Preparation of Suds 28

Washing, Wringing, Shaking and Drying Flannels 28

Method for Colored Flannels . 28

Use of Ammonia or Borax 28

Pressing Flannels 29

Best Way for Washing Flannels when Hard Water Must

be Used 29

To Launder Knitted Wear 29

Hosiery 29

Blankets 30

Reasons for Using Tepid Water for Woolens . 30

Preparation of Suds $0

Use of Borax 31

To Launder Embroidered Flannels 31

Tilings to Remember in Washing Flannels 31

Theory for Shrinkage of Flannels 31

To Launder Silk Underwear 31

Prints 32

Setting Colors 32

Process of Washing and Starching 32

To Remove Streaks in Black and White Gingham 32

White Clothes ;^2

To Remove Stains from Table Linen ;^;^

To Wash Table Linens 34

Colored Table Linens 35

Doilies 35

Dish Cloths and Tea Towels 35

To Remove Stains . 36

Old Fruit Stains 36

Dry Paint Stains 27

Grass Stains ^^y

Grass Stains on Unwashable Goods 38

Fresh Paint ;^y

Fresh Paint from Unwashable Goods 37

Fresh Tar ^y

Wine Stains 38 xii CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Purple Ink 38

Iron Rust 38

Vaseline Stain 39

Mildew 39

Peach Stains 39

Black Ink 40

Wax Spots 40

Paint on Flour Sacks 40

Dry Paint From Window Glass 40

Perspiration Stains 40

Stains on Colored Goods 40

Blood Stains 41

Axle Grease, Machine Oil, etc 41

Stains From Infants' Clothes 41

Javelle Water 41

To Make 41

To Remove Stains with 41

Paraffine Washing 41

General Directions 41

Bleaching Fabrics 42

On Grass in Sunshine 42

With Buttermilk 42

By Freezing 42

With Artificial Bleaching Powders 43

With Turpentine 43

With Borax 43

Reasons for Clothes Becoming Yellow 44

Bluings 44

Varieties, their Characteristics 44

Preparation of Bluing Water 44

Precautions Necessary in the Use of 45

Starch 45

Occurrence 45

Variation in Granules from Dififerent Plants 45

Tests for Different Kinds 46

Manufacture of 46

From Potato 46

From Corn and Wheat 46

From Rice 47

Use of — In Laundry 47

CONTENTS. xiii

PAGE.

In Textile Work 47

Merits and Use of Different Kinds 47

Starching 48

General Directions for Making Starch 48

To Test the Strength of Different Starches 49

Bran Water for Cleansing and Stiffening Colored Fabrics. 49

Preparation of 49

Method of Using 49

To Starch Plain Black Prints 49

Materials Used in Starch. 50

Tinted Starches 50

Cold Starch 50

Starch for Stiff Starching 51

Starching Prints 52

Starch for 52

To Starch Prints 52

Starch for Curtains, Fine Muslins, etc. ("Clear Starching") 52

To Starch a Petticoat or Underwear of any Kind 53

Thin Muslins 54

To Make Rice Starch 54

Potato Starch 54

To Starch a Shirt 54

Dampening and Folding Clothes 54

Preparations for 54

To Dampen and Fold a Tablecloth 55

A Sheet 55

Underwear 55

Articles of Single Width 55

Sundry Directions 56

To Dampen a Shirt 57

Another Way 57

To Dampen Collars and Cuffs 58

Shirt Waist 58

Ironing Board — Illustration 59

General Directions for Ironing 59

Irons, their Condition and Use 59

Method of Ironing Different Materials and D'.fferent

Parts 59

Removing Creases 60 xiv CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Scorched Places 60

Ironing Dress Skirts 60

Folding Ironed Clothes 61

Table Linens 61

To Fold — Illustration 61

To Iron Tablecloth 61

Rolling 62

To make Paper Roller. 63

To Use Roller 63

To Iron Napkins 63

Fringed Napkins 63

Embroidered Linens, as Doilies, etc 64

To Starch and Iron a Petticoat 65

To Iron Tucks 65

Ruffles ..66

To Iron Corset Cover 66

Pair of Drawers 67

Union Suit 67

Nightdress 68

Chemise 68

Bed Spread 68

Toilet Towels 69

Sheets 69

To Fold Sheets and Pillow Cases — Illustration 69

To Iron Pillow Cases 69

Pillow Shams 70

Pocket Handkerchiefs 70

Things Done in Cold Starch 71

Lined Waist 72

Shirt 72

Polishing Linens 73

Domestic or Dull Finish 74

To Fold a Chemise 74

Side Fold — Illustration 74

Front Fold — Illustration 75

To Fold Drawers 76

CONTENTS. XV

PAGE.

To Fold a Union Suit ^7

To Fold a Corset Cover 78

Side Fold — Illustration 78

Front Fold — Illustration 78

To Fold a Nightdress 79

Side Fold — Illustration 79

Front Fold — Illustration 80

To Fold a Shirt Waist 81

Directions r 81

To Fold a Shirt 82

The Ironing Table 82

Height 82

Covering 82

Skirt Board 83

Bosom Boards 83

Irons — Use and Merits of Different Kinds 84

Flat or Sad Irons 84

Patent Irons 84

Box Irons 84

Gas Irons 85

Polishing Irons 85

Tailor's Goose 85

Goffering Irons 85

Fluting Irons 85

Heating and Using Irons 85

Care of Irons 86

Iron Holders 87

Iron Stands 87

Fluting, Crimping and Goffering 87

Laundering Miscellaneous Articles 88

Babies' Clothes 88

Robes, Robe Skirts, Dresses, etc 88 xvi CONTENTS.

Rubber Goods Used in Nursery .•.'.•»....• 88

Boys' Sailor Suits "/. 89

Duck Dress Skirts 89

White Silk 90

Colored Silks 90

Raw Silk 91

Men's White Ties 91

Laces gi

Thin, Fine Muslins 93

Fine Handkerchiefs 93

Lace Curtains 94

Curtain Stretchers 95

Description of Ready Made 95

Home Made, Two Styles 05

Sash Curtains 96

Embroideries 96

Sun Bonnets 96

Sun Hats 97

Chintz 97

Chififon 98

Flannelettes .98

Smocking 98

Chamois Leather 98

Cleaning Miscellaneous Articles 98

Dress Goods 98

Black Dress Goods 98

To Prepare Potato Water for 99

Crepe 99

Black Silk 99

Black Lace 99

Setting and Brightening Colors 99

To Set Delicate Colors 100

To Set Blacks, Pinks, etc, 100

To Brighten Blues 100

To Set Weak Colors 100

Sponging and Pressing Cloth 100

Chemicals and Materials Used in Cleaning Clothes. . . .101

Precaution in Use of Cleaning Fluid , loi

Brush for Cleaning Clothes loi

CONTENTS. xvii

PAGE.

Cleaning Fluid loi

Directions for Making loi

For Application loi

To Clean Carpets With Sea Foam loi

Directions for Preparation loi

For Application 102

To Clean with Flour or Meal 102

Magnesia, etc 102

Ox Gall 102

Fuller's Earth, French Chalk, etc 102

To Remove Grease Spots with Benzine 103

To Clean with Gasoline . . , 103

Laundry Work for Homes and Schools.

Chapter I. The Laundry Room

The room designed especially for laundry work should be separated from the remainder of the house by at least a tight board partition, with closely fitting door. It is far better to have this room entirely separated from the remainder of the house, because the laundry must be thoroughly ventilated to prevent the heat and unpleasant odors, dampness from steam, etc., affecting the laundress deleteriously. If the fuel room is between the laundry and the kitchen (when both are on the same floor), there can be sufficient means of ventilation without allowing the

Iron Heated by Charcoal.

heat and the odors from the soapsuds, etc., to enter the kitchen, and, through it, other portions of the house. It is sometimes convenient to have the laundry room in the basement. Wherever it is, have it furnished with clear, soft water, both cold and hot, if you can do so, and with stationary tubs and boiler. In that case, there would be steam heat, so have a small room partitioned off at one end, with pipes laid under a slat floor, and lines put up at a convenient distance overhead, to facilitate drying the

Laundry Worlc for Homes and Schools.

clothes in severe winter weather. There should also, etc., be means of carrying the dirty water away after washing. All this requires much expenditure of money, and, if these things cannot be had, a good cistern is an al^solute necessity to the best work in the laundry. A cistern filled with clean rain water makes it very' much easier to have the laundry work well done. Soft water requires less soap, and injures both fabric and colors less, than hard water, because no softening agents are needed, and a smaller amount of soap and friction are necessary to remove the dirt from the clothes. The laundry room should be light and well ventilated, as one needs a good supply of both light and air while washing and ironing. The floor in the laundry room should be of cement, as this makes a durable floor, and one which is impervious to water. Hardwood and tile both make good laundry floors, but are more expensive than cement. Soft wood painted is very satisfactory, but needs repainting often, and slivers and becomes rough in time.

Iron Heated by Gas.

There should be a movable bench, of convenient height for the tubs, set near a window. There should also be a section of movable slat floor for the worker to stand on. A piece of old carpet thrown over this, in winter, aids much in keeping the feet warm. There should be at least one galvanized iron tub and one wooden one. Galvanized

The Laundry. 3

iron tubs are light to handle and easily kept in order, but a wringer cannot be successfully used with one unless the tub is fitted with pieces of wood for this purpose. A wooden tub dries out readily if kept in a warm, dry atmosphere, and is heavy to lift about, but for some parts of the work is more desirable than the other. All tubs should be clamped to the bench when in use. The laundry room should be large enough to admit the laundry stove, ironing table, clothes horse, etc., as well as the machinery and utensils needed in washing. There should be sufficient floor space to allow washing machine, wash bench, etc., to stand in their places, even when not in use, as much lifting and carrying of heavy articles tires the worker very much. There should be many windows which move readily at top and bottom, that there may be free circulation of air during wash day, and that the ironed clothes may be readily dried preparatory to laying away. A skylight is desirable, as it aids in ridding the room of unpleasant odors, and renders the room far more comfortable on a warm day. The ironing table should be furnished with a drawer, in which iron stands, iron holders, wax, etc., may be kept. , When through using hot irons, they should be set on end on a metal shelf behind the laundry stove until cold ; they should then be put away in a dry place to prevent rusting.

Soap should be bought by the box or keg, both because it is cheaper bought in quantity, and because it does not deteriorate by lying, and is more convenient. It is an easy matter to make laundry soap which will dp good work on some clothes. An alkali soldnn one poimd cans and known as concentrated lye, lye powders, etc., is used for this purpose. Such soap is tiot good for use in washing wools or prints. A soap sheer, which can be had for a few cents, is a great convenience where bar soap is used in the laundry.

A and B— Stationery Tubs. C and D— Boilers E— Tables. F— Closet for Irons, Etc.

G— Gas Jets or otber means of heating Irons H— Locker for

Students' Aprons, Etc. I— Drying Room

Laundry Stove.

Chapter II. Water

Water is one of the most important materials used in laundry work'. By the use of plenty of soft water, soap, and heat, washing can be made largely a chemical process. The water, carrying the dissolved soap, bathes every portion of the fabric. The soap in the water, and the oils and other in)purities which have entered the clothing from the porfes of the skin and from external sources, act upon each other, and form new compounds, thus freeing the dust particles, which settle in the liquid, after the clothes are removed. Both hard and soft water are used in laundry work, but the cleansing process is shorter when soft water is used, and both colors and fabric are affected less, because not so much soap and friction are needed and no chemicals are required to aid in removing the dirt from the clothes. The fact that water is capable of dissolving so many different substances renders it impossible to find perfectly pure water in nature.

Rain water and snow water are the two main sources of soft water, though the water of rivers, lakes, and wells may be comparatively soft. Rain water is usually discolored some by the smoke and dust with which it comes in contact while falling, even in the country, but in the latter part of a shower it is generally quite clear enough for good results in laundry work, if the clothes are well rinsed in perfectly clear water, and dried in clean air and bright sunshine. Snow water, in the country is exceptionally clear and soft, but melting the snow requires much extra labor. With soft water, good soap, and clean country air and sunshine for drying, it is an easy matter

Water, 7

to keep white clothes white, wools soft, and prints like new. Though it is very important that water be soft, this is not the only characteristic necessary to good work. Water must be free from iron, as rust spots are apt to appear on clothes washed in water containing a very small amount of iron, especially if the soap is not thoroughly rinsed out of the fabric. Water must be free from discoloration, whether caused by decaying vegetable matter, by clayey soil, or whatever its source, as any discoloration in water will prevent the clothes being white. When it is necessary to use muddy water, it must be cleared by some process. The two methods of clearing water generally used are "by precipitation" and *'by filtration," To clear muddy water by the first process, dissolve two teaspoonfuls each of alum and borax in a little hot water, and add to each gallon of water to be used; stir and allow to settle, then carefully pour the clear water off. It is best to use no more alum than is really necessary, because the presence of alum renders the water unpleasant to use and hardens it. When water is cleared by filtration, the question of a satisfactory filter becomes an important one. A filter is easily constructed, and a bed of sand often plays an important part in its make up. A sand filter is very satisfactory for a time, but the impuj;- ities in the water render it necessary to. reconstruct the filter frequently, or wash it very thoroughly with clear water. A foul filter is. very unsanitary, and it is for this reason absolutely necessary that filters be kept clean. Small filters which are used in the homes are. often unsatisfactory. In cities, filtered water can usually be bought at a reasonable price, and in the co.untry, rain water can generally be obtained, if the well water is unfit for laundry work.

Water for laundry work must be odorless when hot, as well as when cold. A disagreeable odor is sometimes caused by sewage as well as other impurities. Water may be clear as crystal, and yet be unfit for laundry work unless some special treatment is given it. Water often contains various kinds of mineral matter, but the carbonates and sulphates of lime are the ones of greatest importance in laundry work, provided the water is free from iron. Water which contains calcium or magnesium carbonate is called "temporary" hard water, because tht hardness can be removed by long boiling. Boiling drives off the carbon dioxide gas, and the calcium or magnesium carbonate is precipitated. When large quantities of such water must be used, as in generating steam, etc., a purifier is often attached to the boiler. The water can thus be heated and the impurities be precipitated before it reaches the boiler. This saves time, labor, and fuel. It prevents, to a large extent, the accumulation of "boiler scale," which prevents the water heating readily and facilitates explosions. Steam laundries can prepare water for laundry work by the use of such a purifier, or they may use other methods, as the hardness is due to various causes and cannot always be removed in the same way. When the hardness is due to the presence of lime alone, water may be softened by the addition of lime. The added lime unites with the carbon dioxide in the water and frees the carbonate, and both the previously dissolved carbonate and the added lime are precipitated, as the lime forms, with the carbon dioxide, an insoluble compound. If too much lime is added, some of it will remain in the water and prevent it being soft, as it should be. In cities water is often softened in large quantities, and sold to customers for home laundry work.

The water of springs, wells, lakes, and rivers may be either "permanent" or "temporary" hard water, or the

Water. 9

water of springs and wells may be soft, though it is apt to be more or less hard. The quality of the water depends largely on the formation in which it is located. A spring or well situated in a sandstone region or in other rocky formation which is insoluble in water, generally has soft water, but one situated in a limestone region always has hard water. A shallow well is more apt to afford soft water than a deep one, and a river has clearer and softer water near its source, when it has a rocky bottom and runs over uncultivated, uninhabited lands covered with vegetation, than where it has a muddy bottom, and receives its tributaries from cultivated soils in inhabited districts^.

Permanent hard water cannot be rendered soft by boiling, and must be treated with some chemical, or have much soap used with it to render it fit for use in washing clothes. When soap is added to hard water, it forms with the minerals present a new compound, which floats about in the water. This is known as lime curd. It clings to things immersed in the water like a greasy scum. Soap enough must be added to hard water to neutralize these minerals, before it can act as a detergent. In order to save expense, some chemical is often used to soften the water somewhat before adding soap. The materials used for this purpose are caustic potash, bought in small cans, and sal soda (crystalized sodium carbonate), lye from hardwood ashes, borax, ammonia, and various washing fluids and washing powders. Both potash and sal soda are corrosive in their nature, and must be used with care. If not thoroughly dissolved before adding to the water in the boiler, particles are liable to escape the solvent action of the water, and stick on the clothes, and form brown spots, which soon become holes. Both soda and potash, when used in excess, will attack the fiber of the cloth as soon as the oily substances found in the clothes are all removed. In some cases the free alkali unites with the fatty acids found in clothes which have received exudations from the skin, and forms black specks due to an insoluble soap which the union makes. This Can only be removed by boil i tig the clothes again in clean suds. A very little turpentine in the suds aids in removing "the specks. The water must be boiled and strained after cleansing, to avoid other black specks, due to lime Curd, which sometimes cling very tenaciously to the clothes.

Ly6 from wood ashes owes its soap-making properties to the potash it contains; hence its action on the clothes is the same as that of the potash in cans, if used in excess. But in lye from wood ashes, the potash is already in '"solution, and, as such lye is usually rather weak, there is; little danger of clothes being injured by using it in laundry work. An excess of any one of these softenirlg agents tends to yellow the clothes. Washing compounds, whether powders or liquids, usually have sal soda as their basis, and often contain little or nothing else of a detergent nature. They cost more than common washing soda ; hence it is wiser to use the cheaper sal soda or washing soda, as its strength is known and it can thus be more intelligently used. Borax, a compound of soda with boric acid, is excellent for softening water, but is too expensive for general use in washing. Borax is used in preparing water for washing silks, wools, and prints, and is less injurious to some colors than ammonia, although ammonia is used for the same purpose in the laundry as borax. It is better to buy ammonia of a druggist than to use household ammonia, if one can get a good article. Ammonia should be strong enough to admit of diluting one-half and still have sufficient strength for use in laundry work. It is better to dilute concentrated ammonia, and cork tight

Softening Water. IT

before setting away, because, if strong, it evaporates very rapidly whenever the bottle is opened. Sal soda, potash, borax, etc., should always be kept closely covered, as they deteriorate rapidly when exposed to the air. All such things must be labeled and kept out of the reach of children, as they cause serious and sometimes fatal results when carelessly or ignorantly handled.

Waters vary so much in degree of hardness that it is difficult to give exact rules for the use of softening agents, but the following are right for moderately hard water : To Soften Water with Sal Soda (Sodium Carbonate).

Use one level tablespoonful of sal soda or washing soda to each gallon of water. Dissolve the soda in hot water in a bowl or graniteware basin before putting into the water in the boiler. Let the water boil, and skim and strain before using.

To Soften Water with Powdered Lye.

Use one-half a tablespoonful of lye to four quarts of water, and proceed as with sal soda. To Soften Water with Borax.

Use one tablespoonful of borax to each gallon of water, then proceed as with sal soda.

To Soften Water with Ammonia.

Put in sufficient ammonia to overcome the minerals, but do not have the water hot, because the ammonia will evapporate more rapidly and some of its power be lost. To Soften Water with Lye from Wood Ashes.

To each quart of sifted wood ashes (use hardwood) add one quart of water, and boil a few minutes, adding more water, if too dry. Remove from the fire, add three quarts of cold water, let settle, and strain. Use enough to make the water suds, and cleanse the same as with sal soda.

Chapter III. Soap And Utensils

Soap is very valuable as a cleaning agent. What we desire in laundry work is a detergent which will do the cleansing work with as little injury as possible to the fabric. Soap, when dissolved in water, readily enters all the little spaces between the threads of the fabric, and by its action on the oily substances which hold the dust particles sets free all dirt which is thus held. The action of soap on stains is detrimental. It forms with them a compound which it is very difficult, if not impossible, to remove. Soap is made by treating a fat or oil with a strong alkaline base, as potash or soda. The process is a chemical one, and may be performed with the ingredients either cold or hot, though the action is more rapid when heat is present. The alkalies commonly used in making soap are potash and soda. Laundry soaps might be roughly divided into two classes — hard soaps and soft soaps. Soaps in which potash is used are usually soft; those in which soda forms the alkaline base are generally hard. Previous to the French Revolution, in 1789, potash was the chief alkali used in soap making. About that time, Leblanc discovered a method of producing soda from common salt. Previous to this time, soda had been procured from the ashes of marine plants, and was more expensive than potash or pearlash, which was made from wood ashes. There are two reasons why soda, in time, became very much cheaper than potash. Immense amounts are produced annually from common salt, with small expense. There is a great demand for bleaching agents, and soda is a by-product of their manufacture. Wood

Soap. 13

is much less used for fuel than before the discovery of coal, and our forests have been largely removed, though parts of the United States and Canada still make potash an article of commerce. Fats generally used in the manufacture of soap are obtained from animals commonly used for food, or from plants. The common vegetable oils are cottonseed oil, palm oil, olive oil, cocoanut oil. Olive oil, with a certain per cent of rape oil, is used in making Castile soap. Olive oil alone makes a soap which is very brittle. There are many imitations of Castile soap, but the genuine article is mottled more like marble, as the ingredients mix in a different way than those used in the imitation products. Cocoanut oil soap is sometimes called "marine" soap, because, not being easily decomposed by weak saline substances, it can be used with salt water. In making laundry soaps, the regularly rendered fats are used for making hard soap, leaving the poorer fats for use in the manufacture of soft soap. Cottonseed oil is used quite extensively for soap making in some parts of our country. Whether a soap should be strong or mild depends on the use to which it is to be put. For washing silks, wools, and prints, a neutral soap — that is, one in which the alkali and fat are combined in such proportions that no free alkali or free acid is present in the finished product — is best. As a matter of fact, a perfectly neutral soap is seldom to be had, but the so-called neutral soaps are less harmful to delicate colored fabrics, wool goods, etc., than laundry soap.