Elements of agriculture; a text book for public schools

Preface

There is a general movement all over the United States in the direction of placing Elementary Agriculture in the course of study for coimtry schools. In order to secure a county teacher's certificate in Wisconsin, the applicant must pass an examination in elementary agriculture. The Missouri Agricultural College and the Missouri normal schools are carefully training teachers to present this subject in country schools. In South Carolina it is taught in the eighth and ninth grades of the common schools. In Nebraska the applicant for second-grade certificate is required to pass an examination in the elements of agriculture. Elementary Agriculture finds a place in the common-school course of study for the state of Illinois, and is even taught in some of the schools of our large cities. These instances suffice to show that the subject is receiving widespread attention.

During the past few years there have been several excellent books written on the subject of Elementary Agriculture for rural schools, but they are of necessity somewhat local in their treatment of the subject. Most of these books are from the east and south, a few from the middle west, but none from the northwest. As this subject has recently been added to the course of study for common schools in

North Dakota, it has seemed best to prepare a book written specially for the northwestern states. The conditions of soil and climate and the methods of farming are so different here from what they are elsewhere that it is difficult to use successfully a book that may be well adapted to other portions of the country.

In the preparation of this manual the authors have made an unusual arrangement of the subjectmatter. The chief consideration relative to the grouping of topics has been, how can the interest of the student best be enlisted ? A deep interest in, and a thorough respect for, a class-room subject, are prerequisite to success. The topics are arranged in nearly the same order that they are taken up in the course of study for the public schools of North Dakota. The course of study follows the seasons ; the work on farm crops coming in the fall, that on domestic animals in the winter, and the work on soils and the beautifying of the home and school grounds forming a large part of the course during the spring months. If time permits, an occasional exercise in grain judging may be introduced at any time during the year. The assembling of the themes treated in this volume has been in accord with the plan which our experience indicates is best calculated to enlist the sympathy and hold the attention of the students. Bring forward the actual plant or animal for study, and it will, if the exercise is well planned and judiciously conducted, always prove attractive to the learner.

Chapter I. Indian Corn

Early History. So far as known, Indian corn has never been found growing wild, but its native home was undoubtedly the semitropieal portion of America. Columbus mentions having seen, in the New World, fields of maize (Indian corn) eighteen miles long. Cartier, in 1535, found Indian corn growing near the present site of Montreal. In 1603, Champlain found it growing east of the Kennebec river. The Indians of Massachusetts were producing it at the time of the landing of the Pilgrims, in 1620. Captain John Smith tells of its being produced in quantity by the Indians of Virginia. As so many early American explorers mention Indian corn, there can be no doubt that it was generally grown by the North American Indians all the way from Montreal to the Isthmus of Panama. It was also grown quite extensively by the Indians of South America. Corncobs and charred kernels are often found in prehistoric mounds, showing that Indian corn is a very old plant, and that it was produced in America many centuries before this continent was discovered by Europeans.

Later History. The early settlers of the United States found Indian corn an easy and profitable crop to raise. As time passed, it gained in favor, and was grown more and more extensively, until today it is our greateist crop. The United States produces about three-fourths of the world's crop of corn. Austria-Hungary stands next in rank, while Indian corn is an important crop in Mexico, Argentine, Southern Russia, and Roumania. At present our greatest corn-producing states are Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. These states comprise what is commonly known as the ' ' corn belt. ' ' Corn is also grown on a large scale in nearly all of the northern states. Early varieties are being produced, some of which ripen in the northern portions of Minnesota, North Dakota, and in Western Canada.

The Root. Being a true grass, no tap root is produced, but, instead, a systemi which branches out in all directions. Some of the roots grow downward, and often reach a depth of four feet or more, while others grow close to the surface. The corn plant obtains most of its water supply through its deep roots. This is especially true during very dry weather. When soil is well drained, the roots penetrate to a greater depth than in undrained soil, thus enabling the crop better to withstand drouth. Land that is not drained is often so wet during the spring that all the roots remain near the surface, and reach their growth without going deep. At earing time, when dry weather most frequently occurs, the roots cannot make much new growth, and thus cannot burrow downward to reach the moisture of the sub-

INDIAN CORN.

Fig. 2. Mature Corn Roots, from the Edgeley, N. D., Substation Farm.

soil. Deep cultivation late in the season usually causes a lighter yield by cutting off many roots that are growing near the surface to secure food and air. This weakens the plant and cuts off part of its supply of food at the time when it is most needed.

The Stem and Leaves. Under favorable conditions the stem or stalk grows very rapidly, and is usually quite tall when mature. The height of corn ■varies from eighteen inches to eighteen feet, according to the variety, kind of soil, and climate. When mature, the stem has a pithy center, and the outer portion is hard and Avoody. Each joint of the stem produces a leaf. Here again we see the likeness of corn to other grasses, as the leaf is a characteristic grass leaf, long and narrow, with the veins extending lengthwise. Cornstalks and leaves are valuable as roughage for feeding stock.

The Flower. The corn plant has two kinds of flowers — the male flower, or tassel, and the female flower, or silk. The tassel grows at the tip of the stem and is composed of many small flowers. Each of these produces a large amount of pollen for fertilizing the silks. The silks grow from the cob, there being one to each kernel. On windy days the pollen is scattered to quite a distance, making it easy for corn to cross-fertilize, therefore two varieties planted side by side are likely to mix. To obtain a cross between two varieties of corn the pollen of one variety is brought into contact with the silk of the other.

The Ear. The ear is the most valuable part of

INDIAN CORN. H

the corn plant, and it lias no superior for fattening stock. Sixty-three per cent, of the digestible matter of the corn plant is in the ear, and only thirty-seven per cent, in the stalk, blades, and hnsks. It requires seventy pounds of corn in the ear, or fifty-six pounds of shelled corn, to make a bushel.

The Kernel. The kernel of corn may be divided into five distinct parts : The tip cap, hull, corneous part, starchy part, and germ. The tip cap is a small cap that covers the inner or tip end of the kernel. Its office is to protect the germ, but it is sometimes broken off in shelling. The hull is the very thin outer coat of the kernel, and may be easily removed after soaking the kernel in water for a few minutes. The corneous part is yellow in color, rich in gluten, and is the most valuable part of the kernel. The white portion, which is rich in starch, nearly surrounds the germ. The germ is found in the center of the tip end, and extends from one-half to two-thirds the length of the kernel. The germ contains the embryo stem, pointing toward the crown of the kernel, and the embryo root, pointing toward the tip.

Plowing- for Com. The ground may be plowed either in the fall or spring with success. On the average, fall plowing produces somewhat larger yields of both fodder and ears; but the ground must be given thorough cultivation before planting, to prevent weeds from starting and to decrease evaporation.

Planting" Corn. In warm, dry soils, corn should be planted deeper than in those that are cold and heavy. The best results are usually obtained by planting from two to three inches deep. It seems advisable to plant the small varieties in hills about three and one-half feet apart each way, at the rate of four to six kernels to the hill. Growing corn in the manner described above leaves the soil in good condition for wheat or other small grain crops the following year. Sowed corn usually gives more pounds of feed per acre than corn planted in any other way, but it leaves the soil in poor condition for succeeding crops. Wait until the ground isL quite warm before i)lanting corn, as the seed may rot if planted in cold soil.

Cultivation. Corn should be harrowed after planting, and it is well to harrow after it is up. Cultivate often to make and preserve a soil mulch and to keep down weeds. Shallow cultivation gives the best results, as it forms a good soil mulch, does not injure the roots and allows them to come close to the surface for food and air. A corn cultivator should have small shovels.

Races of Corn. Indian corn may be divided into six groups or races : Pop corn, flint corn, dent corn, sugar or sweet corn, soft corn, and pod corn. Of these the dent and flint races are the ones grown generally as a field crop throughout the northern states.

(1) Dent Corn. The sides of the kernel consist of hard, translucent matter, and the center is filled with starch to the dent. The dent or dimple in the kernel is made by the shrinking of the soft starchy portion while the corn is ripening. In most varie-

INDIAN CORN.

ties of dent corn the kernels are slender and wedgeshaped.

(2) Flint Corn. As in dent corn, the central portion of the kernel is soft, white, and starchy, but there is a greater percentage of the outer flinty portion, which covers not only the sides, but also the crown of the kernel. There is no dent in the kernels, and they are usually as broad as long, and rounding and smooth over the crown.

(3) Sweet Corn. This is sometimes called ''sugar corn." Excepting the germ, the kernels are of a clear, horny material throughout. This is not so hard as the flinty portion of the kernels of other races. The kernels have a considerable portion of the starch replaced by sugar. In most varieties of sweet corn the kernels, when ripe, are wrinkled and wedged-shaped.

(4) Pop Com. This race is characterized by having small ears and very small kernels. In the best varieties the kernels are corneous throughout, and b.urst open when heated.

(5) Soft Corn. With the exception of the germ, the entire kernel is soft and starchy. In .shape the kernels resemble those of flint corn. This race is grown quite extensively in the southwest, but does not mature in the northern states.

(6) Pod Com. In pod corn, not only does the husk cover the ear, but each kernel is enclosed in a small husk. The kernels may be either dent or flint. At present, this race is of value only as a curiosity.

ET.EMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.

Varieties of Dent Corn. There are a great many varieties of dent corn, but few of them do well where the summers are short. If one were to name our leading northern varieties of dent corn in the order of their maturity, placing the earliest first, it would perhaps be correct to say: North Dakota No. 100, Golden Dent, Minnesota King, Northwestern Dent, and Pride of the North.

(1) North Dakota No. 100. North Dakota No. 100 is probably the earliest variety of dent corn. It is the result of a selection and breeding up from Minnesota King, and the description which follows for Minnesota King will apply very well to this variety.

Fig. 3. Dent Corn— North Dakota No. 100.

North Dakota No. 100 is earlier than Minnesota King, and leans a little more toward its flint ancestry. The ears of North Dakota No. 100 are a little smaller and of a slightly deeper yellow color than those of Minnesota King.

(2) Golden Dent. This is one of the earliest va-

INDIAN CORN.

rieties of dent corn grown in the northwest. Seed of it has ripened in North Dakota for the past fifteen 3^ears. It is a good-yielding- variety. The

Fig-. 4. Dent Corn— Golden Dent.

stalks grow from five to seven feet high, and, like all the other varieties of dent corn mentioned, the ears are high enough on the stalk for the corn to be cut readily with the corn binder. The ears are golden yellow in color, from five and a half to eight inches long, usually twelve to sixteen rowed, and particularly well filled at the butts. The cobs are red.

(3) Minnesota King. Minnesota King is a cross breed between dent and flint varieties. It yields Avell and is nearly as early as Golden Dent. The stalks are from five to seven feet high. The ears are from six to nine inches long, eight rowed, and have rather wide spaces between the rows. The kernels are wide, rather short for their width, and yellow in color. The cobs of this variety are white.

(4) Northwestern Dent. Northwestern Dent yields well, and will usually ripen in the southern

ELEMENTS OP AGRICULTURE.

part of North Dakota. The stalks are from five to seven feet tall, and the ears are from fourteen to twenty-eight inches from the ground. The ears are

ifi-teiSliiiSlttfiili^

Fig. 5. Dent Corn — Northwestern Dent.

from six to nine inches long. The kernels have red sides and yellowish white crowns, and the cobs are white.

(5) Pride of the North. Pride of the North is a yellow dent, with ears from seven to ten inches

^0^iMiM^M long,

Fig. 6. Dent Corn— Pride of the North.

and ten to fourteen rowed. The kernels have a dull yellow color on the top of the crowns, which are deeply dented, and have a tendency to be shriveled. The kernels are close, compact, and deep. They are rather thick for their width, and very tapering". Pride of the North has a large, red cob. It matures quite late, but otherwise is an excellent variety of corn.

Varieties of Flint Com. Flint varieties are, on an average, smaller and earlier than the dent strains. They are generally harder to harvest by reason of having a large, strong shank attaching them to the stalk. As a rule, flint varieties have white cobs, regardless of the color of the kernels. Seven of the leading flint varieties of the northwest, and probably in the order of their earliness, are: Squaw corn, Will's Dakota, Gehu, Mercer, Triumph, Longfellow, and King Philip.

(1) Squaw Corn. Squaw Corn is a splendid yielding variety, and very early. The stalks are from four to five feet high. The ears of Squaw Corn, Will's Dakota, and Gehu are so low on the stalk that they are difficult to harvest with the corn binder. All the other varieties of flint corn mentioned have the ears high enough for the binder. The ears of Squaw Corn are from seven to ten inches long, and the kernels white, yellow, blue, and red.

(2) Will's Dakota. Will's Dakota is a white flint variety with ears seven to nine inches long, and usually eight rowed. The ears have a tendency to be large at the butt, and to taper abruptly towards the center. The kernels are large, and the cobs small and white. Will's Dakota was obtained by selecting and planting the white kernels of Squaw Corn.

ELEMENTS OP AGRICULTURE.

,^mmmtM^in^t»mrrrfWTrr^f^

' Fig. 7. Flint Corn— Will's Dakota.

(3) Gehu. Gehn is similar to Will's Dakota, except that the kernels are yellow. It was obtained by "selecting and planting the yellow kernels of Squaw Corn.

(4) Mercer. Mercer flint is a good-yielding variety, and qnite early. The stalks are from five to

WMMiimm wmmm^

Fig.

Flint Corn — Mercer.

seven feet high, and the ears six to nine inches long, and yellow in color.

(5) Triumph. Triumph flint yields well, and is nearly as early as Mercer. The stalks are from five to six feet high. The ears are yellow, and from seven to ten inches long.

INDIAN CORN.

Fig. 9. Flint Corn— Triumph.

(6) Longfellow. Longfellow flint is a fairly g'ood-yielding* strain, but somewhat later than Triumph. The stalks are from five to seven feet tall, and the ears seven to ten inches long, and yellow in color.

(7) King" Philip. King Philip is hardly early enough for any district in North Dakota. The stalks are from five to seven feet high. The ears are from

Fig. 10. Flint Corn— King Philip.

seven to ten inches long, eight rowed, and the kernels are copper colored. It is said that this was the variety of corn captured by the Puritans from the Indians during King Philip 's War.

Selection of Seed Corn. After the corn is ripe, go into the field and select good ears from the best stalks, and save these for seed. The best does not always mean the largest. Select ears of the most desirable type. In the extreme northern part of the

United States, large corn usually fails to ripen. A good ear is true to type, well filled at the ends, ripe, has deep and reasonably uniform kernels, small spaces between the rows, and a small cob. By selecting only the ripe ears for seed, a variety may be made to mature earlier. The ears may be made to grow higher on the stalk by selecting seed from plants which carry the ears high. The corn grower may, by means of selection, bring about other changes also.

Relative Value of Butt, Center, and Tip Kernels. It seems to make little or no difference in the yield whether the seed is taken from the butt, center, or tip kernels. However, the tip and butt kernels are a little smaller than those from the middle of the ,ear, and will cause the planter to drop unevenly. For this reason the small butt and tip kernels should be rejected in shelling seed corn.

Preserving Seed. The best method for preserving seed, corn is to dry it in the early fall by artificial heat. When seed corn is thoroughly cured it may be hung to the rafters of some dry building. This will insure its keeping dry, and prevent the ravages of mice. Do not store seed corn above grain bins or live stock, or in any other place where moist air will surround it.

Corn Judging. Corn is judged in much the same manner as live stock. Rules for judging and a scale of points have been worked out. Exhibits at a fair usually consist of ten ears each, but in school work a smaller number may be used. Select five ears of some variety of corn, and judge them according to the following score card:

SCORE CARD,

FIELD CORN.

SCALE OF POINTS.

NUMREROF

Exhibit.

1. Earliness: cob ripe, kernels hard, plump, bright colored

2. Type: uniform and true to variety characteristics

3. Shape of Ear: slightly tapering, nearly cylindrical, true to type

4. Color: conforming to variety, ( a) kernel, (b) cob

5. 10. 10.

5. 10.

5. Tips: not too tapering, well covered, kernels uniform

6- Butts: neither open nor swelled, shank small

7. Kernels: true to type, not tapering, rows straight

8. Length of Ear: medium for variety

9. Thickness of Ear: corresponding to variety

10. Rows Close: furrows in cob and space between kernels objectionable

11. Proportion of Corn on Ear: eighty-five per cent

10. 100

Total

i

Variety Judged

Name of Scorer.

Date

EXPLANATION OF POINTS.

(1) Earliness. If the cob twists easily, the ear is not ripe. The kernels should not be shrunken or dull colored.

(2) Type. The ears of the sample should possess similar or like characteristics, and should be true to the variety which they represent.

(3) Shape of Ear. The shape of the ear should conform to variety type, tapering slightly from butt to tip, but approaching the cylindrical.

(4) Color. The color of the kernels should be true to variety, and free from mixture. White corn should have white cobs, and yellow corn red cobs, when the respective colors are characteristic of the variety under consideration. If the cob is off in color, a cut of one point shall be made, and for one or two mixed kernels, a cut of one point shall be made. Kernels missing from the ear shall be counted as mixed. Difference in shade of color, as light or dark, must be scored according to variety characteristics.

(5) Tips. The tips of the ears should not be too tapering, and should be well filled with regular, uniform kernels. Where the full diameter of the cob is exposed, a cut of one point shall be made.

(6) Butts. The rows of kernels should extend in regular order over the butt, leaving a deep impression when the shank is removed. Open and swelled butts are very objectionable.

(7) Kernels. The kernels should be tapering, uniform in shape, size, and color, and true to the variety type. The tip portion of the kernel is rich in protein and oil, hence has the highest feeding value; for this reason the tip portion should be full and plump.

(8) Length of Ear. The deficiency and excess in length of all ears not conforming to the standard shall be added together, and, for every inch thus obtained, a cut of one point shall be made. Long ears are objectionable because they usually have poor butts and tips, and broad, shallow kernels, hence a low percentage of corn to cob.

(9) Thickness of Ear. In the northern section the circumference of the ear should be from 5 to 5l^ inches. The deficiency and excess in circumference of all ears not conforming to the standard shall be added together, and for every two inches thus obtained, a cut of one point shall be made. Measure the circumference at one-third the distance from the butt to the tip of the ear.

(10) Rows Close. There should be no furrow in the cob, and space between the kernels near the cob is very objectionable.

(11) Proportion of Com to Ear. In determining the proportion of corn to ear, weigh and shell every alternate ear in the exhibit. "Weigh the cobs and subtract from weight of ears. This gives weight of corn. Divide the weight of corn by the total weight of ears to get the per cent, of corn. For each per cent, short of standard, a cut of one point shall be made.

On the Minnesota market shelled earn is graded as follows:

MINNESOTA COMMERCIAL CORN GRADES.*

No. 1 Yellow Corn. No. 1 Yellow Corn shall be sound, yellow, dry, plump, and well cleaned.

No. 2 Yellow Com. T^o. 2 Yellow Corn shall be three-fourths yellow, dry, reasonably clean, but not plump enough for No. 1.

No. 3 Yellow Corn. No. 3 Yellow Corn shall be three-fourths yellow, reasonably dry, reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2.

No. 1 White Corn. No. 1 White Corn shall be sound, dry, plump, and well cleaned.

No. 2 White Corn. No. 2 White Corn shall be seven-eighths white, dry, and reasonably clean, but not plump enough for No. 1.

No. 3 White Corn. No. 3 White Corn shall be seven-eighths white corn, reasonably dry, and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2.

No. 1 Com. No. 1 Corn shall be mixed corn of choice quality, sound, dry, and well cleaned.

No. 2 Com. No. 2 Corn shall be mixed corn, dry, reasonably clean, but not good enough for No. 1.

No. 3 Corn. No. 3 Corn shall be mixed corn, reasonably dry, and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2.

No. 4 Com. No. 4 Corn shall include all corn not wet and not in heating condition that is unfit for No. 3.

Note. No grain shall in any case be graded above that of the poorest quality found in that lot when it bears evidence of being plugged or doctored.

♦Established by the Joint Board of Grain Appeals, August 31, 1904.

Chapter II. Wheat

History. Wheat has been cultivated for so long a time that history fails to record the facts relative to its domestication. It originated in the Old World, and was grown in Egypt more than five thousand years ago. The wild plant from which it was derived is not positively known, although a low-bearded grass called "wild wheat" is found in the southern part of Europe. Kernels of wheat have been found in the tombs of Egypt. Such kernels are thousands of years old, and the stories of their growing when planted are idle tales, as no seeds can retain their vitality for so long a time.

Fig. 11. Grains of Wheat. These separate figures represent the various stages in the sprouting of a normal wheat grain. No. 1 shows the appearance of the dry grain. No. 2 shows that the young plant or embryo in the seed end has swelled after one day in the germinator. No. 3 shows a good type of germination after three days' growth in the seed pan,' showing the young stem and rootlets with root hairs. Drawby H. L. Bolley.

The Root. The kernel of wheat germinates by sending out one stem, and usually three roots. Being a member of the grass family, wheat has no tap root. Many fine roots are soon sent out into the soil in. all directions, and some of these may reach a depth of four feet, when the plant is ripe.

The Stem. Under favorable conditions the stem tillers or stools freely. The stooling or branching takes place close to the ground, and sometimes several stems or culms are sent up. Cool, moist weather and rich soil furnish ideal conditions for stooling.

The Flower. The head, when it first appears, contains many flowers. Each flower has three stamens and one pistil. After receiving the pollen from the stamens, the pistil produces the kernel. As both parts of the flower are enclosed in the chaff, the pollen dust of one blossom seldom comes in contact with the pistil of another flower, consequently varieties of wheat rarely cross fertilize.

Climate and Soil. Wheat is successfully grown all the way from the tropical regions to the Arctic Circle. "Winter wheat and the soft varieties of spring wheat are grown extensively in the central and southern parts of the United States, while the hard varieties are mostly found in the northern and western states and in Canada. Durum or macaroni wheat withstands drouth better than most varieties, and produces a fairly good crop in ordinary years, even in the semiarid regions of the west.

Quantity of Seed Wheat Per Acre. Results of

Fig. 12. Root Growths of Wheat. The samples on the left and right of the picture grew on land which had produced wheat continuously for many years, and show the extremes of growth for the very dry season of 1900. The middle sample is wheat grown upon land which produced corn the previous season. The illustration shows the natural root growth of wheat in the field, and that the stem growth and yield were more restricted by the drouth than was the root development.

seeding wheat at different rates per acre vary widely with the season. If the soil is moist at stooling time, three pecks per acre may yield as well as six would do were the soil dry at this time. Light soils require heavier seeding than do reasonably heavy ones. At the North Dakota Experiment Station, five pecks of seed per acre has, up to the present time (1905), given the best results for Fife and Blue Stem. A bushel of wheat weighs sixty pounds.

Preparation of Seed Bed. Fall plowing for wheat is preferred in most sections of the northwest. It conserves the moisture that is deep in the soil at the time of plowing, and allows it to take up more water from the melting snow in the spring. Ground plowed in the fall, which has become hard, should be cultivated with a disc harrow or some other implement in the spring before the grain is sowed. Corn ground seldom requires plowing for wheat, but should be cultivated until a good seed bed is formed.

Wheat Rust. Wheat rust is a common and injurious disease of wheat. It consists of a very small fungous plant, which grows inside the wheat plant. Warm, moist weather is favorable for the development of rust. The rust plant lives on the juices of the wheat culm, and weakens the stalk, which causes it to produce kerjiels that are more or less shrunken. When the rust plant becomes mature, it produces patches of red spores or rust seeds on the surface of the wheat leaf or stem, and, later in the season, similar patches of black spores appear. It is really all one kind of rust in different stages of- development. The spores reproduce the rust plant just as kernels of wheat do the wheat plant. The wind carries the spores from plant to plant, and in this way quickly spreads the disease. There is no treatment known which will prevent rust.