Moral philosophy; analytical, synthetical, and practical

Front matter

PRESFNTKD BY

^6>

—

Preface

The cause of morals has its stronghold in man's innate consciousness of responsibility. Mammon is enshrined in his lust of gain, power in . his pride of dominion, fame in his thirst of applause, and pleasure m his sensual desire ; hence the dependence of all these is capricious, and their rewards are at the best transient ; while morality reposes, with calm and eternal assurance, in his imperishable conviction that he is responsible for his conduct. Against this conviction infidelity arrays its arguments, and vice hurls its scorn in vain.

Morality, as a science, is so implicated with psychology, that it Cannot be erected symmetrical and entire without its aid ; but as & practice, it can rise without that aid even to its culmen. No systematic psychology is taught in the Bible, yet the highest practical morality is taught there. Metaphysics and logic are also of service in the erection and defence of its outposts, especially " when Greek meets Greek ; " but, unless obedient to the high behests

4 PREFACE.

of consciousness, they become little else than troublesome cobwebs. The feeble and the unwary are frequently caught in their meshes, but the snare is at length broken and the victims escape.

It seems to have been a prevailing error of the theorizing moralist, that, instead of taking his stand-point directly and centrally in man's consciousness of freedom and accountability, and making metaphysics and logic subservient to him in that position, he has first entrenched himself behind metaphysical speculations and logical deductions, and then called upon consciousness to yield to their requirements* He has thus given the dominion to the wrong master ; he has placed his cause in the wrong hands. In the gossamery subtleties of speculative and transcendental metaphysics, the learned Brahmans of India excel all other philosophers ; they even out-German the Germans. Yet we find little in Brahminical lore that is truthful and actual ; little that renders man really wiser and better.

The general nature of the present work may be hence anticipated by the reader. It is throughout a direct and confiding appeal to his conscious sense of accountability. It presents to him no wire-drawn arguments, no metaphysical subtleties, and no complicated deductions of logic. Its proofs are mostly statements of undeniable truths, sometimes attended with illustration, and confidently submitted to his practical judgment and conscience.

It is because the central law of conviction and belief is essentially the same in all minds, and because all men

PKEFACE. 5

are endowed with a consciousness of moral obligation, that the Bible, although written at different periods and in every variety of composition and style, is reasonably addressed to all classes alike ; that it has demonstrated its power to withstand every assault, and with firm and yet firmer voice, as time rolls along, continues to challenge the undoubting homage of the world. As the present volume is restricted within the legitimate limits of moral science, it does not profess to teach religion ; yet whatever philosophy it teaches, if true, must harmonize with religious truth. If, then, our philosophy shall be found at variance with the Bible, or shall tend to mystify and enfeeble its plain and nervous demands upon every heart and conscience, it will deservedly come to naught, with all other " philosophy falsely so called."

It will be the author's humble endeavor to disintegrate and define the materials for the work in hand, to eliminate the principles by which to arrange them, and to reconstruct them in a system of scientific and practical morality, without embarrassing the reader with conflicting theories and speculations, but by a direct " manifestation of the truth, commending " it " to every man's conscience in the sight of God." The apostles commended themselves to the consciences of men, not less by the directness of their appeals than by the purity of their lives.

This volume was promised by the writer, some years Bince, in the preface of his Intellectual Philosophy. Contrary to his intention, that volume has passed through several editions without its promised accompaniment, b PEEFACE.

The delay has been occasioned by his ill health and absence in Europe, and his desire to make the book as worthy of the public as possible. So grave and difficult a work could not be safely hurried. Great consideration was due to the many able writers upon this subject. "No pains have been spared to examine them in their own languages, at least upon all doubtful or critical points, and to give due weight to their various reasonings and opinions.

Having thus bestowed upon the work much careful thought and research, more than is obvious to persons not conversant with studies of this nature, the author now respectfully submits it to teachers, students, and all thoughtful inquirers after truth and duty, with -the hope that it may meet their approbation, and may contribute something towards assisting the reader to understand and to fulfil his responsible mission.

That the young reader especially, whose life is still mostly in prospect, whether hastening to the calls of business and of domestic care, or aspiring to the higher walks of literature and of the learned professions, may not, by a perversion or neglect of his powers and opportunities, allow that existence to sink into an essentially grovelling and worthless affair, which he ought to make sublime and glorious, is the earnest desire and prayer of his very sincere friend,

The Author.

Contents

PAGB

Part I The Natural Motive Powees

CHAPTEE L— division of the mental powees.

The mental powers and exercises divisible into two general classes. Their mutual dependence. The motive powers of two kinds. Each kind defined The states and exercises of the motive powers, natural or moral. Illustrations, . . 21

CHAPTEE IL — NATUBAL APPETITE.

Two natural appetites. Their object. Errors respecting them. Undue indulgence. Undue severity. Their relation to pleasure. Illustrations. Design of the gifts of Providence, . .32

CHAPTEE III.— MOEBID APPETITE.

Diseased by nature. Vitiated in childhood. Injured by indulgence, bad example, false association of ideas, wanton imagination, recklessness of the future. End of such indulgence. Eules for controlling appetite, . . . .-.'-.' 43

CHAPTEE IV.— NATURAL AFFECTION.

Distinction between affection and desire ; between natural and moral affection. Parental affection ; filial ; fraternal ; conjugal. General view of the domestic affections. Social affection. Patriotism, . . . . . . .52

CHAPTEE V— NATUBAL DESIBE.

Distinction between desire and appetite. Desire of life ; of happiness ; of society ; of knowledge; of esteem; of owning; of power. The designs of the Creator learned from our constitutional powers, . . . . . • . 63

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER YL— natubal emotion.

Various emotions. How designated. Emotions of beauty ; of sublimity ; of terror; of the ludicrous ; of surprise and wonder. Simultaneous Emotions. Objective causes of emotion. Unclassified emotions. Distinction between emotion and affection; between emotion and desire, . . . . . .83

CHAPTEE VII.— NATUBAL VOLITION.

"When volition is strictly natural. Distinction between volition and rational will. Natural agency of volition over tbe body. Voluntary, semivoluntary, and involuntary movements. Agency of volition over tbe intellectual powers, . . 95

Part II. The Rational Motive Powers

CHAPTEE I.— conscience.

Terms indicating duty in all languages. Intellect concerned in ascertaining duty ; conscience in securing tbe performance of it. Intuition or pure reason ; apprehends the first truths of all sciences. Definition of conscience. Not a simple mental faculty or moral 6ense. Includes the reason and the susceptibility to moral distinctions. Has three functions, ...... 103

CHAPTEE II.— various views op conscience.

Not a moral judgment. Not a moral sense. Not a teacher, like the senses, but must itself be taught. Tendencies of the different views. Disastrous effects of making an unreasonable conscience a guide. "We ought always to obey conscience ; also to enlighten it, so as to act reasonably. How men should be incited to duty, . 116

CHAPTEE III. — DIBE0TIONS POB THE GUI/TUBE OP CONSCIENCE.

Enlighten the understanding. Have singleness of purpose. Mistake not other impulses for it. Do no violence to scruples. Obey it promptly. Obedience must be determined and persistent. Often review the past. In view of failures repent and reform. Be grateful for success. The demands of conscience must never be resisted, . . . . . . . , . . 129

CHAPTEE IV.-^aste.

Definition. Man without taste. Conscience and taste combined. Their comparative importance. Illustrations. Every person has his own ideal of beauty. The ideal in advance of the executive ability. Taste independent of the outer world. Examples. Design of taste. Culture of it, . . . . . .138

CHAPTEE V— will.

What we mean by will. In what sense acts of will are caused. The law of cause and effect in the moral world unlike that in the natural. Occasional and efficient

CONTENTS.

PAGB

How the -will is determined. Objective and subjective motives. Distinction between the will and the affections. View of Edwards. The will may resist the affections ; also the other feelings. "When acts of will are rational and responsible, ..... . . 152

Chapter I. — Mokallt Eight Affection

Defined. What it includes. Love a right affection. Instinctive in its origin. Conscience commends it. Christianity enjoins it. The affection due to God. Eight domestic affections. Conjugal love; parental; filial; fraternal. Eight social affection. Eight affection for bad men ; for enemies. Philanthropy, . . 165

CHAPTEE II. — MOEALLY WBONG AFFECTION.

Views of Eeid and others. Malevolence never right. "We do not need it. True self-defence. Instinctive and deliberate resentment. "We were not made to hate. Malevolent affection in every form condemned by Christianity, . . . 182

CHAPTEE III. — MOEALLY EIGHT DESIBE.

Of two kinds. Self-love. What it includes. Desire for the welfare of others should embrace all mankind. Views of infidel writers. Morality and Christianity agree. Various developments of benevolent desire, ..'"'. . . . 195

CHAPTEE IV.— MOEALLY WEONG DESIEE.

Distinction between retaliation and self-defence. Covetousness. When desires are covetous. When the desire of pleasure is wrong. Emulation. Views of Butler, Eeid, and others. Eemarks upon them. Concessions of the advocates of rivalry, 296

CHAPTEE V. — MOEALLT EIGHT EMOTION.

Passionate emotion ; when right. Emotion of love ; of sympathy ; of forgiveness ; of gratitude; of penitence; of humility; of confidence; of self-approbation, . 226

CHAPTEE VI. — MOEALLY WEONG EMOTION.

Emotion of hatred never right Emotion of anger; of revenge; of envy ; of pride; of jealousy; of remorse; of despair, . . . . . . 288

CHAPTEE VII.— MOEALLY EIGHT WILL.

Moral will defined. Agency of will over the appetites ; over the affections ; over the desires ; over the emotions. Moral certainty does not impair freedom. Courage. Fortitude. Firmness, . . ... . . . . , 247

10 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER YIIL— moeally wrong will.

Man's rational powers distinguished from the man himself. "We are alike responsible for the use of our natural, and of our rational powers. No degree of excitement exonerates from responsibility. An extreme case of excitement of appetite ; of affection ; of desire ; of emotion. Permanent wrong choice. Stoicism. Cowardice. Obstinacy, 257

CHAPTER IX.— source of the morality of actions.

Various views. Now mostly reduced to three : that which places the source in the affections and desires ; that which places it in the will ; and that which makes man a machine. Pantheism. Nature of a radical moral change? Characteristic distinction of an upright man, . . . . . . . 267

Part IV. Principles

I. NATURAL PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY.

CHAPTER I.— -THEOEIES OF THE LAW OF EIGHT.

Principles of morality defined. They are essential, and positive. The a: bitrary theory. The greatest happiness theory. The highest good theory. The subjective theory. Objections to these several theories. Some of them embrace more truth than others, but neither embraces the whole truth, . . . . .279

Chapter Ii.— Fiest Peinciples

All sciences have them. How known. Learned in the concrete. First ideas of right and wrong. Principles objective. Yirtues subjective. Grounds in which principles are apprehended. Principle of temperance ; of chastity ; of benevolence ; of justice; of veracity; of fidelity; of gratitude. Maybe universally known, . 294

Chapter III. — Moeality Taught By Expeelence

How duty is learned by experience. Paley. When we are responsible for consequences. When indulgence is immoral. Fashion and dress. Conflict of taste with utility. The principle of prohibitory laws. Morality of amusements. The test by which to try them, . g^j

IL REVEALED PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY.

Chapter Iv.— Morality Of Cheistiantty

Relation of Christianity to our several faculties : to the appetites ; affections ; desires ; amotions ; conscience ; taste ; will. Its standard of appeal, . . .820

CONTENTS. 11

CHAPTEE V.— EEVEALED FACTS OF CHKISTIANTI C.

nee and perfections of the true God. Creation of man. His primitive purity. Origin and extent of human sinfulness. The dispensation of grace. The certainty of future existence and retributions. Eesurrection of the body. Principles of duty deduced from these facts, ....... 330

CHAPTEE VI. — institutions of cheistianity.

The Sabbath. The primitive Sabbath. The Mosaic Sabbath. The Christian Sabbath. Seasons for the change. How the day should be observed, . . 336

CHAPTEE VII. — institutions of Christianity continued.

Mareiage. "WTien instituted. Its nature and design. Polygamy not of divine origin: The marriage covenant binding for life.

Public Worship. An institution of the Mosaic religion. Modified and perpetuated by Christianity. The nature of the worship required.

The Chuech. Instituted by Christ and his apostles. Planted by them in various places. Its ordinances. The enhanced privilege and obligation of those to whom Christianity is given, . . . . . . . .844

Part V. The Code Of Duties

CHAPTEE L— eeligious duties.

Obedience to God demanded by his perfections ; by .his relations to us. Nature of the service due to him. Duty in reference to the Bible. Bepentance. Faith. Prayer. Praise. Observance of the Sabbath. Other duties, . . . 857

CHAPTEE IL,— personal duties.

Self-respect. Self-control. Self-defence. Self-purity. Self-providing. Self-culture. Self-salvation, . _ . . . . .' . . . .371

CHAPTEE III.— conjugal- duties.

Union of affection ; of interest ; of parental love ; of regard for relatives ; of domestic responsibility. The covenant enjoins chastity and fidelity. Eelative position of the parties. Duties of the husband to the wife ; of the wife to the husband, . 887

CHAPTEE IV— PAEENTAL DUTIES.

Parental affection ; guardianship ; government ; maintenance ; education. Specific rules and duties involved in the physical, intellectual, moral, and religious training of children, . . . . . ... . . 402

12 CONTENTS.

Chapter V.— Filial Duties

Counterpart to parental. Filial love; reverence; obedience; gratitude; docility. Value and importance of these duties, ...... 417

CHAPTEE VI.— FEATEBNAL DUTIES.

Fraternal affection. How manifested. Should continue through life. Mutual influence of children. Particular duties of brothers to sistera. Of sisters to brothers. Of the elder to the younger children. Mutual obligations in after life, . 426

CHAPTEE VIL— civil duties.

Their nature. "What is meant by a state. Civil government Magistrates. Citizens. Civil duties considered under three heads. I. Duties of the State : Should adapt the government to the people ; place the best qualified men in office ; provide for her prosperity and defence ; employ the sanctions of religion; administer judicial oaths ; have the control of all property ; not allow unfair monopolies ; foster education and religion ; enact and enforce laws prohibiting treasonable and vicious conduct, ......... 435

CHAPTEE VIII. — civil duties continued.

II. Duties of Magistbates. Legislators. Judges. Executive officers. Eules of the pardoning power. III. Duties of Citizens. General rule is obedience. When obedience is not a duty. Eeform and revolution. Eeform by the people ; revolution by the state. Attempts at revolution by the people generally fail. "Why they fail. The difficulty solved. Freedom of personal will, . . 449

CHAPTEE IX.— social duties.

These duties defined. The law of universal love. Courtesy. Kindness. Forbearance. Charity. Hospitality. Generosity. Faithfulness. Duties of master and servant ; of teacher and pupil ; of neighbors ; of fellow-citizens ; of fellow-men, 461

Introduction

As the duties of man depend upon and are limited by his moral powers and instincts, a careful analysis of the one is prerequisite to a scientific understanding of the other. Without the aid of that branch of psychology which includes this analysis, all attempts at moral philosophy are little else than mere dogmatism. The present work is designed to assist the attentive reader to a clear perception of human duties, as seen in the combined view of our constitutional endowments and providential relations.

Although the writer has carefully examined the most important works accessible upon this subject, and has endeavored to secure all available advantage from them, he has yet ventured upon a plan of analysis and arrangement, mostly original. His object has been to avoid giving undue prominence to disputed points, which are often really least important, and to present the entire subject, with its just proportions, in a clearly practical light, and as related to Christianity, in a way to bring it within the apprehension of the attentive popular reader, as well as the student. He has, with the same view, written in a simple but free style, sometimes expanding and repeating the thoughts and placing them in various lights, for their greater elucidation and enforcement.

But it is hoped the reader will not identify simplicity of language with shallowness of thought. Few tasks are easier on subjects like the one in hand, than that of introducing strange words, learned quotations, and mysterious arguments ; thus challenging a claim to erudition and to depth of thought, while" confounding the student with the jargon of the schools.

The physician's learned and mysterious prescription becomes a very obvious affair, when put in plain language. It respects perhaps a common herb in your yard or garret, whose properties your grandmother knew before the learned doctor was born. This however does not alter the nature or diminish the value of the remedy. So it is with philosophy. The chasm between the learned and the ignorant is often more in the language than in the thought.

On some important points the writer^ views will be seen to differ from those of authors, whose opinions it may seem presumptuous to question. But he could conscientiously do no less than frankly express his own views, giving his reasons for them, and leaving the candid reader to judge of their correctness. The particular points referred to, have respect to the precise nature and functions of the rational motive powers, especially the conscience ; the origin and quality of certain malevolent affections and desires ; the source of the moral quality of actions; the first ideas or principles of morality ; and the groundwork and limits of human accountability. On all these points profound and earnest inquiries have been often raised, and to these the reader's careful attention is particularly solicited.

Our general subject is divided into Five Parts. In the First, we distinguish between the intellective and the motive powers, and between human actions as natural or moral. In the Second, we examine the nature and functions of the rational motive powers. In the Third, we distinguish between moral actions as right or wrong. In the Fourth, we investigate the principles of morality. In the Fifth, we expound the code of human duties.

The two leading schools of philosophy are the transcendental and the phenomenal. Of the former are Leibnitz, Kant, Schelling, Fichte, Hegel, Cousin, and most of the other Continental writers, together with Cudworth, Coleridge, Morelle and others in England and in America. Of the latter are most of the English and Scotch philosophers, of whom Sir William Hamilton is perhaps at present the most able champion.

The former school speculate ontologically upon the absolute and the infinite, regarding all inquiry respecting the mere phenomenal as " dirt philosophy." They distinguish between the reason and the understanding, Vernumft und Verstand, considering the former that sublime faculty by which we transcend - the phenomenal universe, and directly possess unconditioned and absolute ideas ; and regarding the latter faculty as that by which, through the bodily senses and a discursive process, we obtain those ideas which are conditioned in nature. The " reason " is considered generic to the race, the " image of God " in man, and that by virtue of which man sees truths to some extent as God does, and is therefore a revelation to himself. Hence this philosophy is primarily and intensely subjective, and hence the tendency of all its advocates, from Leibnitz to Carlyle, to exalt human reason above divine revelation and to substitute man-worship for Godworship.

The latter school maintain, that it is only by the study of the phenomenal universe, aided by express, revelation from God, that we obtain any just and positive ideas of what transcends it. They consider reason, as understood by the other school, an intuitive faculty, but suppose that our intuitive ideas, like all others, are not innate but acquired, and are first apprehended not in the abstract but in the concrete. Through the study of the phenomenal we ascend with conditioned and positive ideas to the limits of human knowledge, whence we look off upon the illimitable and awful unknown, learning thence only our ignorance.

God himself is transcendent, absolute, infinite ; seen only by the eye of faith ; known only as the I AM, whom no mortal can know, excepting in his works. He is above the phenomenal universe and gives rise to it. Whatever be the powers of the " reason " in man, they are not infinite ; hence no human reason can comprehend God ; for the finite cannot comprehend the infinite. By studying his two great revelations, his works and his word, we are enabled to know something of him, enough for our present mode of being ; but " who by searching can find out God ?"

If we are liable to be unduly fascinated with the bold and splendid speculations of the Continental philosophers, we may be equally liable to do them injustice. Our language, our institutions, our intellectual training and habits of thinking, are so unlike theirs, that we often find ourselves compelled to be in just doubt whether we apprehend their real meaning. To quote and comment upon detached portions of their writings, without a more prolonged and earnest study of them, in their own language and under their own teaching, than is often given, amounts to little else than a pedantic show of learning, u; just to them, and profitless to the reader. But after making due allowance for these causes and for national prejudice, we are constrained to think, that with all their subtlety of intellect and brilliancy of imagination, they do not appear to best advantage in mental science.

For clearness, precision, and beauty of language ; for exact analyses in the physical sciences ; for minuteness and correctness of detail in natural history ; for every form of sensuous and social culture that directly tends to embellish life ; the French are unrivalled. While for richness, freedom, and pathos of language; for patient plodding in study, and bold daring in speculation ; for abounding and successful endeavors in the great field of hermeneutics ; and for the heaven- winged poetry of fearless and glowing imagination ; the Germans are pre-eminent.

But for thorough practical common sense in the great business of life; for the successful investigation of the principles which underlie all science ; for severe and exacting logic, as applied to solving the problem of human destiny ; for apprehending the true nature and end of all governments, especially of that which respects man as an accountable and immortal being ; we fall back upon the strong, clear, Anglo-Saxon intellect as the most reliable.

Although the author has endeavored to render the subject as plain as possible, readers must not presume that any effort of his can exonerate them from the necessity of earnest and patient thought. Every person must " think on these things," if he would understand them. And they are truly worthy of his most laborious thought. " Happy is the man that findeth wisdom ; the merchandise of it is better than the merchandise of silver, and the gain thereof than fine gold. She is more precious than rubies, and all the things thou canst desire are not to be compared with her." This " wisdom " of such priceless value, is the practical knowledge of the truths and duties herein discussed.

The public mind is so preoccupied with more exciting and fascinating topics, that it is with no expectation of temporal gain that the writer adventures before the public upon a subject like this. But if any thing is successfully done towards promoting an interest in this kind of study, towards making plain the path of duty, towards guiding and encouraging fellow beings to secure the great object of life, it will be remembered with inexpressible gratitude when all earthty considerations shall have passed away.

It is greatly to be desired that the reading public have their attention directed more than it is to studies of this nature ; and especially that educational institutions give them more prominence. The thought of the age is projected outward. Natural sciences, practical arts, languages, history, with works of imagination, are the absorbing subjects. These are important. They elevate and refine humanity, but they cannot save it.

If duty is neglected, all is lost ! However great and splendid his other attainments, without the " wisdom " to which we have referred, man is in a perilled and miserable condition. It is only as he obtains this wisdom, and sacredly holds it as the treasure of his heart, that his present existence is rendered safe and happy, and that he can see his way clearly onward into the everlasting ages.

MOKAL PHILOSOPHY.

Mokal Philosophy is the science which treats of our ? responsibilities and duties. It investigates the principles of morality, as they exist of necessity, or in the nature of things ; and also as they are involved in positive institutions claiming to be obligatory.

It neither assumes nor ignores the truth of any particular religion. It subjects religious claims to the same ordeal to which it does all others. It is, hence, the rational pioneer to an enlightened religious faith. It goes everywhere with the inquiry, What is morally right ?

Not that we must be philosophical before we can be religious. A devout spirit is the duty of even the most untaught, and is an important aid in all inquiries after truth and duty. "We must not wait until we can philosophize upon food before we eat ; some experience of effects must precede searching inquiry into causes. Neither should we wait to learn all the grounds and reasons of duty, before doing what we already know to be right.

Christianity, although proved to be divine, does not make us accountable beings. It assumes that we we such ; that is, it assumes what philosophy teaches. It builds upon necessary and fundamental truths. Our obligations are enhanced by it; but they originate in our moral constitution, as related to essential and everlasting laws.

Moral Philosophy investigates, also, the springs of human conduct ; distinguishes between actions as natural or moral, and between moral actions as right or wrong ; and subjects all its teachings to an order or nexus, so as to embrace them in a harmonious system.

Our subject is naturally divided into Five Parts. We are to examine

I. — The Natural Motive Powers.

II.— The Rational Motive Powers.

III. — Moral Actiok.

IT* — The Ppinciples of Morality.

Y.—- The Code of Duties.